CHAPTER (3)

Metal Cutting and Cutting Tools

Dr. Ahmed Abou El-Wafa

3.1 Clearance Angle:
The clearance angle may be defined as the angle
between the flank face of the tool and a tangent to the
work surface originating at the cutting edge.

P
P

F
Leading
F
edge : 6-8º
Clearance angle

(a) Heel fouls work & prevents (b) Heel cleared a way allowing
leading edge from entering. leading edge to enter the work.

Clearance necessary to allow cutting to take place.

2
 P
P
Primary F
Clearance
F angle

Clearance angle : 5-7º

Secondary
Clearance
angle

(a) External cylinder (b) Internal cylinder

Effect of workpiece shape on the clearance angle.

An excessive clearance angle will not increase efficiency and will

merely weaken the tool.

3
3.2 Rake Angle:
The rake angle is the angle between the top face of the tool and
the normal to the work surface at the cutting edge.
Chip

Rake
positive angle

Tool angles showing the rake angle.

- Although increasing the rake angle improves the cutting action, it tends
to weaken the tool. Therefore, the choice of a suitable rake angle becomes
a compromise between adequate strength of tool and good cutting action.
- Generally, for work materials that give a continuous chip, the greater
the work-material strength, the smaller the rake angle.

4
 3.3 Chip Formation
3.3.1 Types of chips

Ductile
Brittle
materials:
materials:
e.g. st.
e.g. C I

With BUE
Serrated chip
-Tool-chip
friction causes
portions of ƒAssociated
chip to adhere with difficult-to-
to rake face machine
- BUE forms, metals at high
then breaks cutting speeds
off, cyclically
5
3.3.2 Chip breakers

6
3.4 Single Point Cutting Tools
3.4.1 The straight-edge cutting tool

Section B-B at 90º to

cutting edge

Features of a single point

cutting tool.
7
3.4.2 The parting-off tool

Such a tool must be set on or very slightly above the center, but
never below center, or the work will climb on top of the tool just
before it is parted off. The tool is naturally rather weak and can
easily be broken if this happens.

8
 3.4.3 Tool setting

(a) Tool above center. (b) Tool below center. Work

Tool tends to rub. tends to climb over tool.

(c) Tool on center but (d) Tool on center but

inclined upward at inclined downward at front.
front. Tool rubs. Work tends to drag tool in.

Effect of tool setting.

9
3.5 Multi-Point Cutting Tools
3.5.1 Reamers
The clearance angle of reamer is very small.
A reamer must obviously not be ground on
its clearance faces or its size will be
destroyed, and it is ground on its rake faces,
i.e., along its flutes.

10
3.5.2 Taps
Example 3.1:
Calculation of drill
size required for
producing M48x3
thread;
Depth of thread =
0.54*pitch = 0.54*3 =
A tap. 1.62 mm.
90% depth of thread =
1.62*0.9 = 1.46 mm.
Tapping size = 48-
(2*1.46) = 45.08 mm
diameter.
- The next convenient
drill size above this
should be used.

11
3.6 Copying and Generating Processes

- Copying process: in this process the

W.P
surface is dependent for its shape
on the shape of the cutter, (as an
example form tools). Tool

- Generating process: in this process the surface is

independent on the shape of the tool, but
depends on the relative motions of work and
tool.

12
3.7 Cutting Fluids
3.7.1 Types of cutting fluids

(1) Water
A poor lubricant, has little wetting action, it also encourages rusting and
is suitable only as a coolant during tool grinding.
(2) Soluble Oils
With water, they form an intimate mixture, or emulsion, by adding
emulsifying agents. While the oil prevents rusting, it is suitable for light
cutting operations, i.e. low metal removal rates.

(3) Mineral Oils

They are suitable for heavier cutting operations, i.e. high metal removal
rates, because of their much better lubricating properties. Sulfur
compounds are added to prevent the chip welding to the rake face and
forming BUE. They should not be used on Cu and its alloys since they
have corrosive effect on them, but are suitable for steels.

(4) Vegetable Oils

They are little used since they are liable to decompose and smell, and
may become a health hazard.

13
 3.7.2 Functions or uses of coolants or cutting fluids

The important functions of cutting fluids are given as follows;

(i) Cutting fluid washes away the chips and hence keeps the cutting
region free.
(ii) It helps in keeping freshly machined surface bright by giving a
protective coating against atmospheric, oxygen and thus protects
the finished surface from corrosion.
(iii) It decreases wear and tear of cutting tool and hence increases tool
life.
(iv) It improves machinability and reduces power requirements.
(v) It prevents expansion of workpieces.
(vi) It cools the tool and workpiece and removes the generated heat
from the cutting zone.
(vii) It decreases adhesion between chip and tool, provides lower
friction and wear, and a smaller built-up edge.
14
3.8 The Mechanics of Metal Cutting
3.8.1 Introduction

15
 wc tc

to

Terminology in orthogonal cutting.

