Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MCAT Quicksheets-Kaplan PDF
MCAT Quicksheets-Kaplan PDF
Optimal performance
Impaired performance
information into memory because of strong anxiety
Positive Negative
punishment punishment of information is often based on priming
Increasing attention
interconnected nodes of the semantic network. Weak and interest
system name for major depressive disorder with evaluation of one’s appearance or a specific body part
arousal and seasonal onset, with depression occurring
conscious during winter months Dissociative disorders
emotion • Dissociative amnesia: inability to recall past
Schachter–Singer Nervous Conscious Bipolar and related disorders experience. May involve dissociative fugue, a
system emotion • Bipolar I disorder: contains at least one manic sudden change in location that can involve the
arousal and episode assumption of a new identity
cognitive • Bipolar II disorder: contains at least one • Dissociative identity disorder: two or more
appraisal hypomanic episode and at least one major personalities that take control of behavior
depressive episode • Depersonalization/derealization disorder:
• Cyclothymic disorder: contains hypomanic feelings of detachment from the mind and
Stress episodes with dysthymia body, or from the environment
Stress: the physiological and cognitive response to
challenges or life changes formation of Identity Personality
• Primary appraisal: classifying a potential freud’s stages of psychosexual development Psychoanalytic perspective: personality results from
stressor as irrelevant, benign–positive, or • Based on tensions caused by the libido, with unconscious urges and desires
stressful failure at any given stage leading to fixation • Freud: id, superego, ego
• Secondary appraisal: directed at evaluating • Jung: collective unconscious, archetypes
whether the organism can cope with the
humanistic perspective: emphasizes internal
stress, based on harm, threat, and challenge
feelings of healthy individuals as they strive toward
Conscious
Stressor (distress or eustress): anything that leads happiness and self-realization
to a stress response; can include environmental, • Maslow: hierarchy of needs
social, psychological, chemical, and biological
• Rogers: unconditional positive regard
stressors
Preconscious type and trait theory: personality can be described
The three stages of the general adaptation syndrome ego
as a number of identifiable traits that carry
are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
superego characteristic behaviors
good health bad stress
id
• Type theories of personality: ancient Greek
1. Alarm 3. Exhaustion humors, Sheldon’s somatotypes, division into
Good health stage Unconscious
stage types A and B, and the Myers–Briggs type
Resistance
panic zone
(homeostasis)
2. Resistance
Inventory
stage • Eysenck’s three major traits: psychoticism,
breakdown
(burnout) extraversion, neuroticism
Time
• Trait theorists’ Big Five: openness,
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN)
IDEntItY AnD PErSonAlItY • Stem from conflicts that are the result of decisions
we are forced to make about ourselves and the • Allport’s three basic types of traits: cardinal,
Self-Concept and Identity environment around us at each phase of our lives central, and secondary
• Self-concept: the sum of the ways in which • Stages are trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs.
we describe ourselves: in the present, who we shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry
used to be, and who we might be in the future vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion,
• Identities: individual components of our self- intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs.
concept related to the groups to which we belong stagnation, integrity vs. despair
• Self-esteem: our evaluation of ourselves kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning development
• Self-efficacy: the degree to which we see • Describes the approaches of individuals to
ourselves as being capable of a given skill in a resolving moral dilemmas
given situation
• Six stages are divided into three main
• locus of control: a self-evaluation that refers phases: preconventional, conventional, and
to the way we characterize the influences in postconventional
our lives. Either internal (success or failure is a
result of our own actions) or external (success vygotsky’s theory of cultural and biosocial
or failure is a result of outside factors) development
• Describes development of language, culture,
and skills
3’
Glycoside formation is the basis for building complex DNA and its associated histones make up chromatin ssDNA-binding protein
carbohydrates and requires the anomeric carbon to in the nucleus. leading strand template parent DNA
helicase 3’
link to another sugar.
DNA polymerase III
• Heterochromatin is dense, transcriptionally on lagging strand
Okazaki fragment 5’
Sugars with a –H replacing an –OH group are termed silent DNA. primase
5’
deoxy sugars. • Euchromatin is less dense, transcriptionally 5’
• Starches (amylose and amylopectin): main expanded view H4 Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology
energy storage forms for plants Recombinant DNA is DNA composed of nucleotides
• Glycogen: a major energy storage form for from two different sources.
Telomeres are the ends of chromosomes. They
animals contain a high GC-content to prevent unraveling of DNA cloning introduces a fragment of DNA into a
the DNA. vector plasmid. A restriction enzyme (restriction
endonuclease) cuts both the plasmid and the fragment,
leaving them with sticky ends, which can bind.
{
Central Dogma: DNA → RNA → proteins A U G C C G U A U G C U A U G C C G U A U G C U
U A C U A CG G C
passive transport active transport
Degenerate code allows multiple codons to encode Met P site A site Pro
engulfing material into cells or releasing material
Met
for the same amino acid. to the exterior of cells, both via the cell membrane.
} anticodon
Pinocytosis is the ingestion of liquid into the cell
G
• Initiation: AUG
G
incoming tRNA
C
• Termination: UAA, UGA, UAG from vesicles formed from the cell membrane and
Pr
o
energy electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) and GTP. is the commonly accepted range for energy CE CE
Chylomicron Chylomicron
Glucose
yield Intestine
(epithelium)
(lymph) (blood)
Lipoprotein
Pyruvate Amino acids lipase
Malate
cis-Aconitase is activated by insulin in the liver and muscles. TGL
Fatty acids
NADH
• Branching enzyme, which moves a block of
dehydrogenase chol
+
Isocitrate IDL
NAD
NAD
+
Isocitrate oligoglucose from one chain and connects it
Malate
dehydrogenase as a branch using an α-1,6 glycosidic link. Cholesterol Metabolism
NADH CO2
Fumarase
α-Ketoglutarate Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen using • Cholesterol may be obtained through dietary
Fumarate NAD
+
α-Ketoglutarate two main enzymes: sources or through synthesis in the liver.
dehydrogenase
FADH2
NADH • The key enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis is
Succinate
CO2 • Glycogen phosphorylase, which removes
dehydrogenase FAD
HMG-CoA reductase.
