Weather, Climate and Water in Afghanistan

A Visual Guide (Atlas) to the National Hydrology and

Meteorology Services
***

Second page information (back side of the FRONT COVER)

© World Bank and Zoï Environment Network, 2020

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Contributors and reviewers: Abdul Azim Doosti, Mir Ahmad Ahmad, Efrem Ferrari, Fatima
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1st edition, December 2020

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Table of contents

Foreword

1. Introduction

2. Disasters, weather extremes and climate change

3. Pathways to prosperity – hydromet services in Afghanistan

4. The uses and benefits of hydromet information

5. Regional cooperation

6. International cooperation

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Foreword

Afghanistan has made significant progress in post-conflict reconstruction and socioeconomic

development over the past decade, but the spectacular improvements of the country’s
capabilities to monitor, report and forecast weather and water is less known domestically
and internationally. This is partly because many of us take weather forecasts and water
information for granted. And since hydrometeorology is one of those areas that involve
sophisticated methods, observations and modelling, we tend to underestimate what it
actually takes to produce useful and actionable weather and water information.

By providing easy-to-understand overviews of the weather, water and climate in Afghanistan

along with insights into the country’s hydrological and meteorological services, this Atlas can
be used to inform decision-making, enhance bilateral and international cooperation and
educate the public. It celebrates progress in the reconstruction and modernization of
Afghanistan’s observation networks and records and the support of international partners.

Afghanistan’s diverse geographic conditions, multilingual culture, and weather-reliant

economy make weather and water information and disaster warnings indispensable, but at
the same time challenging to produce and distribute. While technology, including automated
weather and hydrological stations, satellite observations, numerical weather and flood
modelling is contributing to information generation and dissemination, it cannot replace
skilled local experts and the spirit of cooperation. We sincerely hope that all users, providers
and partners of these services in Afghanistan find the atlas useful.

1. Introduction

The Hindu Kush Mountains sprawl across central Afghanistan inspiring awe, creating an
indelible sense of place and nurturing the spiritual lives of those who live in or near them.
They also play the more tangible roles of producing water and conserving biodiversity –
providing the country and its neighbours with essential benefits as immense as the
mountains themselves. The Wakhan Valley in the mountainous panhandle stretching to the
east is home to a rich array of globally significant and endangered species of wild animals
and plants. The Registan Desert lies in the south-west corner of the country, a very dry
sparsely populated region with red sand dunes. The fertile oasis of ancient Bactria (Balkh)
lies north of the Hindu Kush.

Much of the Afghan landscape may appear to be unchanged over time, but a closer look can
show how vulnerable it is to the impacts of civil unrest, unregulated use and climate change.
Many of the famous pistachio forests of Afghanistan have disappeared due to conflict and
the energy crisis, extensive areas of natural pastures have been overgrazed, and a number of
glaciers have shrunk due to climate warming in the high mountains. The country’s ability to
respond to environmental pressures and climate challenges will largely determine its
prospects for long-lasting security and prosperity. Adapting to changes in the water cycle, for
example, enhances water and food security and protects against both flooding and droughts.

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The value of Afghanistan’s natural resources and the importance of weather, water and
climate factors in the economy and livelihoods is enormous: food security and foreign
exchange from high value crops depend on them. Modern hydrological and meteorological
services fully engaged in the observing, exchanging and reporting data on climate, weather
and water can help Afghanistan meet its climate future and its weather- and water-related
risks with confidence.

The climate of Afghanistan

The Central Highlands have a typical mountain climate with cold winters. Temperatures here
vary by elevation with winter lows reaching -10°C to -20°C. Temperatures reach as high as
+49°C in the northern valleys and southern deserts, and summertime Indian monsoons
deliver moist tropical air to the mountains and valleys along the border with Pakistan.
Precipitation in the mountains falls mostly as snow between October and April, and reaches
600-800 mm per year. The climate in the south-western and northern deserts is arid, with
precipitation of less than 100 mm per year. The average annual precipitation for Afghanistan
is estimated at 350 mm. Daily temperature swings from freezing mornings to hot middays
are common. Westerly winds generate sandstorms and dust storms, and local whirlwinds
rise from the sun-heated ground.

Afghanistan’s hot summers and cold winters are typical of inland climates, but changes are
underway. Since 1960 the average annual number of cold days and nights has decreased and
the number of hot days and nights has increased. Annual variations in winter precipitation
along with droughts and periods of heavy rainfall are all part of the changing climate.
Extreme weather events such as droughts and storms are becoming more intense and are
occurring more frequently.

Protecting lives and livelihoods

Natural disasters and the consequences of the changes in climate threaten public health,
personal safety and livelihoods across the country. Protecting against crop losses and
damage to property from the droughts and floods will take well-functioning hydromet
services that can provide water managers with the information they need to steward water
resources and disaster risk managers with the information they need to understand the
climate- and weather-related risks. With international cooperation, the country is building its
weather monitoring systems with advanced technology and training and in cooperation with
Tajikistan has developed bilateral agreements that focus on the Panj–Amu River basin and
that can serve as models for cooperation with other neighbours. In light of the climate
challenges facing Afghanistan’s growing population and the regional nature of those
challenges, the country’s hydrological and meteorological services need all the support and
regional cooperation they can muster to rise to the occasion.

A country of contrasts

Afghanistan – one of the world’s least developed countries – has extreme climate, weather
and disaster risks and a geography and topography to match. Similarly, the range of
capacities in the ministries and agencies providing hydromet and disaster management

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services varies from the highly sophisticated to the basic, the status primarily determined by
the availability of financial support, human skills and technical capabilities. In some remote
mountain areas, equipment that uses advanced technology is jeopardized by the absence of
security or reliable communication. In addition, restructuring in the ministries, changes in
the scope of hydrometeorological monitoring mandates and rotation of staff create a
dynamic institutional environment. Afghanistan’s continuously growing multi-ethnic and
multilingual population requires hydromet information in different languages and adapted
to the type of users – from professionals and businesses to rural populations that often have
a low level of literacy or knowledge of terminology.

Geography

The mountains and valleys of the Central Highlands spread over more than 410 000 km2 or
almost two thirds of the country. Mount Noshaq at almost 7 500 m above sea level is the
highest point. Some 3 000 glaciers cover approximately 2 500 km2 and feed mountain
streams that flow to the country’s major rivers – the Amu Darya, the Hari Rud, the Helmand
and the Kabul. Some estimates suggest that particularly in dry years cryosphere – comprising
of snow, glaciers and frozen soils and rocks – supplies about [40] percent of the country's
water balance. About XXX million ha, or YYY per cent, of Afghanistan’s land is arable. About
1.3 million ha, or 2 per cent of the country, is under forest cover, which has diminished over
recent decades, particularly in the 1980s and 1990s. The capital city of Kabul, with a
population of about 4.6 million, is the largest city in the country. The other major cities
include Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-I-Sharif and Jalalabad. All of them are ancient cultural and
trading hubs and the Silk Way crossroads.

