Other Senses COGNITION, CONSCIOUSNESS, AND LANGUAGE

Smell: detection of volatile or aerosolized

chemicals by olfactory chemoreceptors
(olfactory nerves)
Taste: detection of dissolved compounds by
taste buds in papillae
Somatosensation: four touch modalities
(pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature)
Kinesthetic sense (proprioception): ability to
tell where one’s body is in space
Object Recognition
Bottom-up (data-driven) processing: recognition
of objects by parallel processing and feature
detection. Slower, but less prone to mistakes
Top-down (conceptually-driven) processing:
recognition of an object by memories and
expectations, with little attention to detail.
Faster, but more prone to mistakes
Gestalt principles: ways that the brain can
infer missing parts of an image when it is
incomplete
LEARNING AND MEMORY
Learning
Habituation: the process of becoming used to
a stimulus
Dishabituation: occurs when a second
stimulus intervenes, causing a resensitization
to the original stimulus
Observational learning: the acquisition of
behavior by watching others
Associative learning: pairing together
stimuli and responses, or behaviors and
consequences
Classical conditioning: a form of associative
learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes
associated with an unconditioned stimulus
such that the neutral stimulus alone produces
the same response as the unconditioned
stimulus; the neutral stimulus thus becomes a
conditioned stimulus
+
UCS
(food)
Neutral
stimulus
UCR (bell)
Consciousness Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage: focuses on manipulating
Stage EEG Waves Features
the environment to meet physical needs
Awake Beta and Able to perceive, process, through circular reactions; object permanence
alpha access, and express ends this stage
information Preoperational stage: focuses on symbolic
1 Theta Light sleep thinking, egocentrism (inability to imagine
what another person thinks or feels), and
2 Theta Sleep spindles and K centration (focusing on only one aspect of a
complexes phenomenon)
3/4 Delta Slow-wave sleep; dreams; Concrete operational stage: focuses on
understanding the feelings of others and
declarative memory
manipulating physical (concrete) objects
consolidation; some sleep
disorders Formal operational stage: focuses on abstract
thought and problem-solving
REM Mostly Appears awake
beta physiologically; dreams;
paralyzed; procedural Problem-Solving and Decision-Making
memory consolidation; some Problem-solving techniques include trial-and-
sleep disorders error, algorithms, deductive reasoning (deriving
conclusions from general rules) and inductive
Sleep disorders include dyssomnias (amount or
reasoning (deriving generalizations from evidence).
timing of sleep), such as insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep
apnea, and sleep deprivation; and parasomnias Heuristics (simplified principles used to make
(odd behaviors during sleep), such as night terrors decisions, “rules of thumb”), biases, intuition, and
and sleepwalking (somnambulism). emotions may assist decision-making, but may also
lead to erroneous or problematic decisions.
Consciousness-Altering Drugs
Drug addiction is mediated by the mesolimbic
Attention
pathway, which includes the nucleus accumbens, Selective attention: allows one to pay
medial forebrain bundle, and ventral tegmental area. attention to a particular stimulus while
Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter. determining if additional stimuli require
attention in the background
Drug Group Function Divided attention: uses automatic processing to
Depressants Sense of relaxation pay attention to multiple activities at one time
(alcohol, barbiturates, and reduced anxiety
benzodiazepines) Language Areas in the Brain
Wernicke’s area: language comprehension;
Stimulants Increased arousal
damage results in Wernicke’s aphasia
(amphetamines, cocaine,
(fluent, nonsensical aphasia with lack of
ecstasy)
comprehension)
Opiates/opioids Decreased reaction to
Broca’s area: motor function of speech;
(heroin, morphine, pain; euphoria
damage results in Broca’s aphasia (nonfluent
opium, pain pills)
aphasia in which generating each word
Hallucinogens Distortions of requires great effort)
(LSD, peyote, mescaline, reality and fantasy; Arcuate fasciculus: connects Wernicke’s
ketamine, psilocybin- introspection and Broca’s areas; damage results in
No Response containing mushrooms) conduction aphasia (the inability to repeat
words despite intact speech generation and
Marijuana has some features of depressants,
comprehension)
stimulants, and hallucinogens (in very high doses).