(complex II)
Succinate
GTP GDP + Pi Succinyl-CoA
single glucose 1-phosphate molecules by
breaking α-1,4 glycosidic links. In the liver, it Palmitic acid, the only fatty acid that humans can
Succinyl-CoA
synthetase is activated by glucagon to prevent low blood synthesize, is produced in the cytoplasm from
sugar. In exercising skeletal muscle, it is acetyl-CoA transported out of the mitochondria.
Figure I-13-1. Citric Acid Cycle
The Electron Transport Chain activated by epinephrine and AMP to provide Fatty acid oxidation occurs in the mitochondria,
glucose for the muscle itself. following transport by the carnitine shuttle, via
Takes place on the matrix-facing surface of the inner
• Debranching enzyme, which moves a block of β-oxidation.
mitochondrial membrane.
oligoglucose from one branch and connects it
NADH donates electrons to the chain, which are Ketone bodies form (ketogenesis) during a
to the chain using an α-1,4 glycosidic link.
passed from one complex to the next. Reduction prolonged starvation state due to excess acetyl-CoA
potentials increase down the chain, until the Gluconeogenesis in the liver. Ketolysis regenerates acetyl-CoA for use
electrons end up on oxygen, which has the highest as an energy source in peripheral tissues.
Occurs in both the cytoplasm and mitochondria,
reduction potential. predominantly in the liver. Most of gluconeogenesis
Step 1
Cyt c
Step 2
Cyt c
is just the reverse of glycolysis, using the same Protein Catabolism
2H
+
(ox) 2 H+ (ox)
4 × Cyt c 2 H+
(red)
Q
1 e–
Cyt c
(red)
Q
1 e–
Cyt c
(red) 4 × Cyt
(ox)
c 4 e–
Cu enzymes. Protein digestion occurs primarily in the small
Fe-S
2 e– 4H
+
2H
+ 2H
+
2 H+ 2 H2O 2 H
+
bypassed by different enzymes: for energy, either through gluconeogenesis or ketone
FMN FAD FADH2
body formation. Amino groups are fed into the urea
+
NADH NAD + H
+
Succinate Fumarate + 2 H+
• Pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase cycle for excretion.
Complex I Complex II Complex III Complex IV
bypass pyruvate kinase
NADH cannot cross the inner mitochondrial • Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase bypasses
membrane, so must use one of two shuttle phosphofructokinase-1 Glycogen
Insulin Glucagon
synthesis
mechanisms to transfer its electrons to energy • Glucose-6-phosphatase bypasses hexokinase/
Cellular glucose Glycogenolysis
carriers in the mitochondrial matrix: the glycerol glucokinase Lipid uptake
Stimulates
Inhibits
synthesis
3-phosphate shuttle or the malate–aspartate Plasma glucose
Lipolysis
Thyroid
Follicle-stimulating (FSH) Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
Calcitonin Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level
Parathyroid hormone Luteinizing (LH) Increases blood calcium level
Parathyroid Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis vascularization
of uterine wall
Increases blood glucose level and Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete
decreases
Glucocorticoids Adrenocorticotropicprotein
(ACTH)
Adrenal cortex synthesis; anti-inflammatory glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids Increases waterAnterior
reabsorption in kidneys
pituitary Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH) hormones
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla Increases blood glucose level and heart rate
Prolactin Stimulates milk production and secretion
Stimulates conversion of glycogen toInhibits glucosethe in perception of pain in the brain
Glucagon Endorphins
the liver; increases blood glucose
Insulin Pancreas
Growth hormone Lowers blood glucose; increases glycogen Stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis
stores
Somatostatin Oxytocin Supresses secretion of glucagon andStimulates
Hypothalamus; insulin uterine contractions during labor,
Testosterone Testes Maintains male secondary milk secretion during lactation
stored insexual characteristics
Estrogen Antidiuretic (ADH, Maintains female secondary sexual characteristics
Ovary/Placenta posterior pituitary Stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys
Progesterone vasopressin) Promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium
Melatonin Thyroid
Pineal hormones (T ,
RegulatesT ) sleep–wake cycles Stimulates metabolic activity
3 4 Thyroid
Atrial natriuretic peptide Calcitonin
Heart Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level
Thymosin Parathyroid
Thymus hormone Parathyroid
Stimulates T-cell development Increases blood calcium level
Increases blood glucose level and decreases
Glucocorticoids
Adrenal cortex protein synthesis; anti-inflammatory
Mineralocorticoids ACTION Increases water reabsorption in kidneys MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
I NERVOUS SYSTEM
Rest All gates POTENTIAL
closed
II Depolarization Na+ gates open
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla Increases blood glucose level and heart rate
The functional unit is the neuron: III Repolarization Na gates inactivate
+
Sarcomere
K+ gates open Stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose in
cell body Glucagon • Contractile unit of the fibers in skeletal muscle
Schwann cells IV Hyperpolarization All gates closedPancreas the liver; increases blood glucose
nodes of
Ranvier axon Insulin Lowers blood glucose; increases glycogen stores • Contains thin actin and thick myosin filaments
nerve
myelin
sheathBlood Somatostatin Supresses secretion of glucagon and insulin
RBC Antibodies
terminals Donates Receives
Testosterone Testes Maintains male secondary sexual characteristics
type antigen to: From:
Estrogen Maintains female secondary sexual characteristics
dendrites A A anti-B A, AB Ovary/Placenta
A, O
Progesterone Promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium
B B anti-A
Melatonin B, AB B, O
Pineal Regulates sleep–wake cycles
AB A, B Atrial natriuretic
None peptideAB only All
Heart Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
O None Thymosin anti-A, B All O only
Thymus Stimulates T-cell development
Resting Potential: Contraction
• 3 Na+ pumped out for every 2 K+ pumped in Initiation:
Enzyme Production Site Function SiteHydrolysis
I
Rest Reaction All gates closed
II
Depolarization Na+ gates open • Depolarization of a neuron leads to an action
Salivary amylase
Action Potential:
(ptyalin)
Salivary glands Mouth III
Repolarization
Starch → maltose Na+ gates inactivate potential.
