Step by step to the Golden medal at Physics Olympiad 1

Adiabatic invariants

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A special approach is required for the systems with a pe- Example 1

riodic behavior, where several parameters are changing
slowly or "adiabatically" A small object moves along a flat frictionless horizon-
tal surface, bouncing between two massive vertical
walls. One of the walls is also moving, but with a
velocity, which is much smaller than speed of the ob-
ject at any time. Find velocity of the ball v f at the
moment, when the distance between the walls will
be reduced by 20%. Assume that collisions with the
walls are perfectly elastic and initial velocity of the
ball is v0
If changes of multiple quantities of the system are very small
during one period of time, it is usually possible to derive
a correlation between variable parameters, which is called
"adiabatic invariant". For example, we could have a sys-
tem with two parameters x(t) and y(t), which are slowly
varying with time t, however their multiplication could be
independent of time, with some sort of power law:

x y n = const
Let’s look at the system at some arbitrary moment
where n is a constant derived by honoring physical laws rel- of time, when velocity of the body is v and distance
evant to the system between the walls is x:
General tips for solving this particular type of
physics problems do not differ significantly from any other
type of questions. Such as,

• make several snapshots of the system at different pe-

riods of time

• describe the system with equations based on relevant

laws of Physics

• neglect the smallest components in the equations

• finally, combine several laws into one expression of

interest

Also many problems can be solved by examining average

losses and gains in energy during one full cycle. More de-
tails on the approach of averaging would be provided later
in this chapter

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During collisions with a moving obstacle, speed of Substituting initial and final conditions of the system
the ball is slightly increasing by ∆v, while during im- into correlation yields
pact with a stationary wall, it only changes direction,
but not magnitude of the velocity. If the wall is mov- Lv0 = 0.8L v f
ing with some constant speed u, then in the reference
frame of the moving wall, the ball approaches it with Or after rearrangement, final answer is
velocity (v + u) and bounces back in the mirror like
v f = 1.25v0
manner

Example 2

A small bob is attached to the non-stretchable

In the laboratory reference frame, velocity of the ball
after collision with the moving wall is
weightless string, which wraps around a thin verti-
cal pole. Initial length of the thread in the air is L0 ,
while initial angle with vertical axis is α0 . Motion
of the bob around the pole is close to circular orbit
with very slow changes for angle and length of the
free part of string. Assuming that thread is not slid-
ing along the pole, find length L f of the string in the
air, when it forms an angle α f with vertical

v + ∆v = (v + u) + u

Or

∆v = 2u (1)
During one full period of time T , distance between
the walls reduces by

∆x = −uT (2)
where negative sign indicates that distance is reduc-
ing with time
As v  u
Let’s examine the system in arbitrary moment of
T≈
2x
(3) time, when length of the thread is x and angle is α
v
Combining last three equations results in following
relation between changing parameters
∆v 2x
∆x = − ·
2 v

Integrating both parts of the equation gives

Z Z
dx dv
=−
x v

ln x = − ln v + const
The second Newton’s laws motion along horizontal
which can be rearranged in form of adiabatic invari- and vertical axes can be written as
ant:
mv 2
= N sin α (1)
x v = const (4) r

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ln x + ln(tan α) + 3 ln(sin α) = const

mg = N cos α (2)
This is equivalent to following adiabatic invariant:
where N is tension force, r is radius of the circular
trajectory of the bob with mass m
x tan α sin3 α = const (7)
r = x sin α (3) Using values for initial and final angles allows to cal-
culate final length of the string:
Solving all three equations together results in follow-
ing relation for velocity of the bob ‚ Œ
tan α0 sin3 α0
L f = L0
tan α f sin3 α f
v 2 = g x tan α sin α (4)
As the thread is not sliding along the pole, total en-
ergy of the system at any moment of time is con-
Problem 1
served
Ek + E p = const Two small balls are bouncing between vertical walls
and a heavy brick as shown at the picture below. The
Then, incremental changes in kinetic Ek and poten-
brick can move along flat horizontal surface without
tial energy E p of the system can be estimated as
friction. All collisions of the balls with the brick and
∆Ek + ∆E p = 0 vertical walls are perfectly elastic. The brick is moved
sideways at a small distance from its symmetrical po-
sition characterized with length L = 1.0 m to both of
mv 2
 