Memory MOTIVATION, EMOTION, AND STRESS

Human Memory
CS (bell) Motivation
Sensory Short-term Working Long-term
CR (salivation)
Memory Memory Memory Memory
Motivation is the purpose or driving force behind
(< 1 sec) (< 1 min) (lifetime) our actions.
Operant conditioning: a form of associative Extrinsic: based on external circumstances
learning in which the frequency of a behavior
Explicit Implicit Intrinsic: based on internal drive or perception
is modified using reinforcement (increases Memory Memory
behavior) or punishment (decreases behavior) (conscious) (unconscious)
Motivation theories
Stimulus Instinct theory: innate, fixed patterns of
Declarative Procedural
Added Removed Memory Memory behavior in response to stimuli
(facts, events) (skills, tasks) Arousal theory: the state of being awake and
Continues

reactive to stimuli; aim for optimal level of

Positive Negative arousal for a given task (Yerkes–Dodson law)
Episodic Semantic
reinforcement reinforcement Memory Memory
Strong Optimal arousal
(events, experiences) (facts, concepts)
Behavior

Optimal performance

Encoding: the process of putting new

Performance

Impaired performance
information into memory because of strong anxiety

Facts are stored via semantic networks. Retrieval

Stops

Positive Negative
punishment punishment of information is often based on priming
Increasing attention
interconnected nodes of the semantic network. Weak and interest

Recognition of information is stronger than recall. Low High

Arousal
 Drive reduction theory: individuals act to PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
relieve internal states of tension
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: prioritizes needs Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Anxiety disorders
into five categories: physiological needs (DSM): the guide by which most psychological disorders Generalized anxiety disorder: constant
(highest priority), safety and security, love and are characterized, described, and diagnosed. disproportionate and persistent worry
belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization Specific phobias: irrational fears of specific
Types of Psychological Disorders objects
(lowest priority)
Schizophrenia: psychotic disorder characterized by Social anxiety disorder: anxiety due to social
distortions of reality and disturbances in content or performance situations
Emotion
and form of thought, perception, and behavior. Agoraphobia: fear of places or situations
Seven universal emotions: happiness, sadness, Positive symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, where it is hard for an individual to escape
contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger and disorganized thought and behavior. Negative
Panic disorder: recurrent attacks of intense,
Theories of emotion: symptoms include disturbance of affect and avolition.
overwhelming fear and sympathetic nervous
Depressive disorders system activity with no clear stimulus. It may
First Second
lead to agoraphobia.
Theory response response Major depressive disorder: contains at least
one major depressive episode Obsessive–compulsive disorder: obsessions
James–Lange Nervous Conscious
Pervasive depressive disorder: a depressed (persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses) and
system emotion
mood (either dysthymia or major depression) compulsions (repetitive tasks that relieve tension but
arousal
for at least two years cause significant impairment)
Cannon–Bard Nervous Action Seasonal affective disorder: the colloquial Body dysmorphic disorder: unrealistic negative
STIMULUS