16
 Fn

Merchant circle

17
 3.8.2 Measurement of tool forces

Tangential force Ft
Radial force Fr

Turning dynamometer
18
Calibration Curve

19
 3.8.3 Force relationship

to
r =
tc
Where: r = chip thickness ratio (or cutting
ratio); to = thickness of the chip prior to
chip formation; and tc = chip thickness
after separation
• Chip thickness after cut always greater
than before, so chip ratio always less
than 1.0
r cos α
tan φ =
1 − r sinα
Where: α = rake angle

to sinφ
r= = (21.1b)
tc cos(φ − α )
20
- Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
F
µ = = tan β where β is: the friction angle
N
- Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
Fs
τ= S= where S is: the shear strength
As
tow
As = where As is: the shear plane area
sinφ
– to is: cut depth
– w is: cutting edge width,
– Φ is: shear plane angle
- Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation can occur, the work
material will select a shear plane angle φ that minimizes energy, given by;

α β
φ = 45° + − (21.3)
2 2
21
• F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
• The only forces that can be measured are the forces acting on
the tool:
– Cutting force Fc
– Thrust force Ft
- Then;

F = Fc sinα + Ft cosα
N = Fc cosα - Ft sinα
Fs = Fc cosφ - Ft sinφ
Fn = Fc sinφ + Ft cosφ
- From Merchant circle:
Fc = Fs cos(β - α) / [cos(φ + β - α)]
Ft = Fs sin(β - α) / [cos(φ + β - α)]

- Shear Strain: γ = tan(φ - α) + cot φ

22
Power calculations

- Power is force times speed:

Pc = Fc v (hp or kW)
Where: v is the cutting speed

- The cutting horsepower is

hpc = Fc v / 33,000 (hp) 1 kW = 1.34 hp

- Due to efficiency losses (η about 90%), the gross horsepower (hpg)

required is; hpg = hpc / η
- The unit horsepower is;
hpu = hpc / MRR (hp.min/mm3)
Unit power is also known as the specific energy U
Pc Fc v
U = Pu = = - Units for specific energy are typically
R
MRR
MR vt ow N.m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in.lb/in3)

23
Example 3.2
In orthogonal machining the tool has rake angle 10°, chip thickness
before cut is to = 0.02 in, and chip thickness after cut is tc = 0.045
in. The cutting and thrust forces are measured at Fc = 350 lb and Ft
= 285 lb while at a cutting speed of 200 ft/min. Determine;
(a) the machining shear strain, (b) shear stress, and (c) cutting
horsepower.

SOLUTION

(a) (Shear strain):

r = 0.02/0.045 = 0.444
Shear plane angle: tan φ = r cos α / [1 – r sin α]
tan φ = 0.444 cos 10 /[1 – 0.444 sin 10]
φ = 25.4°
Shear strain: γ = tan(φ - α) + cot φ
γ = tan(25.4 - 10) + cot 25.4 = 2.386

24
SOLUTION (cont.)

(b) (Shear stress):

Shear force: Fs = Fc cos φ - Ft sin φ
Fs = 350 cos 25.4 - 285 sin 25.4 = 194 lb
Shear plane area:As = to w / sin φ
As = (0.02) (0.125)/sin 25.4= 0.00583 in2
The shear stress is
τ = 194/0.00583 = 33,276 lb/in2

(c) (Cutting horsepower):

Cutting hp: hpc = Fc v / 33,000

hpc = (350) (200) / 33,000 = 2.12 hp

25
3.9 Tool Failure and Tool Life
- Tool wear

Tool wear (a) Crater wear and (b) Flank wear.

26
 I: Initial wear
II: Steady state wear
III: Rapid wear

The criteria recommended by ISO3685:1993 to define the effective tool life for
cemented carbides tools, high-speed steels (HSS) and ceramics are:
Cemented carbides:
1. VBB = 0.3 mm, or
2. VBB,max = 0.6 mm, if the flank is irregularly worn, or;
HSS and ceramics:
1. Catastrophic failure, or;
2. VBB = 0.3 mm, if the flank is regularly in region B; or
3. VBB,max = 0.6mm, if the flank is irregularly in region B.
27
 - Tool life

Taylor’s equation:

v TLn = C
Another form of
Taylor’s equation:
n
v1 ⎛ T2 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
v2 ⎝ T1 ⎠
Where:
V: Cutting speed (m/min.)
TL: Tool life (min.)
n, C: Constants depend on
machining conditions,
e.g., feed, depth of cut,
coolant, etc.

28
Example 3.3
The outside diameter of a cylinder made of titanium alloy is to be
turned. The starting diameter = 500 mm and the length = 1000 mm.
Cutting conditions are feed = 0.4 mm/rev and depth of cut = 3.0
mm. The cut will be made with a cemented carbide cutting tool
whose Taylor tool life parameter n = 0.23 and C = 400 (m/min).
Compute the cutting speed that will allow the tool life to be just
equal the cutting time for this part.

SOLUTION

v TLn = C
⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎛C ⎞ ⎝n⎠
TL = ⎜ ⎟ (1)
⎝v⎠
Lo
Cutting time (Tm) = , where: N = (1000 * v) / π D
f ∗ N

29
 Lo ∗ π D
Tm = (2)
f ∗ 1000 ∗ v

For Tool life (TL) = Cutting time (Tm) i.e., Equating (1) & (2):

⎛C ⎞ Lo ∗ π ∗ D
n
⎜ ⎟ =
⎝v⎠ 1000 ∗ f ∗ v
1

C n
Lo ∗ π ∗ D
v∗ =
1000 ∗ f
1

v n

1−
1
Lo ∗ π D
v n
= 1

1000 ∗ f ∗ C n

1−
1
1000 ∗ π ∗ 500
v 0.23
= 1 V = 202.18 m/min.
1000 ∗ 0.4 ∗ 400 0.23

30