Weather formation

Afghanistan is under the influence of several large weather patterns. Cold and humid air
masses from the north-west bring rain to the northern areas and Hindu Kush, while hot and
dry air from the south-west brings sunshine and heat. From the south comes warm and
humid air that brings rain, and from the east come Indian Ocean monsoons with heavy rains
that can result in severe flooding. Dust and sandstorms form in the northern and southern
drylands and affect populated parts of Afghanistan, Central Asia and Iran.

Water formation and use

More than [80] per cent of Afghanistan’s water resources originate in the Hindu Kush where
the country’s main rivers rise and are fed by the melted water from snowpack, ice fields and
glaciers. The Kabul River flows to the Indus, which drains to the Indian Ocean. The rich water
resources of the Pamir Mountains supply the Panj River and subsequent Amu Darya River
that drains to the Aral Sea. The left tributaries are formed in Afghanistan and the right
tributaries are formed in Tajikistan, and to a lesser extent in Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan.
Within the Aral Sea basin, only Tajikistan has bilateral Panj–Amu river-related agreements
with Afghanistan (see Chapter 5 for details). The Hari Rud is formed in the western Hindu
Kush Mountains of Afghanistan and flows along the border between Afghanistan and Iran,
then between Iran and Turkmenistan before draining into the Karikum desert. The Helmand
River forms in the western Hindu Kush and drains into the Sistan wetlands shared with Iran.

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It is Afghanistan’s only transboundary river basin with a bilateral water use agreement (1973
Helmand Treaty).

At lower elevations, numerous seasonal streams fill with rainwater or snowmelt run-off and
add to the flows of the main rivers. The seasonal snow melting and rainfall produce an
intermittent water supply, and droughts can compromise water security. The water for
drinking, irrigation and the maintenance of ecosystems comes primarily from the rivers, and
the agricultural sector uses almost 99 per cent of the total supply. More than 15 per cent of
irrigated lands use groundwater resources, which are vast and underused at the aggregate
level but overused in many locations. Many traditional groundwater supply systems – qyariz
– were replaced by pumping, which often led to the exhaustion of water resources.

Population distribution and economic sectors

The poverty rate in Afghanistan has increased markedly from 38 per cent in 2012 to 55 per
cent in 2017, when the last household survey was carried out. The majority of Afghan
population was poor and vulnerable before the arrival of the COVID-19 crisis, and the
poverty is expected to have a spike during the COVID crisis.

About 74 per cent of Afghanistan’s 37 million people live in rural areas – in the foothills of
the Hindu Kush, scattered through the valleys in the country’s interior and in the sparsely
populated south. In 2010, about 40 per cent of Afghans lived without access to electricity,
but currently 98 per cent of the people have access. Between 2018 and 2020, agriculture
contributed 20–22 per cent to Gross Domestic Product (GDP), industry contributed a similar
proportion and services 55 per cent. Twenty years ago, the role of agriculture in the
economy was more significant, equivalent to 40 per cent of GDP.

The agriculture labour force declined from 66 per cent of the total labour force in 2001 to 43
per cent in 2019, while the labour force in industry rose from 9 per cent to 18 per cent over
the same period and service sector employment increased from 24 per cent to 39 per cent in
2019.

2. Disasters, weather extremes and climate change

Aside from earthquakes, the natural hazards in Afghanistan – floods, avalanches, droughts,
landslides and mudflows, and extreme heat and cold – are all related to some combination
of climate change and weather. All of these hazards carry risks for human health, the
environment and the economy. People and livestock suffer injuries, illness and loss of life,
and the damage to property and infrastructure can be extensive. These outcomes cause
disruptions that ripple or roar through the economy depending on the scale of the damage
and the resilience of the people and the environment.

Weather-related hazards affect an estimated 500 000 people in Afghanistan each year. The
2014 floods in the northern part of the country displaced 20 000 people and caused damage
amounting to USD 100 million. In August 2020 severe flash flooding in the Kabul basin
resulted in 162 reported deaths and some 5 000 homes damaged. Afghanistan’s frequent

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droughts affect millions of people and the average annual damage to agriculture runs to USD
280 million. Fewer people are exposed to the localized avalanche, landslide and mudflow
events, but significant assets are exposed and the consequences, though not widespread,
are severe for those affected. Extreme heat or cold also bring consequences for human and
animal health. At the global scale, heatwaves in 2018, for example, contributed to almost
3 000 deaths compared to almost 2 500 deaths attributable to severe storms.

Disasters

[Need input from Afghanistan: check and provide info on selected events, years, facts]

The three deadliest natural hazards in Afghanistan are earthquakes, which have killed more
than 10 000 people since 1980, floods and avalanches. Other notable natural hazards include
landslides and droughts. The country’s most frequently occurring natural hazard is flooding,
a particularly destructive weather-related hazard that affects about 100 000 Afghans every
year, on average, and causes millions of dollars in damage to property and infrastructure
(floods are responsible 64 per cent of the cost of damage from extreme events).

In the past 15 years, 14 thousand hectares of arable lands have been washed by the Amu
Darya river floods, meandering and bank erosion processes in Balkh, Jawzjan, Takhar, and
Kunduz provinces. Nine villages have been completely washed away and almost 30 villages
and 50 thousand hectares of arable land face a serious threat.

Avalanches can also cause significant damage and can injure or kill livestock and people.
About 2 million people are exposed to avalanches, and heavy snows in 2015 produced
avalanches that killed almost 300 people as well affect the economy by temporarily blocking
key transport routes. Avalanches occur on steep slopes when a weak layer in the snow
collapses and releases the snow slab on top. An avalanche can be triggered by wind, rain,
warming temperatures or earthquakes, but snowstorms create the highest risk period.
During and after heavy snows, the weight of the new snow can cause a weak layer to crack
apart. As avalanches move downslope, they can reach speeds of up to 130 km/hr.

Landslides and mudflows, like avalanches, occur in the mountains. These hazards occur fairly
often, but they are highly localized events that have lower impacts than avalanches. About 3
million people are exposed to these landslides. A landslide, in general terms, is simply the
movement of rock, earth or debris down a slope under the force of gravity. Flows of debris
and cover material are usually called mudslides, and are common in Afghanistan, as are
bedrock landslides, which can develop slowly or rapidly. The northeast and central provinces
are most at risk. Earthquakes can trigger rapidly evolving bedrock landslides, which can also
occur as a result of slope saturation from rain and snowmelt, from changes in groundwater
or surface water levels or because of human activities.