∆ + mg∆ y = 0 (5) the walls. Initially, the brick is at rest, while balls
2
have velocities v0 = 1.0 m/s. Find period of oscilla-
tions T of the brick, assuming that T is much larger
than time between any two consecutive collisions of
the balls. Mass of the brick is M = 1.0 k g; balls have
weight m = 10 g each

Difference in height ∆ y can be accurately approxi-

mated with
∆ y = x∆α · sin α
Substituting (4) and (6) into (5) yields
d(x tan α sin α) + 2x sin αdα = 0
Expanding and rearranging terms gives
Problem 2
(6) A small rigid disc is moving without friction along
flat horizontal surface limited within a space in form
of isosceles triangle with a small angle ϕ  1. Base
of the structure is moving very slowly with external
force

sin2 α sin α
dx + x dα + 3x sin αdα = 0
cos α cos2 α
1 1 cos αdα
 ‹
dx
+ d +3 =0
x tan α cos2 α sin α
which can be rewritten in form of integrals as
All collisions of the puck with vertical walls of the
d(tan α) d(sin α)
Z Z Z
dx triangle and its base are perfectly elastic. The walls
+ +3 =0
x tan α sin α

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period of oscillations is zero:

are very heavy and smooth. At initial conditions, the ¬
¶
disc collides with the base of triangle at an angle sin ωt + ϕ =0
α0 = 45◦ .

What will be incident angle α f , when dimensions of

the triangle would increase in two times? Assume
that puck is so small, that it does not get stuck at the
vertexes of the triangle. Also the puck is always in While, average of square of the coordinate is non-zero:
the stable vertical position (it does not topple over)

 1
sin2 (ωt + ϕ) =
2
Problem 3

A small bead moves without friction along flat hori-

zontal surface. The bead is attached to the weightless
thin elastic band, which is wrapping around station-
ary vertical cylinder

Thus, general methodology for system close to harmonic

Determine velocity of the small object u, when the
length of the band is reduced by half, if initial veloc-
ity of the bead is v0 = 1.0 m/s. Equilibrium length of
the band is negligibly small, while the cylinder is so
sticky, that elastic band is not slipping after touching
surface of the cylinder. Also, assume that length of
free part of the elastic band is much larger than ra-
dius of the cylinder and initial trajectory of the bead
is close to the circular shape
oscillations can be summed up as following
• initially assume that motion is equivalent to simple
harmonic oscillations without changes in key param-
eters
• calculate average forces or energy gains/losses per
cycle

• using incremental gains/losses in the system per cycle

For harmonically oscillating systems with frequency ω, but create an equation for integration, which will result
with slowly changing key parameters it can be useful to esti- in adiabatic invariant
mate average forces or average energy losses for the system
during one cycle. Let some key variable of the system z is Example 3
changing with time t by A simple pendulum is oscillating in the gravity field,

while its length slowly decreases with time. Deter-
z(t) = Asin ωt + ϕ
mine amplitude of the small oscillations A f of the
bob, when length of the oscillating part of the string
where for adiabatic process amplitude A and phase shift ϕ
would be reduced by a half. Initial amplitude of the
are assumed to be constant during one cycle. Then, any
bob is A0
property related to averaging parameter z itself during full

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α = αA sin ωt + ϕ ; v = r α̇ = rαAω cos ωt + ϕ (3)

where αA is maximum deviation angle during one cy-

cle, ϕ is a phase shift, which is related to initial con-
ditions
For small angles can be used following approxima-
tion:

α2
α1 cos α ≈ 1 − (4)
2
Substituting equations (2) - (4) into (1) gives rela-
tion for the tension force as a function of time:
α2
 
N ≈ mg 1 − + mα̇2 r
2

α2A sin2 (ωt + ϕ)

‚ Œ
= mg 1 − + mα2Aω2 r cos2 (ωt + ϕ) (5)
2

For some moment of time, when pendulum with a During one cycle external force should do some non-
length r deviated by angle α, tension force N of the zero work ∆W :
rope can be described as
∆W = − 〈N 〉 ∆r (6)
mv 2
N = mg cos α + (1)
r where 〈N 〉 is average tension force during one cycle;
where m, v are mass and velocity of the bob respec- ∆r is reduction in pendulum length for that time.
tively While, negative sign indicates that for a reduction of
length (∆r < 0) should be done a positive amount
of work (∆W > 0)