K+ gates open
Pancreatic amylase Pancreas
• Stimulus acts on the neuron, depolarizing the Small intestine IV Starch → maltose
Hyperpolarization All gates closed Sarcomere shortening:
Maltase
membrane of the cell body Intestinal glands Small intestine Maltose → 2 glucoses • Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+.
Sucrase Intestinal glands Small intestine Sucrose → glucose, fructose
Lactase Intestinal glands
Blood
Small intestine
RBC Antibodies Donates Receives • Ca2+ binds to troponin on the actin filament.
Lactose → glucose, galactose
Impulse Propagation: type antigen to: From: • Tropomyosin shifts, exposing myosin-binding sites.
+ rushing into axon) followed A A anti-B axon A, AB A, O • Myosin binds, ATPase activity allows myosin to
• Depolarization (Na
Enzyme Production Site Function SiteB Function
+ B anti-A B, AB B, O
by repolarization (K Gastric glands
rushing out of axon) along pull thin filaments towards the center of the
Pepsin Stomach AB HydrolyzesA, B specific None
peptide bonds AB only All
the nerve axon (chief cells) H zone, and then ATP causes dissociation.
O None anti-A, B All O only
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Trypsin
actin filament
troponin
Converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin tropomyosin
The Synapse:
Chymotrypsin Pancreas Enzyme Production
Hydrolyzes Site peptide
specific
action Function
bonds Site Hydrolysis Reaction
• At the synaptic knob, voltage-gated Ca2+ Small potential
Carboxypeptidases Salivary amylase
2+ into the cell. – – + + + + + +
channels open, sending Ca Intestine Salivary glands
Hydrolyzes terminal peptideMouth
bond at C-terminus Starch → maltose
A and B (ptyalin) + + – – – – – – + Ca2+ calcium
• Vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane
+
+ + +Intestine
+ – Hydrolyzes
– – terminal
– peptide bond at C-terminus
A and B • Reformation: inorganic ions are absorbed from
Surface Colony Growth Deep-Agar Colony Growth
Aminopeptidase
– – – – + + + +
NaHydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at N-terminus
+
the blood for use in bone
– – – – + + + +
Strain 1 Dipeptidases
+ Intestinal glands
+ –+ + + – Hydrolyzes
– – pairs
– of amino acids • Degradation (resorption): inorganic ions are
Enteropeptidase K +
Converts trypsinogen to trypsin released into the blood
Strain 2 + +
key: + = growth; – = no growth
Table 1
Surface Colony Growth Starch Digestion
03_MCAT_QS_Biology.indd 10 4/10/14 12:05 PM
A B C A B C
CIRCULATION Respiration IMMUNE SYSTEM
Circulatory Pathway Through Heart Gas Exchange • The body distinguishes between “self” and
“nonself” (antigens).
pulmonary veins • Exchange
occurs across trachea
L. pulmonary artery
Humoral Immunity (Specific Defense)
aorta the thin walls
L. atrium
of alveoli. bronchus B-lymphocytes
mitral valve
R. pulmonary artery
• Deoxygenated memory cells plasma cells make and
L. ventricle
blood remember antigen, release antibodies (IgG,
enters the IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE),
Nervousspeedsystem,upepidermis,
secondary lens
superior vena cava
R. atrium Ectoderm
pulmonary response which induce antigen
inferior vena cava
septum “Attract”oderm bronchioleNervous
Ectoderm of eye, inner ear epidermis, lens
system,
capillaries phagocytosis
tricuspid Valve R. ventricle
“Attract”oderm
Endoderm of eye,ofinner
Lining ear tract, lungs,
digestive
that surround
liver and • Active imumunity:
pancreas tract, lungs, antibodies are produced
Endoderm
“Endernal” organs Lining of digestive
Superior and inferior vena cava → right atrium → the alveoli. during an immune response
Mesoderm
“Endernal” organs liver and
Muscles, pancreas
skeleton, circulatory
right ventricle → pulmonary arteries → lungs→ • O2 from the diaphragm • Passive immunity: antibodies produced by
Mesoderm
“Means”oderm system, gonads,
Muscles, skeleton, kidney
circulatory
pulmonary veins → left atrium → left ventricle → inhaled air alveoli onekidney
organism are transferred to another
“Means”oderm system, gonads,
aorta → body diffuses down Hormone organism Action
Source
Three portal systems: Blood travels through an extra its gradient
Follicle-stimulating
Hormone (FSH) Source Stimulates follicle maturation;
Action spermatogenesis
capillary bed before returning to the heart. into the capillaries,
Luteinizing (LH)where
Follicle-stimulating it binds with
(FSH) Stimulates ovulation;
follicle
Cell-Mediated testosterone
maturation;
Immunity synthesis
spermatogenesis
(Specific Defense)
hemoglobin and returns
Luteinizing (LH) to the heart. adrenal cortex
Stimulates ovulation; to makesynthesis
testosterone and secrete
• Liver (hepatic), kidney, and brain Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
• CO2 from the tissues diffuses from the glucocorticoids
Stimulates adrenal cortex T-lymphocytes
to make and secrete
(hypophyseal) Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
capillaries to the alveoli, and is Anterior pituitary
exhaled. Stimulates
cytotoxic theT-cells