system name for major depressive disorder with evaluation of one’s appearance or a specific body part
arousal and seasonal onset, with depression occurring
conscious during winter months Dissociative disorders
emotion Dissociative amnesia: inability to recall past
Schachter–Singer Nervous Conscious Bipolar and related disorders experience. May involve dissociative fugue, a
system emotion Bipolar I disorder: contains at least one manic sudden change in location that can involve the
arousal and episode assumption of a new identity
cognitive Bipolar II disorder: contains at least one Dissociative identity disorder: two or more
appraisal hypomanic episode and at least one major personalities that take control of behavior
depressive episode Depersonalization/derealization disorder:
Cyclothymic disorder: contains hypomanic feelings of detachment from the mind and
Stress episodes with dysthymia body, or from the environment
Stress: the physiological and cognitive response to
challenges or life changes Formation of Identity Personality
Primary appraisal: classifying a potential Freud’s stages of psychosexual development Psychoanalytic perspective: personality results from
stressor as irrelevant, benign–positive, or Based on tensions caused by the libido, with unconscious urges and desires
stressful failure at any given stage leading to fixation Freud: id, superego, ego
Secondary appraisal: directed at evaluating Jung: collective unconscious, archetypes
whether the organism can cope with the
Humanistic perspective: emphasizes internal
stress, based on harm, threat, and challenge
feelings of healthy individuals as they strive toward
Conscious
Stressor (distress or eustress): anything that leads happiness and self-realization
to a stress response; can include environmental, Maslow: hierarchy of needs
social, psychological, chemical, and biological
Rogers: unconditional positive regard
stressors
Preconscious Type and trait theory: personality can be described
The three stages of the general adaptation syndrome ego
as a number of identifiable traits that carry
are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
superego characteristic behaviors
good health bad stress

id
Type theories of personality: ancient Greek
1. Alarm 3. Exhaustion humors, Sheldon’s somatotypes, division into
Good health stage Unconscious
stage Types A and B, and the Myers–Briggs Type
Resistance