Let’s calculate average tension force for the pendu-

lum with a length r:

mgα2A


〈N 〉 = mg − sin2 (ωt + ϕ) + mα2Aω2 r cos2 (ωt + ϕ)
2
(7)
Average of those trigonometric functions are

1 − cos 2(ωt + ϕ)
 
1 1
sin2 (ωt + ϕ) = = −0= (8)
2 2 2

1 + cos 2(ωt + ϕ)
 
1 1
cos2 (ωt + ϕ) = = +0= (9)
2 2 2
As length of the rope diminishes very slowly, for one
cycle, motion of the bob can be approximated with Combining equations (5) - (9) allows to estimate
behavior of a simple pendulum with frequency of os- amount of work required to pull the rope during one
cillations ω: cycle:

α2A
‚ Œ
g
ω2 = (2) ∆W = −mg 1 + ∆r (10)
r 4
Hence angle α and velocity of harmonic oscillations That work is transformed into additional potential
v are energy of the bob ∆E p

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At initial moment of time both bodies are at rest,

∆E p = mg(r − ∆r) cos αA + ∆αA − mg r cos αA = mg∆(r cos αA)
= −mg∆r cos αA + mg r sin αA∆αA
For small angles this can be simplified as
while length of the vertical part of the rope is l =
1.0 m. Then, an object from the right is pulled side-
ways by a small distance
(11)
A0 = 1.0 cm. Determine velocity of the left body v,
at the moment, when it will rise up by a distance l/2

α2A
‚ Œ
∆E p ≈ −mg∆r 1 − + mg rαA∆αA (12)
2 Problem 5
At the same time, based on conservation of energy A thin rod with uniformly distributed mass oscillates
∆W = ∆E p , then combining equations (10) and (12) in the gravity field. A small heavy bug slowly crawls
gives along the pendulum, starting from the lowest point
3
mgα2A∆r + mg rαA∆αA = 0 of the rod, up to the hinge ”O”:
4
Rearranging terms allows to separate variables for in-
tegration:
∆r ∆αA
Z Z
3
+ =0
4 r αA

3
ln r + ln αA = const
4
which results in adiabatic invariant for length of the
pendulum and its angular amplitude:

3/4
r αA = const (13)
Using definition of amplitude of oscillations as A =
αA r, equation (13) can be rewritten as
A4
= const
r
Mass of the bug is same as mass of the rod. Air drag
Then, after reduction of pendulum length by a half, force with air or friction in the hinge ”O” can be ne-
amplitude of small oscillations would be glected. Initial angular amplitude of oscillations for
the system "rod+bug" is ϕA. Determine ratio γ de-
A0
Af = p
4 fined as
2 ϕO
γ=
Problem 4 ϕA
where ϕO is angular amplitude of oscillations of the
Two weights with identical masses are attached to
rod, when the bug would be in the vicinity of the
the weightless string which goes around pulleys as
hinge ”O”
shown at the picture

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Alternatively, adiabatic invariants of the mechanical sys-

tems can be derived in a more straightforward way by using
Poincare integral:
H
I= p(x)d x = const

where p(x) is momentum of the system as a function of co-

ordinate x. Contour integral is usually can be replaced with
a linear one by leveraging symmetry of the phase diagram
(plot of momentum vs coordinate)
∗∗∗

For instance, let’s recall the first example of this chap-

ter about tiny ball, which bounces between stationary and For that system, contour integral can be evaluated using
slowly moving walls symmetry of the phase diagram:

Zx A
H
I= p(x)d x = 4 p(x)d x = const
0

Velocity v of the ball, as a function of distance between the

walls x A, can be also characterized by examining phase di-
agram of the system where x A is amplitude of oscillations during one cycle

Example 4

A simple pendulum is oscillating in the gravity field,

while its length slowly decreases with time. Deter-
mine amplitude of the small oscillations A f of the
bob, when length of the oscillating part of the string
would be reduced by a half. Initial amplitude of the
bob is A0

From symmetry of motion to the back and forth, Poincare

contour integral is equivalent to following simple linear in-
tegral:
Zx A
H
I= p(x)d x = 2 mvd x
0