glucocorticoids thyroid to produce thyroid
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH) hormones
Anterior pituitary Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
Fetal Circulation Thyroid-stimulating (TSH) destroy milk
Stimulates cellsproduction
directly and secretion
Prolactin hormones suppressor T-cells
Fetal Respiration
Endorphins
Prolactin Inhibits theT-cells
Stimulates perception
milk of pain
production andinsecretion
the brain
• Foramen ovale: connects right and left atria helper regulate B- and T-cells
• Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for
Growth hormone
Endorphins Stimulates
Inhibits the bone and muscle
perception of paingrowth/lipolysis
in the brain
• Ductus arteriosus:Nervous
Ectoderm connectssystem, epidermis,
pulmonary lens
artery activate B- and T-cells to decrease anti-antigen
oxygen than
Growth adult hemoglobin. uterine
Stimulates bone andcontractions during labor,
muscle growth/lipolysis
of eye,
to aorta. Along with
“Attract”oderm inner ovale,
foramen ear shunts Oxytocinhormone Hypothalamus; and macrophages by activity
• Gas and Oxytocin
nutrient exchanges occur across the milk secretion
Stimulates during
uterine lactation during labor,
contractions
blood away from lungs stored in
Hypothalamus; secreting lymphokines
Endoderm Lining of digestive tract, lungs, placenta. Antidiuretic (ADH, milk secretion during lactation
• Ductus venosus: connects umbilical vein posterior
storedpituitary
in Stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys
memory cells
“Endernal” organs liver and pancreas vasopressin)(ADH,
Antidiuretic
to inferior vena cava, connecting Thyroid hormones (T3, T4) posterior pituitary Stimulates
Stimulates water reabsorption
metabolic activity in kidneys
Mesoderm Muscles, skeleton,umbilical
circulatory vasopressin)
DIGESTION Thyroid
circulation to central circulation
system, gonads, kidney Calcitonin
Thyroid hormones (T3, T4) Nonspecific
Decreases (tones Immune
down)
Stimulates metabolic activity Response
blood calcium level
“Means”oderm Parathyroid hormone Thyroid
Parathyroid Increases blood calcium level
Calcitonin Decreases
Includes (tones
skin, down) blood calcium
passages lined level cilia, macrophages,
with
Parathyroid hormone Parathyroid Increases blood
Increases blood calcium
glucose level
level and decreases
Glucocorticoids inflammatory response, and interferons (proteins that
HormoneBlood Components Source Action Adrenal cortex protein synthesis;
Increases anti-inflammatory
blood glucose level and decreases
Follicle-stimulating (FSH) Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids Increases water reabsorption
help synthesis;
prevent the spreadin ofkidneys
a virus)
Adrenal cortex protein anti-inflammatory
Plasma: aqueous mix of nutrients, wastes, Mineralocorticoids Increases
Luteinizing (LH) Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis Epinephrine, Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla Increases water
blood reabsorption
glucose levelinand kidneys
heart rate
hormones, blood proteins, gases, and salts
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete Epinephrine, Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla Lymphatic
Increases blood System
glucose
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) glucocorticoids Stimulates conversion of level and heart
glycogen rate in
to glucose
Erythrocytes (red blood cells): carry oxygen Glucagon
Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid the liver;
Stimulates• increases
conversion
Lymph blood
of
vessels glucose
glycogen
meet toatglucose
the in
thoracic duct in the
Anterior pituitary oral cavity Glucagon
Insulin pharynx Pancreas
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)• Hemoglobin: four subunits carry O2 and CO2. Lowers
the liver;blood glucose;
increases
upper increases
blood
chest glucose
and glycogen
neck, stores into the left
draining
hormones tongueInsulin Pancreas
Iron controls binding and releasing. Somatostatin Supresses
Lowers bloodsecretion
glucose;ofincreases
glucagon glycogen
and insulinstores
Prolactin Stimulates milk production and secretion subclavian vein of the cardiovascular system.
• Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation: Testosterone trachea
Somatostatin Testes Maintains male
Supresses secondary
secretion sexualand
of glucagon characteristics
insulin
Endorphins Inhibits the perception of pain in the brain Estrogen Maintains• Vessels
female carry lymph
secondary (excess
sexualcharacteristicsinterstitial
characteristics
Testosterone Testes
Ovary/Placenta Maintains male secondary sexual
Growth hormone Factors leading to right 100Stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis Progesterone
Estrogen
esophagus
Promotesfluid),
Maintains and lacteals
growth/maintenance
female secondary collect
of endometrium
sexual fats by absorbing
characteristics
Stimulates uterine contractions during labor, Melatonin Ovary/Placenta
Pineal Regulateschylomicrons
sleep–wake cycles in the small intestine.