Droughts cause a cascade of damage – crop losses lead to food shortages and prolonged
droughts can lead to urban migration, disrupting water supplies at the destination. Over the
past 25 years major droughts occurred in 1998-2004, 2008, 2011, 2018-2019, and moderate
droughts in 2006 and 2014-15. The 1999–2004 drought displaced villagers and damaged

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more than half of the country’s pasture lands. The drought of 2018-2019 affected nearly 11
million people in 22 provinces, and the loss of fodder, water and livestock resulted in
massive-scale livelihood losses and lack of employment opportunities and caused migration.
Droughts are responsible for about ¾ of displacement caused by extreme events. When
heavy rains follow a long drought, catastrophic floods can occur.

Droughts occur when an area receives less precipitation than what is considered normal or
average. Meteorological droughts are defined by how dry the air and soil are compared to
normal, and by how long the period persists. Hydrological droughts are more closely tied to
water levels in rivers and reservoirs. Droughts affect downstream areas more severely than
upstream areas, and consecutive year droughts compound the stress. National and world
hydrometeorological centers can make seasonal forecasts for hydrological droughts based
on snowpack and precipitation records, but rainfall deficits can deplete soil moisture quickly.

Heatwaves are periods of several days to several weeks with hot temperatures at least 10
degrees higher than historical averages in a given area. They occur when high-pressure
systems force air downwards. The trapped air below has no place to go and keeps getting
warmer. While not as dramatic as floods or storms, heatwaves can be deadly. Cold waves
are sharp near-surface drops in temperature, often accompanied by strengthening winds
and icy conditions, and covering a large area. Cold-related deaths may even exceed heat-
related deaths because the effects play out over a longer period of time. Both people and
livestock are affected by both heat and cold, and timely forecasts can save lives and
minimize suffering.

Box: Early warning for flood risk reduction

Disaster risk managers rely on early warning systems to reduce the injuries, damage to
property and loss of life resulting from floods. A well-functioning system provides
information on the scale, timing and location of an impending flood, and timely notification
allow dam operators to release water with an eye to reducing damage to communities and
ecosystems. Such precautions can minimize fatalities, injuries and damage to infrastructure
and property, and can reduce the costs of rebuilding. A standard early warning system
typically builds on the knowledge of the relevant risks, and includes the monitoring, analysis
and forecasting of hazards and the communication of alerts. Finally, the success of the
system also depends on the capabilities of the communities at risk to respond to the
warnings. All of these components are necessary for the system to function effectively. The
weak link tends to be the gap between the information produced and the information
received by the communities in danger.

At present, early warning services in Afghanistan are in development. The World Bank and
the World Meteorological Organization are working with partners and Afghan agencies to
establish severe weather early warnings, and the country has taken steps toward the
development of a Pakistan and Afghanistan Region Flash Flood Guidance System. In addition,
the State Ministry for Disaster Management and Humanitarian Affairs (SMDM) and
Afghanistan Meteorological Department (AMD) are working together on an early warning
communication system.

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Flash floods

Heavy rains can trigger flash floods, especially in mountain areas where slopes are free of
vegetation. The amount of rainfall exceeds the infiltration capacity of the ground, and results
in excessive run-off that overwhelms streams and rivers. Without the root systems of trees
and shrubs to hold the soil in place, slopes can give way as sheets of rainwater sweep
downhill. Weather forecasts for heavy rains can provide some warning for downstream
communities.

Seasonal floods

Warmer temperatures moving across the Hindu Kush in the spring can turn fast-melting
snow into water that runs quickly down steep slopes, causing rivers and streams to flood.
Heavy spring rains that fall on the mountain snowpack have the same effect. Frozen soil
channels the melt water or rainwater into the rivers, and floods can develop rapidly. The
timing and scale of these events are hard to predict, but forecasts of quickly rising
temperatures or heavy rain along with weekly hydrological forecasts can provide warning.

Glacial lake outburst floods

Glaciers erode the land and form depressions that fill with water as the glaciers melt.
Climate change is accelerating the melting of glaciers and increasing the rate of glacial
retreat. The number of glacial lakes is increasing, and when the ice dams give way, the
sudden releases of water are known as glacial lake outburst floods. These events tend to
build in power and scale as they move downstream collecting sediments, unconsolidated
rocks and debris.

The effects of climate change

[Need input from Afghanistan: provide info on selected trends, robust scenarios]

Climate change is contributing to the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events as
well as to the melting of glaciers and other disruptions in the water cycle. Rapid snowmelt
resulting from higher temperatures increases the risk of flooding, and the melting of glaciers
is changing the timing and volume of river flows. Droughts and heatwaves diminish water
supplies and damage the environment – soil erosion in the short run and desertification over
time. These effects play out across Afghanistan in ways that threaten lives and livelihoods,
and leave no one untouched. The economic consequences are most severe in agriculture
where extreme weather causes immediate damage and varying water supplies create
uncertainties and potential conflicts with other water users. Hydropower plants face long-
term uncertainties related to river flows and the short-term consequences of the
sedimentation of reservoirs and damage to infrastructure caused by flooding and erosion. In
short, climate change in Afghanistan threatens the country’s water, food and economic
security. [add selected findings/data from UNEP-WFP studies 2016 and Copernicus data?]

Box: Shrinking glaciers

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In response to global warming, glaciers are shrinking in length and mass. The resulting
changes in the timing and volume of river flows have implications for water availability, and
the close monitoring of the changes in glaciers is essential to the making of accurate water
resources projections. The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
(ICIMOD) is collaborating with Afghanistan’s National Water Affairs Regulation Authority
formerly a part of the Ministry of Energy and Water, in the development of an inventory of
Afghanistan’s glaciers and glacial lakes through the SERVIR Hindu Kush Himalaya initiative, a
joint effort by the United States Agency for International Development and the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration. ICIMOD is also training staff in the use of remote-
sensing data for mapping and monitoring glaciers. Using satellite imagery, researchers at
ICIMOD and Afghan institutions have developed a glacier database for tracking changes in
the glaciers in support of water resource management.

The initiative mapped 3 622 glaciers covering 2 677 km2 and measuring 150 km3 in volume,
and the inventory includes all perennial ice masses and debris covered glaciers larger in area
than 0.02 km2. Glaciers cover 0.4% of Afghanistan’s area. About 90 per cent of them are in
the Panj-Amu basin and 10 per cent are in the Indus basin. The ICIMOD study finds that
between 1990 and 2015 the number of glaciers in Afghanistan decreased and that the
country lost 406 km2 or about 14 per cent of its total glacier area in that period.