panic zone

(homeostasis)
2. Resistance
stage
breakdown
(burnout)
Time
IDENTITY AND PERSONALITY
Self-Concept and Identity
Self-concept: the sum of the ways in which
we describe ourselves: in the present, who we
used to be, and who we might be in the future
Identities: individual components of our self-
concept related to the groups to which we belong
Self-esteem: our evaluation of ourselves
Self-efficacy: the degree to which we see
ourselves as being capable of a given skill in a
given situation
Locus of control: a self-evaluation that refers
to the way we characterize the influences in
our lives. Either internal (success or failure is a
result of our own actions) or external (success
or failure is a result of outside factors)
Inventory
Eysenck’s three major traits: psychoticism,
extraversion, neuroticism
Trait theorists’ Big Five: openness,
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN)
Stem from conflicts that are the result of decisions
we are forced to make about ourselves and the Allport’s three basic types of traits: cardinal,
environment around us at each phase of our lives central, and secondary
Stages are trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs.
shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry
vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion,
intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs.
stagnation, integrity vs. despair
Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning development
Describes the approaches of individuals to
resolving moral dilemmas
Six stages are divided into three main
phases: preconventional, conventional, and
postconventional
Vygotsky’s theory of cultural and biosocial
development
Describes development of language, culture,
and skills
Somatic symptom and related disorders
Somatic symptom disorder: at least one
somatic symptom, which may or may not be
linked to an underlying medical condition, that
causes disproportionate concern
Illness anxiety disorder: preoccupation with
having or coming down with a serious medical
condition
Conversion disorder: unexplained symptoms
affecting motor or sensory function
Personality disorders
Patterns of inflexible, maladaptive behavior that
cause distress or impaired functioning
Cluster A (odd, eccentric, “weird”): paranoid,
schizotypal, schizoid
Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, erratic, “wild”):
antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
Cluster C (anxious, fearful, “worried”):
avoidant, dependent, obsessive–compulsive
SOCIAL PROCESSES, ATTITUDES,
AND BEHAVIOR
Group Psychology
Social facilitation: tendency to perform at a
different level (better or worse) when others
are around
Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness in
large groups; can lead to drastic changes in
behavior
Bystander effect: in a group, individuals are
less likely to respond to a person in need
Peer pressure: social influence placed on an
individual by other individuals they consider
equals
Group polarization: tendency towards making
decisions in a group that are more extreme then
the thoughts of the individual group members
Groupthink: tendency to make decisions
based on ideas and solutions that arise within
the group without considering outside ideas
Culture
Assimilation: one culture begins to melt into
another
Multiculturalism: encouragement of multiple
cultures within a community to enhance
diversity
Subculture: a group that distinguishes itself
from the primary culture to which it belongs
Socialization
Socialization: the process of developing and
spreading norms, customs, and beliefs
Norms: boundaries of acceptable behavior
within society
Stigma: extreme disapproval or dislike
of a person or group based on perceived
differences
Deviance: any violation of norms, rules, or
expectations within a society
Conformity: changing beliefs or behaviors in
order to fit into a group or society
Compliance: individuals change behavior
based on the request of others; techniques
for gaining compliance include foot-in-the-
door, door-in-the-face, lowball, and that’s-
not-all
Obedience: change in behavior based on a
command from someone seen as an authority
figure
SOCIAL INTERACTION
Elements of Social Interaction
Status: a position in society used to classify
individuals. Can be ascribed (involuntarily
assigned), achieved (voluntarily earned), or
master (primary identity)
Role: set of beliefs, values, and norms that
define the expectations of a certain status
Group: two or more individuals with similar
characteristics who share a sense of unity
Network: observable pattern of social
relationships between individuals or groups
Organization: group with a structure
and culture designed to achieve specific
goals; exists outside of each individual’s
membership within the organization
Self-Presentation and Interacting with Others
Display rules: unspoken rules that govern the
expression of emotion
Impression management: maintenance of a
public image through various strategies
Dramaturgical approach: individuals create
images of themselves in the same way that
actors perform a role in front of an audience
SOCIAL THINKING
Social Behavior
Interpersonal attraction: influenced by
physical, social, and psychological factors
Aggression: behavior with the intention to
cause harm or increase social dominance
Attachment: an emotional bond to another
person; usually refers to the bond between a
child and a caregiver
Altruism: helping behavior in which the
person’s intent is to benefit someone else at a
personal cost
SOCIAL PERCEPTION AND BEHAVIOR
Attribution Theory
Focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the
causes of other people’s behavior
Dispositional (internal) causes relate to the
features of the person who is being considered
Situational (external) causes relate to features
of the surroundings or social context
Correspondent inference theory: describes
attributions made by observing the intentional
(especially unexpected) behaviors performed
by another person
Fundamental attribution error: bias toward
making dispositional attributions rather than
situational attributions
Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
Stereotypes: attitudes and impressions that
are made based on limited and superficial
information
Self-fulfilling prophecy: the phenomenon
of a stereotype creating an expectation of a
particular group, which creates conditions that
lead to confirmation of this stereotype
Stereotype threat: a feeling of anxiety about
confirming a negative stereotype
Prejudice: an irrationally based attitude prior
to actual experience
Ethnocentrism: the practice of making
judgments about other cultures based on
the values and beliefs of one’s own culture
(in-group vs. out-group)
Cultural relativism: studying social groups and
cultures on their own terms
Discrimination: when prejudicial attitudes
cause differences in treatment of a group
SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND DEMOGRAPHICS
Sociology: Theories and Institutions
Functionalism: focuses on the function and
relationships of each component of society
Conflict theory: focuses on how power
differentials are created and how they
maintain order
Symbolic interactionism: the study of
how individuals interact through a shared
understanding of words, gestures, and other
symbols
Social constructionism: explores how
individuals and groups make decisions to
agree upon a given social reality
Culture
Material culture: physical items one
associates with a given group (art, clothing,
foods, buildings)
Symbolic culture: the ideas associated with a
cultural group
Demographics
Demographics: the statistical arm of sociology
Migration refers to the movement of people into
(immigration) or out of (emigration) a geographical
location.
Demographic transition: a model used to represent
drops in birth and death rates as a result of
industrialization
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Social Class
Social stratification is based on socioeconomic
status (SES).
Class: a category of people with shared
socioeconomic characteristics
Power: the capacity to influence people
through real or perceived rewards and
punishments
Social capital: the investment people make
in society in return for economic or collective
rewards
Social reproduction: the passing on of
social inequality, especially poverty, to other
generations
Poverty: low SES; in the US, the poverty line is
the government’s calculation of the minimum
income requirements to acquire the minimum
necessities of life
Epidemiology
new cases
Incidence: per time
population - at risk
number of cases(new or old)
Prevalence: per time
total population
Morbidity: the burden or degree of illness associated
with a given disease
Mortality: deaths caused by a given disease
 CARBOHYDRATE STRUCTURE DNA AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
AND FUNCTION
NH2 Centromeres are located in the middle of
Carbohydrate Classification chromosomes and hold sister chromatids together
Carbohydrates are organized by their number of N until they are separated during anaphase in mitosis.
carbon atoms and functional groups. high-energy N They also contain a high GC-content.
bonds
3-carbon sugars are trioses, 4-carbon sugars DNA Replication
are tetroses, and so on. N N
Sugars with aldehydes as their most oxidized O O O Step in Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
group are aldoses; sugars with ketones as Replication Cells Cells (Nuclei)
–
their most oxidized group are ketoses. O P O P O P O CH2 O Origin of One per Multiple per
Sugars with the highest-numbered chiral carbon with O– O– O– replication chromosome chromosome
the –OH group on the right (in a Fischer projection)
are D-sugars; those with the –OH on the left are Unwinding of Helicase Helicase
L-sugars. D- and L-forms of the same sugar are
OH OH DNA double
enantiomers. ATP helix