Oxytocin shift of curve:Hypothalamus; Progesterone Promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium
% saturation of hemoglobin
Calcitonin ↓ pH, ↑ PCO Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level liver
35
I Rest All gates closed
Parathyroid hormone 2
Parathyroid Increases blood calcium level
20
25
Y and Z: 4% B B anti-A B, AB B, O
Enzyme Production Site Function Site Hydrolysis Reaction
X Y Z
AB
Viruses A, B None AB only All may enter
prophage integrates
stranded DNA or RNA in a protein coat Pancreatic amylase Pancreas Small intestineprophage Starch → maltose
Patterns of Enzyme Production Site Function Site
• Lytic cycle: virus kills the host cell
Maltase
Hydrolysis Reaction
Intestinal glands Small intestine Maltose → 2 glucoses
Sucrase Intestinal glands Small intestine Sucrose → glucose, fructose
Inheritance Salivary amylase • Salivary
Lysogenic cycle: virus enters host genome Lactase Intestinal glands Small intestine Lactose → glucose, galactose
glands Mouth Starch → maltose
• Autosomal recessive: skips generations(ptyalin)
Pancreatic amylase Pancreas Small intestine Starch → maltose Enzyme Production Site Function Site Function
• Autosomal dominant: appears in every Maltase Intestinal glands Small intestine MaltoseDATA
→Pepsin ANALYSISGastric glands
2 glucoses Stomach Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
generation (chief cells)
Sucrase Intestinal glands Small intestine Sucrose → glucose, fructose
• X-linked (sex-linked): no male-to-male Lactase A researcher performed the following experiments in Experiment 2 Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Intestinal glands Small intestine Lactose →Trypsin
glucose, galactose
Converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin
transmission, and more males are affected order to investigate the metabolism of two different
Chymotrypsin
The two strains were incubated in the same manner
Pancreas Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Enzyme strains of bacteria, Strain 1 and Strain 2.
Production Site Function Site Function as in Experiment 1. Two 100 mL portions of agar were
Carboxypeptidases Small
Gastric glands Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at C-terminus
EVOLUTION Pepsin Stomach Hydrolyzes specific peptide
A and bonds
B Intestine
poured into two beakers, which were maintained at
(chief cells)
Experiment 1 Aminopeptidase Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at N-terminus
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds 43˚C. Next, 0.2 mL of broth culture from Strain 1 was
Trypsin
• When frequencies are stable, the population Intestinal glands
Dipeptidases pipetted Hydrolyzes pairs of amino acids
Strains 1 and 2 were incubated Converts chymotrypsinogen
in separate broth to chymotrypsin into the first beaker, and 0.2 mL of broth
Enteropeptidase Converts trypsinogen to trypsin
is in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium: no cultures for 24 hours at 37˚C.Hydrolyzes
Pancreas A sample of peptide
each bonds culture from Strain 2 was pipetted into the second
Chymotrypsin specific
mutations, large population, random mating, culture was streaked onto
Small three different plates—A, beaker. The agar was swirled around to distribute
Carboxypeptidases Table 1
no migration, and equal reproductive success B, and C—each containing Hydrolyzes terminal
Intestine a different peptide bond atthe
starch–agar C-terminus
bacteria evenly through the media, and then
A and B Surface Colony Growth Starch Digestion
Aminopeptidase medium; the plates were then incubated for another poured
Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at N-terminus onto plates.
A B
These C
plates
A
were
B
incubated
C
p + q = 1; p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 Dipeptidases 48 Intestinal
hours at glands
37˚C. The plates were then
Hydrolyzes pairs of amino acids for 48 hours at 37˚C and then examined for colony
examined Strain 1 + + + – – –
Enteropeptidase for surface colony growth and Converts stained trypsinogen to trypsin growth
with iodine Strain 2 on
both + the +agar surface
– + and +lower – down
p = frequency of dominant allele key: + = growth; – = no growth
within the oxygen-poor agar layer.
solution to determine the extent of starch digestion.
q = frequency of recessive allele Table 1 Table 2
p2 = frequency of dominant homozygotes Surface Colony Growth Starch Digestion Surface Colony Growth Deep-Agar Colony Growth
A B C A B C
2pq = frequency of heterozygotes Strain 1 + –
Strain 1 + + + – – –
q2 = frequency of recessive homozygotes Strain 2 + + – + + – Strain 2 + +
key: + = growth; – = no growth key: + = growth; – = no growth
Table 2
Once incubated, bacteria will grow if nutrients they can metabolize are available. Keep this in mind as you interpret the procedure and results.
Surface Colony Growth Deep-Agar Colony Growth
Experiment 1 and Table 1: What are the important aspects? Two strains (1 and 2) Experiment 2 and Table 2: Note the significant differences between the two
undergo identical incubation on 3 plates with different starch Strain 1 Look at Table 1,
agars. + experiments. –This time, the strains were separately distributed within the agar
Strain 2 +
one strain at a time. The researcher observes growth and starch digestion. Strain 1 grows +
instead of jointly streaked on top of multiple agars. The researcher observes
key: + = growth;
on all plates, but doesn’t digest the starch: it must be using another nutrient to grow. We – = on
growth no growth
top and within, the assumption being that the top is oxygen-rich and
don’t know that Strain 1 can’t digest starch—we just know that it’s not digesting it in the within is oxygen-poor. What does it mean that Strain 1 only grows in an oxygen-rich
first 48 hours. Strain 2 uses starch to grow on plates A and B, but doesn’t digest starch environment? It is an obligate aerobe that requires oxygen for metabolism. What
or grow on plate C. Again, we don’t know that Strain 2 can’t digest the starch in medium does it mean that Strain 2 can grow in oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor environments?