3. Pathways to prosperity – hydromet services in Afghanistan

Hydromet services in Afghanistan

[Need input from Afghanistan: check and provide additional information on institutions and
recent reforms, station numbers/categories, responsibilities, inter-institutional coop]

Decades of war have disrupted the hydrological and meteorological records of the country,
and the resulting shortfall of hydrological data necessary for studies has created problems in
the planning and management of water resources. The rehabilitation of a number of
hydrological and meteorological networks and data – after a suspension from 1980 to 2005 –
addresses this problem. Between 2006 and 2020, Afghanistan managed to restore its
previous observation records and install a modern hydrometeorological observation
network, which is operated by several national institutions and which covers many parts of
the country and is capable of serving many user needs.

The Afghanistan Meteorological Department (AMD) is the country’s authorized agency for
meteorological services, and the Water Resources Department (WRD) originally established
in the Ministry of Energy and Water and currently part of the National Water Affairs
Regulation Authority (NWARA) is the national hydrology service. The AMD staff of 140 are
responsible for providing observational data and forecasts in support of the country’s
economic, social and cultural activities, and for providing early warning. The AMD maintains
automated stations in the country’s airfields and major cities. The AMD cannot produce the
nowcasting for rapid onset hazards or the seasonal forecasts basic to water resources
management and agriculture, but the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL)
operates several agrometeorological stations providing data on a range of parameters.

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Under the Water Law of 2009, the Ministry of Energy and Water (MEW) is responsible for
the planning, management and development of water resources in cooperation with other
ministries and institutions. Supreme Council of Water, Land and Environment (SCoLW)
established based on presidential decree of 2014 is chaired by the President and all sectoral
ministries of Afghanistan are the members of this Council. The Ministry of Energy and Water
(MEW) has been designated to serve as the SCoLW secretariat and has recently drafted
hydrological and meteorological data and information sharing policy.

The NWARA responsibilities – taking roots in MEW – extend to water infrastructure,

transboundary waters, the collection and analysis of hydrological data for surface water, the
monitoring of the water balance, the sustainable use of water resources, snow and glacier
surveys and flood and drought forecasting and warnings. Its hydrology team is staffed by
well-educated young graduates and experienced professionals working in data management,
analysis and modelling.

Key numbers in the hydrology and meteorology system

The Water Resources Department has a staff of 400 mainly technical field observers and
station guards distributed across five river basins, and operates 125 hydrological stations
and 56 automatic weather stations (in total 181 hydro-meteorological stations), including 30
stations with snow-monitoring capability. Rainfall monitoring occurs at 312 active rainfall
stations.

Security concerns have delayed the installation of equipment for 47 new hydrological
stations, including several stations at the Panj–Amu River on the border with Tajikistan and
Uzbekistan. In summer 2020, WRD–NWARA successfully installed 3 hydrometric stations on
the Afghan–Tajik transboundary river – Panj – in consultation with and the participation of
Tajikistan’s National Hydrometeorological Service. The WRD–NWARA operates six sediment
analysis laboratories – in Kabul, Nangarhar, Kunduz, Balkh, Kunduz, and Kandahar – that are
essential for irrigation infrastructure planning and maintenance.

Afghanistan Meteorological Department (AMD) operates under Afghanistan Civil Aviation

Authority Administration and is responsible for meteorology and weather forecasting
through collection, analysis of meteorological data. AMD operates 16 meteorological
stations across Afghanistan, with headquarters at the Kabul International Airport.

Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL) through its Department of Statistics
and Data Regulation maintains 104 agro-meteorological stations.

In addition to the above-mentioned national hydromet system actors, other state

organizations produce and use data related to weather and water: Ministry of Public Works
(MPW), Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD), State Ministry for
Disaster Management and Humanitarian Affairs (SMDM), Afghanistan National
Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA).

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No agency conducts routine groundwater monitoring or upper-air sounding, and the MEW
has no water quality laboratories. International military forces operate the only weather
radars in Afghanistan. The AMD has installed one meteorological satellite data reception
station. The AMD strategic plan identifies lack of weather radars among hydromet gaps and
proposes the installation of weather radar in the near future.

Inter-agency Information exchange

Information exchange between the various agencies collecting hydromet data is essential so
that it can be transformed into accurate information and services. A national policy on inter-
agency data exchange is being developed and once in place will help facilitate hydromet
service delivery in the country.

Strengthening Hydromet and Early Warning Services in Afghanistan: A Road Map

The 2018 World Bank road map assesses Afghanistan’s hydromet and early warning services
with a focus on the capacity of the service providers to respond to the most pressing and
common needs of stakeholders and end users. With the goal of reducing risks and protecting
lives and livelihoods, the road map identifies three components of modernization –
enhancing service delivery; strengthening and capacity-building of institutions; and
modernizing the infrastructure for observations, information and communication technology
and forecasting. The road map’s service delivery proposals include strengthening
relationships with users, developing early warning systems and enhancing public weather
and hydrological services. The proposals for strengthening Institutions include building
technical and management capacity in the use of modern observation networks, innovative
weather and hydrological forecasting tools and downscaling methods for long-range
forecasting and climate prediction. The proposals for modernizing infrastructure include
rehabilitating meteorological and hydrological observation networks or designing new
networks if necessary; establishing an early warning system and data management systems;
and strengthening information and communication technology.

Key users of hydromet information

The World Bank road map suggests that the identification of users and their needs is a
prerequisite to modernization. The economic sectors with stakes in weather, climate and
water include agriculture, energy, transportation, construction and mining. In addition,
hydromet services are essential to water resources and environmental management and
disaster risk response. The hydromet products most in demand in Afghanistan include
forecasts for weather, floods, avalanches and landslides; early warnings; drought
predictions; climate change projections; and hazard maps for floods, avalanches, landslides
and pest or disease outbreaks.

Domestic users may be categorized into commercial and non-commercial organizations.

Commercial data users include the private sector, consultants from non-governmental
agencies and research institutions. Non-commercial users include government departments,
non-profit companies, educational and academic institutions. Non-sensitive data on
hydrology and meteorology published in years book are available on the websites of data

12
owners or can be obtained on a cost recovery basis from related organizations after the
submission of a request, which can be filled online or via paper forms. The respective data
provider or custodian checks the forms and after evaluating the purpose of the request, can
share data.

Hydrological, meteorological and hydro-geological data of Afghanistan follows WMO and

USGS standards. Users of hydromet data are required to acknowledge the sources of the
information.

Hydromet gaps

The list of products in demand bears a striking resemblance to the list of gaps in hydromet
services – forecasts for floods, avalanches, landslides and droughts; early warnings; and
hazard maps for floods, avalanches, landslides, pest or disease outbreaks and droughts.
Respondents to a user survey reported dissatisfaction with the services, but the 2018 World
Bank report finds a lack of understanding on the part of users of hydromet services about
the information they need, and notes that the hydromet agencies have a low capacity to
develop the products and deliver the services. Perhaps the most important gap is the
absence of any systematic way for users to communicate their needs to the agencies.