In absence of external forces applied at the ball, its velocity

does not dependent of coordinate x. Then,
Zx A
I = 2mv d x = 2mv x A
0

So, we obtained the same result, derived earlier by using

incremental velocity during collision with a moving wall
v x A = const

∗∗∗
Alternative solution to this problem is by using def-
For cyclic oscillatory systems, but with slowly chan- ging pa-
inition of adiabatic invariant for mechanical system
rameters, momentum can be a function of coordinate, such
with Poincare integral:
as shown at the next phase diagram:

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p
I = 4m g Cα2A r /2 = const
H
I= p(x)d x = const
3
(1) (6)
As parameters of the system are changing very which is the same result as one obtained earlier by
slowly, it can be reasonably assumed that during one averaging energy changes during one cycle:
full period of oscillations energy of the system is con-
served r 3 α4A = const (7)
Finally,
A0
Af = p
4
2

For zero level of potential energy of the bob set at the
ceiling, the law of energy conservation can be written
as
Problem 6
A small metallic ball is attached to the spring oscil-
lates along a flat smooth horizontal surface with ini-
tial amplitude of oscillations A0 = 1.0 cm. The ball
is coated with a layer of ice, which slowly is melt-
ing. What will be amplitude of harmonic oscillations
of the bob A f , when total mass of the bob (mass of
metallic ball and ice) would reduce by a half?

p2
−mg r cos αA = − mg r cos α (2)
2m
where r is length of the pendulum, which oscillates
with an angular amplitude αA
Problem 7
Thus, momentum p of the bob as a function of
A simple pendulum is constrained to move on the in-
coordinate is
clined smooth plane in the gravity field g~ as shown
p q at the picture
p = m g r α2A − α2 (3)
For small oscillations α  1 can be used common
approximation:
x
sin α ≈ α =
r
From symmetry of the phase diagram, the contour
integral (1) can be calculated as

ZαA Z1 v
α2 α
 
p q p p
u
I =4 m g r α2A − α2 · r dα = 4m gα2A r r 1− 2d
t
αA αA
0 0
(4)
If α/αA = z, then last equation is similar to following Inclination angle α of the plane is increasing slowly
from initial value αi = 30◦ to the final position with
Z1 α f = 90◦ . Assuming that amplitude of harmonic os-
p
1 − z 2 dz = C = const (5) cillations of the bob is always small, estimate ratio
0 R = A f /Ai , where A f and Ai are final and initial am-
So, no matter how complicated is contour integral, plitudes of oscillations of the bob respectfully
there is no need to evaluate that integral. The only
relevant thing is that integral is equal to some con-
stant number C. Then equation (4) can be rewritten
as

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All approaches used for mechanical systems with slowly Problem 10

changing parameters work similarly for other sections of
Physics, although with necessity of leveraging some specific A small charged ball bounces between two insulating
laws inherent to Electromagnetism, Quantum Physics etc. walls A and B. The wall A is fixed, while heavy wall
Next three problems expand the scope of adiabatic invari- B is moving very slowly to the wall A. Initially, dis-
ants to electromagnetic phenomena tance between the walls is L = 10 cm, while kinetic
energy of the ball near location A is WA = 1.0·10−6 J.
Then, between those two walls is applied an external
Problem 8
A small charged particle is moving in slowly chang-
ing magnetic field. Initial radius of trajectory of the electric field with a strength E = 1.0 · 103 N /C
particle is
r0 = 1.0 cm. What will be radius R of trajectory
of the particle at the moment, when strength of the
magnetic field would double from initial condition?

What will be distance l between the walls, at the mo-

ment, when kinetic energy of the ball near stationary
barrier would increase in four times? Assume that
all collisions are perfectly elastic; charge of the ball
is constant equal to q = 1.0 · 10−8 C and any friction
forces can be neglected
Problem 9

A circuit with a capacitor and inductance coil has ini-

tial energy of the system W0 = 1.0 · 10−6 J. Parallel
plates of the capacitor are moved apart very slowly
by external forces

What will be energy in the system W f , when distance

between plates of the capacitor would double? As-
sume that distance between plates of the capacitor is
much smaller than linear dimensions of the plates

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