C—we just know it’s not doing so in the first 48 hours. It is a facultative anaerobe.
free energy
the initial concentrations of the reactants, A and B. Eacatalyzed
catalyzed
Efficiency of Reactions
reaction coordinate
free energy
Eaforward
H2 + Cl2 Eareverse
cC + dD
aA + bB
ΔG c d
[C] [D]
Kc = a b
Complex Ion (Coordination Compound) [A] [B]
2 HCl
A Lewis acid–base adduct with a cation bonded Kc is the equilibrium constant (c stands for
reaction coordinate
to at least one electron pair donor (including concentration).
water). Donor molecules are called ligands and use
coordinate covalent bonds. The central cation can COMPOUNDS & STOICHIOMETRY
be bonded to the same ligand multiple times in a
Properties of the Equilibrium Constant
process called chelation. A mole is the amount of a substance that contains Pure solids and liquids don’t appear in expressions.
the same number of particles that are found in a
Keq is characteristic of a given system at a given
12.000 g sample of carbon-12.
temperature.
The molecular or formula weight is measured in amu
If Keq >> 1, an equilibrium mixture of reactants
per molecule (or formula unit). The molar mass is
and products will contain very little of the reactants
measured in grams per mole.
compared to the products.
Combustion reactions: A fuel, such as a hydrocarbon,
If Keq << 1, an equilibrium mixture of reactants
is reacted with an oxidant, such as oxygen, to
and products will contain very little of the products
produce an oxide and water.
compared to the reactants.
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
If Keq is close to 1, an equilibrium mixture of
Combination reactions: Two or more reactants form products and reactants will contain approximately
one product. equal amounts of the two.
Intermolecular Forces S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g) Le Châtelier’s principle is used to determine the
1. Hydrogen bonding: The partial positive charge direction in which a reaction at equilibrium will
of the hydrogen atom interacts with the partial Decomposition reactions: A compound breaks down proceed when subjected to a stress, such as a
negative charge located on the electronegative into two or more substances, usually as a result of change in concentration, pressure, volume, or
atoms (F, O, N) of nearby molecules. heating or electrolysis. temperature. The key is to remember nthat
– 1 a system
2 HgO (s) → 2 Hg (l) + O2 (g) to which these kinds of stresses are applied tends to
δ– change so as to relieve the applied stress.
δ+
Single-displacement reactions: An atom (or ion) of
δ+
one compound is replaced by an atom of another In a nutshell:
element.
δ+ δ– Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → Cu (s) + ZnSO4 (aq)
δ+ Double-displacement reactions: Also called
metathesis reactions; elements from two different
2. Dipole–dipole interactions: Polar molecules
compounds displace each other to form two new
orient themselves such that the positive region
compounds.
of one molecule is close to the negative region
of another molecule. CaCl2 (aq) + 2 AgNO3 (aq) → Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 AgCl (s)
Net ionic equations: These types of equations
δ+ H Cl δ– δ+ H Cl δ– are written showing only the species that actually
participate in the reaction. Consider the following
equation:
THERMOCHEMISTRY
δ+ H Cl δ– Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) + SO24– (aq) → The law of conservation of energy dictates that
Cu (s) + Zn2+ (aq) + SO24– (aq) energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but that
all thermal, chemical, potential, and kinetic energies
3. Dispersion forces: The bonding electrons in The spectator ion (SO24–) does not take part in the
are interconvertible.
covalent bonds may appear to be equally overall reaction, but simply remains in solution
shared between two atoms, but at any throughout. The net ionic equation would be:
particular point in time they will be located Systems:
Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Cu (s) + Zn2+ (aq)
randomly throughout the orbital. This permits Isolated: no exchange of energy/matter with the
unequal sharing of electrons, causing transient Neutralization reactions: These are a specific type environment. Bomb calorimetry creates a nearly
polarization and counterpolarization of the of double-displacement reactions that occur when isolated system.
electron clouds of neighboring molecules, an acid reacts with a base to produce a solution of a Closed: can exchange energy but not matter with the
inducing the formation of more dipoles. salt (and, usually, water): environment
symmetrical asymmetrical HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) Open: can exchange both energy and matter with
distribution distribution
electron
Factors affecting reaction rates: reactant the environment. Human beings are open systems
+ –
δ δ concentrations, temperature, medium, catalysts because they can take in energy and matter (eat),
nucleus Catalysts are unique substances that increase release matter into the environment (respiration,
reaction rate without being consumed; they do this urination, defecation), and release energy into the
δ+ δ– δ+ δ– environment (heat transfer from the skin and mucous
by lowering the activation energy.
membranes).
solid liquid
Bond dissociation energy: an average of the energy ∆G = ∆H – T∆S
required to break a particular type of bond in one If ∆G is negative, the reaction is spontaneous. critical
point
mole of gaseous molecules: If ∆G is positive, the reaction is nonspontaneous.
triple
If ∆G is zero, the system is in a state of equilibrium; point
energy
thus, ∆G = 0 and ∆H = T∆S. gas
temperature
Colligative properties: These are physical properties
derived solely from the number of particles present,
not the nature of those particles. These properties
Bond enthalpy: The standard heat of reaction are usually associated with dilute solutions. Molality
can be calculated using the values of bond (m) must be used, in addition to the van ’t Hoff factor
dissociation energies of particular bonds Reaction quotient (Q): Once a reaction commences,
(i) for ionic compounds.