System of systems

Both the Afghanistan Meteorological Department and the Water Resources Department
operate a number of systems within their official responsibilities. Both institutions maintain
monitoring and observing systems that include surface observations and data management,
and both have access to a global data system. The AMD has access to numerical weather
predictions, and the WRD operates a hydrology modelling system. The AMD is capable of
forecasting severe weather, producing short-term forecasts, while WRD has a forecasting
system for medium-range floods and seasonal river flows. The AMD service delivery systems
cover public weather and government-to-government agricultural services and water and
energy services. Similarly, the WRD systems cover public hydrology and the same
government-to-government services. The management systems of both agencies include
institutional and operational management, and their information and communication
technology systems both include data communications, computing hardware and software
and communications.

Observation networks

[Need input from Afghanistan: check and provide additional info on institutions, station
numbers/types, inter-institutional collaboration, plans and challenges]

Meteorological Observations Network

The Afghan ground-based meteorological observations network comprises meteorological

stations, rain gauges, climate stations, snowfall monitoring stations and agrometeorological
stations operated by the Afghanistan Meteorological Department, the Water Resources
Department under the National Water Affairs Regulation Authority and the Ministry of

13
Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock. The equipment in the AMD surface-monitoring network
is partly outdated. The AMD meteorological stations and the MAIL agrometeorological
stations collect rainfall data, and the WRD maintains snow monitoring stations equipped
with a snow depth sensor. Typically, meteorological stations provide data for air
temperature, relative humidity, pressure, wind speed and direction, solar radiation,
precipitation, and those that focus on agrometeorology also monitor soil moisture, soil
temperature, leaf wetness and evaporation.

Hydrological Observations Network

Automatic hydrological stations collect data on water level, precipitation, air temperature
and relative humidity. The hydrological observation network includes hydrometric stations
for determining river stage and discharge, reservoir and lake levels. Some hydrometric
stations conduct sediment monitoring, and the WRD has established six sediment analysis
laboratories. Twelve hydrological stations have sensors to measure conductivity, tributary,
and water temperature, but Afghanistan has no routine water quality monitoring
programme and no routine groundwater quality monitoring.

Data sharing and communication technology

In a 2017–2018 project, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) supported the

installation of new IT infrastructure. The WRD data management infrastructure includes
advanced computer systems for data management, and an effective data communication
network that offers satellite and 3G/4G connections. The MAIL automatic weather stations
send data via satellite, and the data centre uses satellite networks and 3G/4G connections.
At the global level, data from Afghanistan do not reach the WMO global weather centres in
time to be used in numerical weather prediction. At the regional level, hydrological data is
often exchanged with significant delays, so it cannot be effectively used in flood warning or
water management. Further efforts are needed to improve the timeliness and regularity of
data sharing with direct neighbours and the international weather community.

5. The uses and benefits of hydromet information

[TEXT ANNOTATIONS INSIDE ILLUSTRATONS: please check and revise as needed]

Agriculture

Highland and lowland pastures

► Short-term forecasts warn of storms, snowfall or avalanche conditions.
► Seasonal forecasts provide information relevant to future pasture conditions.

Rain-fed crops
► Weather information such as snowpack and soil moisture content can guide growers in
deciding when to plant and when to harvest.

Irrigated crops
► Better planning and use of water resources

14
Agricultural planning
Selection of appropriate crops and more efficient scheduling of agricultural activities

Orchards
► Hourly temperature and precipitation information can help growers protect weather-
sensitive fruit trees.

Transport and Energy

Hydropower
► Historical data helps hydropower planners ensure sufficient water flow.
► Short-term weather forecasts can guide work schedules during the course of
construction.
► Seasonal data helps water managers ensure sufficient water for agriculture and power
production.
► Forecasts of extreme weather can lead to risk reduction measures.
► Short-term forecasts help determine operational contingencies, and medium-term
forecasts help with planning.

Inversions occur when warmer horizontal layers of air lie over cooler and heavier air below.
In cities, air pollution from cars and industry becomes trapped in inversions, and may
become smog.

Municipal services
► City officials use short- and medium-term weather forecasts to prepare responses to a
wide range of contingencies and to issue citizen alerts.

Energy
► Planning for imports and exports of energy
► Building power transmission lines and pipelines

Mountain roads
► Information on snow conditions guides avalanche control measures that keep mountain
roads safe for travelers.

Secondary roads
► Extreme weather warnings alert travelers to dangerous conditions.
► Planners can use historical weather and hydrology information to locate roads and
bridges to minimize flooding effects.

Highways
► Drivers can use information on road conditions – ice, snow, rain, fog and wind – to plan
their trips, and trucking companies can use this same information to project their fuel
consumption and travel times.

Aviation

15
► The aviation system collects weather data useful in scheduling domestic flights.
► Airports share local weather conditions such as wind speed and visibility with each other
to ensure safety from take-off to landing.

Climate and water assessments and early warnings of extreme weather

GHG emissions and climate change tracking

Regular inventories of greenhouse gases help evaluate climate policies. The monitoring of
climate change consequences, such as the melting of glaciers, informs the assessment of
impacts and the development of adaptation plans.

Hydropower and irrigation

Balancing crop irrigation against hydropower generation depends on knowledge of seasonal
water reserves.

Agriculture production and food security

The modeling of climate impacts on food production and crops contributes to contingency
planning. Farmers rely on agrometeorological forecasts and daily information.

Disasters and livelihoods

Farmers and pastoralists can use weather and agrometeorological information to reduce
their risk. Long-term trends can inform traditional practices and land use plans. Early
warnings are essential for safety at home, on the road and in the field.

Personal comfort and health

Climate change analysis can guide the development of public health adaptation strategies,
and knowledge of temperature trends can help households choose appropriate garden
crops.

5. Regional cooperation

Weather, climate and water have no respect for national borders, and no country can
respond effectively to the challenges that come with extreme weather, a changing climate
and disrupted water resources without considering the transboundary nature of those
challenges. In the management of transboundary water resources and the development of
early warning systems for weather- and climate-related disasters, countries can gain
strength through cooperation. Collaborative stewardship of water resources can anticipate
the disruptions brought by climate change and seek mutually agreeable solutions to changes
in river flows among or between the parties. Cooperative early warning systems expand the
protection these systems afford and reduce the losses to disasters.

Afghanistan has a history of cooperation with its neighbours on transboundary rivers, but
three decades of war have disrupted its hydrological network and diminished its ability to
manage its water resources effectively and share water information. The wars’ devastation
of vegetative cover coincided with the onset of the negative effects of climate change

16
resulting in widespread damage to the country’s environment and infrastructure. At present
Afghanistan has formal cooperation agreements on environment, hydrology, water
management and disaster response with Tajikistan. Afghanistan also participates in the
South Asian Hydromet Forum (SAHF) initiated by the World Bank and WMO in 2018.
Afghanistan shares a Flash Flood Guidance System (FFGS) with Pakistan supported by the
WMO. Moreover, Afghanistan is a member of ICIMOD which promotes scientific research
and shares information between countries of the Hindu Khush and Himalayan region. The
prospects for dialogue with other neighbours, including the Islamic Republic of Uzbekistan,
Turkmenistan and Iran, remain promising and meaningful practices for cooperation exist.

Afghanistan’s four major river basins – the Panj-Amu Darya, the Murgab-Hari Rud, the
Helmand and the Kabul – provide an apt way of organizing an assessment of the potential
for cooperation programmes in the neighbourhood. The Panj–Amu Darya together with the
Hari Rud and Murgab, which drain into the Aral Sea basin, occupy about 37 per cent of the
country, but contain about 60 per cent of the water flow. In contrast, the Helmand covers
about 49 per cent of the country, but contains only 11 per cent of the water flow while the
Kabul covers about 12 per cent of the country and contains about 26 per cent of the water
flow.

Panj–Amu Darya basin

The Panj–Amu Darya forms part of Afghanistan’s borders with Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and
Turkmenistan. The Amu Darya basin supports the livelihoods of 40 million people.
Afghanistan and Tajikistan have plans to use the Panj River for hydropower production. Most
of Tajikistan’s current hydropower is located on the Amu Darya’s largest tributary – the
Vahksh River. All of the riparian countries rely on the river for agricultural production.
Overexploitation of the water resources of the Amu Darya during the Soviet period and after
has reduced the flow so substantially that the river rarely reaches the Aral Sea.

The Central Asia countries have agreed to adhere to international water law in their regional
water cooperation frameworks under the umbrella of the International Fund for Saving the
Aral Sea (IFAS). Afghanistan is not a member of IFAS, but as a riparian country sharing the
water resources of the Amu Darya has a legitimate interest in how IFAS regards its standing.
Adherence to international water law suggests that the IFAS countries would respect
Afghanistan’s claims to equitable, reasonable and mutually advantageous use of the water
resources. Several bilateral cooperation agreements between Afghanistan and Tajikistan
may pave the way for further agreements among the Aral Sea basin neighbours.

BOX: Afghan–Tajik cooperation

The Afghan–Tajik cooperation agreements and memorandums of understanding on water

resources management (2010), hydrology data exchange (2014), disasters (2019) and the
environment (2020) respond to the growing spirit of cooperation and challenges of
increasing demands for water and energy security that both countries face as the result of
climate change and population growth. The ongoing cooperation covers hydrometric
information exchange, disaster prevention and response, and water management. The Asian
Development Bank is implementing a basin management project that anticipates the

17
formation of an interstate basin commission for the joint management of the Panj–Amu
River. The environmental cooperation anticipates the development and sharing of common
environmental indicators, including on climate change, and management plans for
biodiversity and protected areas. The agreement on disaster risk calls for joint monitoring of
extreme natural events; sharing information on risks and forecasts; organizing joint drills,
training and meetings; and supporting cross-border emergency relief operations. In addition
to bilateral cooperation with Tajikistan, Afghanistan is participating in Central Asia projects
on water and environmental management, experience exchange and environmental forums.

Murgab-Hari Rud basin

The Hari Rud River rises in the Koh-I-Baba Mountains, the western extension of the Hindu
Kush range, and flows west forming the border with Iran and then the border between Iran
and Turkmenistan before terminating in Turkmenistan’s ancient oasis and the Karakum
Desert. The Murgab River also rises in the Hindu Kush, and flows north into Turkmenistan.
The Hari Rud-Murgab basin covers the irrigated area around Herat, and in light of growing
population needs for water and energy, Afghanistan is expanding its water storage capacity
here. No bilateral or trilateral cooperation agreements are in place with downstream
neighbors but Iran and Turkmenistan did build the Friendship Dam on their bilateral section
of the river.

Helmand basin

The Helmand River rises in the Hindu Kush about forty kilometres west of Kabul, crosses the
Dashti Margo and Registan deserts, and then forms a 55-kilometre border with Iran before
flowing into the Sistan marshes. Farmers on both sides of the border rely on the water
resources of the Helmand, but an increase in mineral salts has diminished the usefulness of
the water for irrigation. A 1973 bilateral treaty between Iran and Afghanistan allocated
twenty-six cubic metres per second of Helmand water resources to Iran. Due to civil unrest
the actual quantity of water Iran receives has not been monitored. The terms stipulating an
absolute amount as opposed to a percentage of the water resources remains a sticking
point, but in accordance with the original agreement, Helmand River commissioners from
both countries have met to promote bilateral cooperation. Afghanistan is expanding its
water storage potential on Helmand to expand irrigation, hydropower production and
reduce flood damage.

Kabul basin

The Kabul River rises in the Sanglakh Range of the Hindu Kush Mountains 72 kilometres west
of Kabul, flows east past the city and on into Pakistan where it joins the Indus River
northwest of Islamabad. Although Afghanistan and Pakistan share the water resources of the
Kabul, the countries have no framework for cooperation. Millions of Afghans depend on the
river for drinking water, sanitation, agriculture, power generation and industrial use, and the
river is Kabul’s main source of drinking water even though it has frequently run dry.

Northern rivers basin

[include short description – internal basin of Afghanistan]

18
6. International cooperation

In recent years Afghanistan has benefited from numerous projects supported by

international development and cooperation agencies and donors. This survey of projects is
not exhaustive, but provides an overview of the activities that have supported the
development of hydrology and meteorology services in Afghanistan.