(given in a table). the standard state conditions no longer hold. For the
reaction: Freezing point depression
∆ Hrxn
° =
∑ ∆ Hbonds broken −∑ ∆ Hbonds formed
cC + dD
aA + bB ∆Tf = iK f m
c d Boiling point elevation
[C] [D]
Q= a b
[A] [B] ∆Tb = iKbm
these functional groups act as acids or bases? How Oxidation = loss of electrons, fewer bonds to hydrogens, Quinones and Hydroxyquinones
oxidized is the carbon? Are there functional groups more bonds to heteroatoms (O, N, halogens)
that act as good nucleophiles, electrophiles, or Treatment of phenols with oxidizing agents produces
leaving groups? This will help define a category of Reduction = gain of electrons, more bonds to quinones.
reactions that can occur with the given functional hydrogens, fewer bonds to heteroatoms OH O
groups. Na2Cr2O7
Step 3: Identify the Other Reagents Good oxidizing agents have a high affinity for OH
p-benzenediol
O
1,4-benzoquinone
Are the other reagents acidic or basic? Are they electrons (such as O2, O3, and Cl2) or unusually high (hydroquinone)
specific to a particular reaction? Are they good oxidation states (like Mn7+ in permanganate, MnO4—, These molecules can be further oxidized to form a
nucleophiles or a specific solvent? Are they good and Cr6+ in chromate, CrO42—). class of molecules called hydroxyquinones. Many
oxidizing or reducing agents? hydroxyquinones have biological activity.
Reducing Agents O
Step 4: Identify the Most Reactive Functional Group(s) Good reducing agents include sodium, magnesium, OH
More oxidized carbons tend to be more reactive aluminum, and zinc, which have low electronegativities
to both nucleophile–electrophile reactions and and ionization energies. Metal hydrides are also good O
oxidation–reduction reactions. Note the presence of reducing agents, like NaH, CaH2, LiAlH4, and NaBH4,
protecting groups that exist to prevent a particular because they contain the H– ion. Ubiquinones
functional group from reacting. Ubiquinone is also called coenzyme Q and is a vital
electron carrier associated with Complexes I, II,
Step 5: Identify the First Step of the Reaction and III of the electron transport chain.
• If the reaction involves an acid or a base: Ubiquinone can be reduced to ubiquinol, which can
protonation or deprotonation later be reoxidized to ubiquinone. This is sometimes
• If the reaction involves a nucleophile: called the Q cycle.
nucleophile attacks electrophile, forming a bond
• If the reaction involves an oxidizing or Aldehydes
reducing agent: most oxidized functional
group is oxidized or reduced, accordingly The dipole moment of aldehydes causes an elevation
of boiling point, but not as high as alcohols because
Step 6: Consider Stereoselectivity Oxidation there is no hydrogen bonding.
If there is more than one product, the major product • PCC takes a primary alcohol to an aldehyde.
will generally be determined by differences in strain PCC
Synthesis
or stability between the two molecules. Products OH O
• Oxidation of primary alcohols
with conjugation (alternating single and multiple • Jones’s reagent, KMnO4, and alkali dichromate • Ozonolysis of alkenes
bonds) are significantly more stable than those salts will convert secondary alcohols to ketones
without. Reactions
and primary alcohols to carboxylic acids.
OH O Reactions of enols (Michael additions)
Alcohols Na2Cr 2O7
H2SO4 O O
Base
O O
+ H:Base
Synthesis Reduction R R R — R
R R
O OH
• Addition of water to double bonds
Nucleophilic addition to a carbonyl
• SN1 and SN2 reactions LiAlH4
O O— OH
or H+
• Reduction of carboxylic acids, aldehydes, NaBH4
H H H
ketones, and esters Nu —
Nu Nu
OH O
NaI
+ O S O + —
SO3 O O O O OH OH
I
LiAIH4 OH
ClSO2
tosyl chloride
OH
of the ability to form two hydrogen bonds. Carboxylic acid derivatives can be ranked based on
NH3 +
O + O
H3N
descending reactivity:
Synthesis • Acyl halides are the most reactive
Oxidation of primary alcohols with KMnO4 • Anhydrides O O
O– O
+
O • Carboxylic acids and esters +
O
KMnO 4 NH2 OH
OH OH
• Amides are the least reactive H2N
H
O—Na +
• Ester formation OH
Reduction to an amine
O + H2O
O
OH
LiAlH4
O
O NH2 NH2
ortho-phthalic acid phthalic anhydride
Esters
Nitrogen-Containing Compounds
Hydrolysis
OH
OH
+ OH
+
O
O
H2O O O OH
H + H H
LAH +
O OH OH
proton
transfer
NH2 NH2
Saponification
−
CN R NH+2 −H2O O O
+
R R OH 2
N –
RC O RC O Na+
N NH+ OH+2
H2N + O O HO
H H2N H2O H2N
–
NH RC O NaOH RC O Na+ + HO
Cyclic Carboxylic Acid Derivatives R R R
O O HO
proton
–
transfer
O Na+
Lactams RC O RC
OH OH OH triacylglycerol soap glycerol
Cyclic amides are called lactams. These are named H2N
proton
transfer H2N H2O H2 N
OH OH+2
according to the carbon atom bound to the nitrogen:
+
NH+3 NH2 NH 2
R R R
β-lactams contain a bond between the β-carbon and PHOSPHORUS-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS
the nitrogen, γ-lactams contain a bond between the −NH3
γ-carbon and the nitrogen, and so forth. • Phosphoric acid is a phosphate group or inorganic
OH+ O phosphate (Pi ). At physiologic pH, inorganic
+ H2N
H2N
OH
−H
OH phosphate includes both hydrogen phosphate
O R R (HPO2–
4 ) and dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4 ).