Early Warning and Flash Flood Guidance System

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in partnership with the US Agency for
International Development (USAID) and the Turkish State Meteorological Service assisted
the AMD in building capacity to provide severe weather forecasts and warnings. Extensive
on-the-job training based on WMO competency requirements developed local capacities for
issuing forecasts and warnings for the general public and for economic sectors. The
modernization of the AMD surface meteorological network includes installation of new
automated weather stations, the upgrading of manual surface meteorological stations and
improvements to the communication infrastructure. In addition, WMO jointly with the US
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the Hydrologic Research Center are
supporting the implementation of the Flash Flood Guidance System. Implementation of the
system entails collaboration between hydromets and emergency services agencies and
extensive training of forecasters in the use of forecasting models. One of the objectives of
the project is to foster regional cooperation, and Afghanistan is considering integrating its
efforts with those of the countries in Central Asia.

https://public.wmo.int/en/projects/ffgs
https://public.wmo.int/en/projects/Afghanistan-EWS

SERVIR Hindu Kush Himalayas

A partnership between USAID, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and other
technical organizations, SERVIR helps developing countries respond to challenges in food
security, water resources, weather and climate, land use and natural disasters through the
use of earth observation information and geospatial technologies. In Afghanistan, SERVIR
provides technical assistance to help the Government improve its use of technology and
analysis in water resources and irrigation management. The work includes developing
databases for glaciers, agriculture and irrigation; establishing a data management unit in the
Government; developing a national land cover monitoring system; and training staff at AMD,
MAIL, MEW and Kabul University in data analysis.

https://www.usaid.gov/news-information/fact-sheets/servir-hindu-kush-himalaya-usaid-
afghanistan-supported-activities

Information Management for Emergency Response in Afghanistan

iMMAP, an international not-for-profit organization funded by the US Agency for

International Development, has been providing information management services to

19
humanitarian and development organizations in Afghanistan since 2010. Through its
Information Management for Emergency Response in Afghanistan project, iMMAP provides
its partners with Geographic Information System (GIS) and Information Management (IM)
services to help them respond effectively to information challenges in inter-agency
coordination by integrating standardized data into the emergency response systems. iMMAP
provides information products – including maps, dashboards, spatial platforms and reporting
systems – and supports emergency response operations through the Afghanistan Spatial
Data Center (ASDC), a web-based geospatial platform. The ASDC tracks natural hazards and
provides information for relief agencies on humanitarian access, security, and travel times
and distances to hospitals, airports and urban areas.

https://immap.org/afghanistan/

Irrigation Restoration and Development Project

The World Bank Irrigation Restoration and Development Project supported the continued
implementation of Afghanistan’s rehabilitation programme for irrigation systems damaged
through years of conflict. In addition to the rehabilitation of irrigation systems covering
about 300 000 ha, the project included the design and construction of small dams and
irrigation distribution systems. It also helped establish hydrometeorological facilities and
services and provided technical assistance and capacity-building for the Ministry of Energy
and Water.

https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P122235?
lang=en&tab=documents&subTab=projectDocuments

Capacity Enhancement on Hydrometeorological Information Management

Working in conjunction with the World Bank Irrigation Restoration and Development
Project, the Japan International Cooperation Agency supported a project on Capacity
Enhancement on Hydrometeorological Information Management to provide users with
hydrometeorological data and services based on cooperation among the Afghan agencies
and built on a sound database system. The project developed guidelines for quality control
and data processing, and established a working database system with quality-controlled
observation data for retrieval and dissemination.

https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12334868.pdf

Promotion and Enhancement of the Afghan Capacity for Effective Development

In its Promotion and Enhancement of the Afghan Capacity for Effective Development project,
the Japan International Cooperation Agency supports the Afghanistan National Development
Strategy in the areas of infrastructure development and agricultural and rural development.
In phase one of the project, 436 civil servants from 13 Afghan ministries and organizations
studied in master’s or doctoral programmes at Japanese graduate schools mainly in
engineering and agriculture. Phase two extends this project and continues its focus on
developing the capacity of Afghanistan’s human resources and therefore the institutional

20
and organizational capacity of the ministries and organizations working on infrastructure and
agricultural development. This approach supports the priority of the Government of
Afghanistan for civil service reform that emphasizes capacity-building for civil servants.

https://www.jica.go.jp/project/english/afghanistan/012/outline/index.html

Climate-Induced Disaster Risk Reduction Project

The United Nations Development Programme in collaboration with the Global Environment
Facility is putting in place disaster early warning systems in Afghan communities most at risk.
The project entails raising awareness of the impacts of climate change and training
communities in how to prepare for and respond to disasters, and has already reached
25 000 people through awareness activities and has established two provincial climate
action plans and early warning information management systems. The project is also
mapping hazards, and has completed 30 community-level hazard mapping and vulnerability
assessments. In support of villages facing the worst effects of climate change, the project is
building irrigation and flood control infrastructure that protects the livelihoods of villagers
against droughts and floods.
https://www.af.undp.org/content/afghanistan/en/home/projects/CDRRP.html

Strengthening Early Warning Systems and DRM Capacity in Afghanistan

The project provides technical assistance and training in risk assessment, early warning
systems, and institutional capacity in priority ministries. An extensive Multi-Hazard Risk
Assessment (MHRA) was conducted in 2018 outlining the flood, drought, earthquake, snow-
avalanche, and landslide hazards including risk exposure. The assessment has been used by
the Government and its international partners to design local level risk reduction measures.
One of the approaches used is community-based disaster risk management (CBDRM), which
seeks to actively engage at risk communities in the identification, analysis, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation of disaster risks in order to reduce their vulnerabilities.

https://www.worldbank.org/en/data/interactive/2020/03/01/tokyo-drm-hub-south-asia

Hydromet and Early Warning Services for Resilience

The Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems (CREWS) Initiative provides assistance to
Afghanistan to strengthen the capacity of provider and user agencies to develop and deliver
weather, water and climate-related early warning services. The CREWS project calls for
developing and implementing a national strategy for service delivery and a modern process
for impact-based weather forecasting; building a hydrological, meteorological and
vulnerability database; developing a drought-monitoring programme; and establishing a
national flood forecasting centre and improving the flash flood forecasting and alert systems.
The design of the drought early warning system has been completed, and development is
ongoing.

https://www.crews-initiative.org/en/projects/afghanistan-hydromet-early-warning-services-
resilience

21
Drought Early Warning, Finance, and Action Project (ENETAWF)

The World Bank and the Government of Afghanistan are launching the Early Warning, Early
Finance, Early Action (ENETAWF) project in early 2021. This is a project to increase the food
and nutrition security of the most vulnerable households living in drought prone rural areas
and to build systems for early warning and response with pre-arranged financing. The
project has an Early Warning component to strengthen drought early warning decision
support, improved hydromet services and community resilience. The project will support the
government in establishing and operationalizing drought early warning decision support;
improving its capacity to develop and deliver critical weather, water, and climate
information services; and strengthening disaster preparedness for community resilience.

References
Information used in maps:

IMMAP: → https://immap.org/afghanistan/

Afghanistan natural hazard maps →

https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/en/operations/afghanistan/

Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) under the World Bank (2017).
Contributors: F. Ranghieri, D. Fallesen, B. Jongman, S. Balog, S. Mashahid, G. Siercke, A. Simpson.
Afghanistan disaster risk profile. →
https://www.gfdrr.org/sites/default/files/afghanistan_low_FINAL.pdf

World Bank (2018): Afghanistan. Multi-hazard risk assessment →

https://www.gfdrr.org/sites/default/files/publication/Afghanistan_MHRA.pdf

World Bank and Asian Development Bank (2020): Afghanistan climate risk country profile →
https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2020-12/15396-WB_Afghanistan
%20Country%20Profile-WEB.pdf

Climate, temperatures and precipitation, WorldClim → www.worldclim.org

International Research Institute (IRI) for Climate and Society, Columbia University, global map room:
→ http://iridl.ldeo.columbia.edu/maproom/Global/index.html

Afghanistan National Communications to the UNFCCC (2013, 2018): → https://unfccc.int/non-annex-

I-NCs
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and Afghanistan Information
Management Service (AIMS): Watershed Atlas of Afghanistan. 1st edition. R. Favre, G. M. Kamal, eds.
(2004): → http://aizon.org/watershed_atlas.htm

Landcover Atlas of Afghanistan, FAO (2016): →

http://www.fao.org/geonetwork/srv/en/main.home?uuid=5879a4f0-8fdf-4c93-b39a-02d6ce69ae6d

22
National Geographic Society, climate change interactive (2020) →
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2020/04/see-how-your-citys-climate-might-change-
by-2070-feature/

Michael Izady, Atlas of the Islamic World and Vicinity. Population and Culture. Columbia University
(2006): → https://gulf2000.columbia.edu/maps.shtml

NEPA and UN Environment (2016). Afghanistan: Climate Change Science Perspectives. →

https://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/Afghanistan/UNEP_AFG_CC_Science_perspectives.pdf

Global Population Database 2007, Oak Ridge, TN, Oak Ridge National Laboratory LandScan (→
www.ornl.gov/sci/landscan); World Gazetteer (→ www.world-gazetteer.com)

Landsat 7, 1997-2003 → http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov

Global Land Cover database, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2003 (→
bioval.jrc.ec.europa.eu/products/glc2000/glc2000.php); GlobCover 2009, European Space Agency (→
ionia1.esrin.esa.int); Global Land Cover Characterization (→ edc2.usgs.gov/glcc/glcc.php);

Rivers in Crisis database → riverthreat.net/nature.html

Scientific background: Global threats to human water security and river biodiversity. C. Vorosmarty,
P. McIntyre, M. Gessner, D. Dudgeon, A. Prusevich, P. Green, S. Glidden, S. Bunn, C.A. Sullivan, C.
Reidy Liermann and P. Davies, Nature 467, 555-561

UNECE, 2012-2018 and the World Bank (2019): Proceedings of the environment and hydrology
cooperation meetings between Afghanistan and Tajikistan

UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA):

Afghanistan's Environment 2008. → http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/afg_soe_E.pdf

UN Environment Programme (UNEP), UN Development Programme (UNDP), UN Economic

Commission for Europe (UNECE), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
(2011): Environment and Security in the Amu Darya River basin (2011): →
http://www.envsec.org/publications

USGS (2010): Streamflow characteristics at streamgages in Northern Afghanistan and selected

locations. S. Olson and T. Williams-Sether, eds. USGS Data series report # 529. →
http://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/529/

Centre for Policy and Human Development (CPHD) of the Kabul University, 2011: Afghanistan Human
Development Report. The Forgotten Front: Water Security and the Crisis in Sanitation.

Immerzeel W., A. Lutz and P. Droogers, 2012: Climate Change Impacts on the Upstream Water
Resources of the Amu and Syr Darya River Basins. Technical report for Asian Development Bank study
"Water and Adaptation Interventions in Central and West Asia". Available from:
http://www.futurewater.nl/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Upstream_Report_FW_web.pdf

Online databases and information sources:

Afghanistan National Water Affairs Regulation Authority (NWARA):

https://nwara.gov.af/index.php/en
23
Afghanistan NWARA General Directorate of Water Resources: https://wrd-mew.gov.af/index.php

Afghanistan Meteorological Department: http://www.amd.gov.af/

Afghanistan USGS Hydrology web-page: https://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/water

World Bank climate knowledge portal, Afghanistan country page:

https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/afghanistan/climate-data-projections

World Bank development indicators (WDI): https://datatopics.worldbank.org/world-development-

indicators/

Global Forecast Drought Tool, World Bank and Columbia University:

http://iridl.ldeo.columbia.edu/maproom/Global/World_Bank/Drought_Monitor/index3.html?gmap=
%5B5%2C10%2C2%5D

German Federal Institute of Hydrology. Global Runoff Data Centre:

http://www.bafg.de/cln_031/nn_294112/GRDC/EN/02__Services/022__GIS_20Layers/gislayers__no
de.html?__nnn=true

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Statistics (AQUASTAT):

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/gis/index2.stm

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Statistics (FAOSTAT): http://faostat.fao.org

Global irrigated areas, dataset of the Goethe University, Frankfurt-on-the-Main, Germany:

http://www.geo.uni-frankfurt.de/ipg/ag/dl/datensaetze/index.html

Global Water Systems Project datasets: http://wiki.gwsp.org/joom/index.php?

option=com_content&task=blogcategory&id=34&Itemid=63

World Meteorological Organization (WMO): http://www.wmo.int

Worldwide Hydrogeological Mapping and Assessment Programme (WHYMAP):

http://www.whymap.org/whymap/EN/Map_Applications/map_applications_node_en.html

Photo credits
O. Shipin, M. Mergeli, S. Illarionov, L. Hislop, V. Novikov, WMO, World Bank

Captions:
Hindu Kush Mountains
Kabul
Amu Darya flood damage, Kaldar village
Remote Afghan village on the Panj River
Glaciers, central Hindu Kush
Manual meteorological station, AMD
Installation of the automatic weather station, AMD

24
Kabul International Airport
Shiva Lake, Badakhshan, northern Hindu Kush
Farmer in the Balkh Province
Naghlu hydropower dam, Kabul River
Afghan-Tajik cooperation meeting, Kabul
Afghan-Tajik cooperation meeting, Dushanbe
Field visit and experience exchange, Afghan delegation in Tajikistan
International meeting on hydrology cooperation, Kabul

***
Back cover information:

Most people in Afghanistan depend on natural resources to support their livelihoods. Reliable
weather, climate and water observations and forecasts contribute to improvements in people's lives,
the protection of their property and the management of their weather-reliant businesses.

Afghanistan is an upstream country, and its mountains and glaciers produce an important quantity of
water. Due to climate change and the loss of vegetative cover, the region has experienced seasonal
floods and droughts that have caused widespread damage.

This atlas showcases how the national hydrological and meteorological services of Afghanistan in
collaboration with bilateral and international development partners contribute to flood and drought
warnings, weather and water forecasts.

25