–
N N O N O N O
H H H H • Pyrophosphate (PPi ) is P2O4– 7 , which is released
β-lactam γ-lactam δ-lactam ε-lactam Gabriel (Malonic-Ester) Synthesis during the formation of phosphodiester bonds
Reagents: potassium phthalimide, diethyl in DNA. Pyrophosphate is unstable in aqueous
Lactones bromomalonate solution, and is hydrolyzed to form two
O O O
molecules of inorganic phosphate.
Cyclic esters are called lactones. These are named CO2C2H5 CO2C2H5 CO2C2H5
O O 4–
− + base
N K + Br C H N C H N C −
O
H3N C R
−CO2
+ H2N C R
H2O, ∆ N C R
• Nucleotides with phosphate groups, such
O H O CO2 − CO2C2H5
O O
−
O ATP, GTP, and those in DNA, are referred to as
α-acetolactone β-propiolactone γ-butyrolactone δ-valerolactone organic phosphates.
Ha Hb
clean filter flask deshielding b Cl C O C Hb
shielding Cl Hb
TMS
filtrate
a
Type of
Chromatography Mobile Phase Stationary Phase Common Use
silica or alumina Thin-layer or Paper Nonpolar solvent Polar card Identify a sample
Reverse-phase Polar solvent Nonpolar card Identify a sample
Separate a sample into
sand Column Nonpolar solvent zPolar gel or powder
glass wool or cotton components
stopcock to control flow
Ion-exchange Nonpolar solvent Charged beads in column Separate components by charge
Polar, porous beads in
Size-exclusion Nonpolar solvent Separate components by size
column
collection flask Beads coated with antibody
Purify a molecule (usually a
Affinity Nonpolar solvent or receptor for a target
protein) of interest
molecule
column chromatography
Gas (GC) Inert gas Crushed metal or polymer Separate vaporizable compounds
A1 A2
d2 energy Stored by capacitors
d1 2
Q
+V U = 1 QV = 1 CV 2 = 1
2 2 2 C
F2 W kQ J
Voltage (∆V) = q = [SI units: volt = ]
r C
C1
• When two oppositely charged parallel plates
are separated by a distance d, an electric field
is created, and a potential difference exists Capacitors in series: C2
between the plates, given by: V = Ed add as reciprocals, Cs
then take reciprocal
of sum C3
1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
C eq C1 C2 C3
d E C4
F F
P = 1 = 2 and A1d1 = A2d2
A1 A2
λ
L = ––
Closed pipes 4 nuclear Binding energy
4L
λ= (n = 1, 3, 5…) L = 3λ
–– Mass defect: the difference between the sum of the
n 4 f>0
nv masses of nucleons in the nucleus and the mass
ƒ= (n = 1, 3, 5…) of the nucleus. The mass defect results from the
4L L = 5λ
––
4 conversion of matter to energy, embodied by:
The closed end of the pipe is always a node, and the E = mc2. This energy is the binding energy that holds
• If an object is placed inside the focal length of
open end is always an antinode. nucleons within the nucleus.
a concave mirror instead, the image formed is
behind the mirror, enlarged and virtual.
SoUnD exponential Decay
Convex mirrors
Sound propagates through a deformable medium by Half-life
the oscillation of particles parallel to the direction of n = noe–λt
the wave’s propagation.
P W f<0 Alpha decay
intensity (I ) = [SI units: 2 ]
A m 238U → 234Th + 4He
⎛⎜ I ⎟⎞ 92 90 2
Sound level (β) = 10 log ⎜⎜ I ⎟⎟
⎝ 0⎠ [unit: decibel = dB]
Beta-minus decay
(Note than an increase of 10 dB is an increase in 137 Cs → 137Ba + 0 e– + −
ve
55 56 –1
intensity by a factor of 10. An increase of 20 dB is an • Regardless of the position of the object, a
increase in intensity by a factor of 100.) convex mirror forms only a virtual upright Beta-plus decay
image. 22Na → 22Ne + 0 e+ + v
11 10 +1 e
Doppler effect
• When a source and a detector move relative thin Spherical Lenses 100
percentage of radioactive nuclei remaining
A
by chance given that the null hypothesis is true
• confidence interval: a range of values believed
45° to contain the true value with a given level of
30°
√2
probability (confidence)
2 1
√3 0.15% 2.4% 13.5% 34% 34% 13.5% 2.4% 0.15%
Visual Data interpretation
60° 45° −3 σ −2 σ −1 σ x +1 σ +2 σ +3 σ • graphs: analyze the axes first to determine
C D 1 B 1
whether the scale is linear, logarithmic, or
• Bias: systematic data error. Common types
opposite semilog and what the units are. Determine
sin θ = include selection bias, detection bias,
hypotenuse whether relationships are direct or inverse.
and the Hawthorne effect. Minimized by
adjacent • Pie charts: compare portions of data to a
proper participant selection, blinding, and
cos θ = whole or relative responses of a group
hypotenuse randomization.
• confounding: an analysis error wherein a • Bar charts and histograms: compare absolute
opposite or relative responses between groups
tan θ = variable that has a relationship with the other
adjacent • Box plots: contain information about
two variables is overlooked
measures of central tendency and distribution;
Vector Addition and Subtraction ethics may be comparative or single
tip-to-tail method of finding resultant of two vectors: • Beneficence: the requirement to do good
–Q • nonmaleficence: “do no harm” 1000
• Autonomy: the right of individuals to make
minus 299,000
Q
800
true speed
generalizability
700
Statistical significance and causality do not make
something generalizable or a good intervention.
clinical significance and the target population must
1 2 3 4 5
also be considered.
Experiment No.