Diastereomers differ at at least one—but not all—chiral Stabilization Single- Single-

carbons. Also include: DNA Structure of unwound stranded stranded
template DNA-binding DNA-binding
Epimers differ at exactly one chiral carbon. Nucleosides contain a five-carbon sugar bound to a
strands protein protein
Anomers are a subtype of epimers that differ nitrogenous base; nucleotides are nucleosides with
at the anomeric carbon. one to three phosphate groups added. Synthesis of Primase Primase
Nucleotides in DNA contain deoxyribose; in RNA, they RNA primers
Cyclic Sugar Molecules contain ribose. Synthesis of DNA DNA
Cyclization describes the ring formation of Nucleotides are abbreviated by letter: adenine (A), DNA polymerase III polymerases α
carbohydrates from their straight-chain forms. cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T), and uracil (U). and δ
When rings form, the anomeric carbon can take on Removal of RNA DNA RNase H
either an α- or β-conformation. Watson–Crick Model primers polymerase I (5'→3'
The anomeric carbon is the new chiral center formed The DNA backbone is composed of alternating (5'→3' exonuclease)
in ring closure; it was the carbon containing the sugar and phosphate groups, and is always exonuclease)
carbonyl in the straight-chain form. read 5' to 3'. Replacement of DNA DNA
α-anomers have the –OH on the anomeric There are two strands with antiparallel polarity, RNA with DNA polymerase I polymerase δ
carbon trans to the free –CH2OH group. wound into a double helix.
Joining of DNA ligase DNA ligase
β-anomers have the –OH on the anomeric Purines (A and G) always pair with pyrimidines
Okazaki
carbon cis to the free –CH2OH group. (C, U, and T). In DNA, A pairs with T (via two
fragments
During mutarotation, one anomeric form shifts hydrogen bonds) and C pairs with G (via three
hydrogen bonds). In RNA, A pairs with U (via Removal DNA DNA
to another, with the straight-chain form as an
two hydrogen bonds). of positive topoisomerase topoisomerase
intermediate.
Chargaff’s rules: purines and pyrimidines supercoils II (DNA gyrase) II (DNA gyrase)
are equal in number in a DNA molecule. The ahead of
Monosaccharides advancing
amount of A equals the amount of T, and the
CH2OH CHO CHO CHO
amount of C equals the amount of G. replication
C O H OH H OH HO H
DNA strands can be pulled apart (denatured) and forks
HO H HO H HO H HO H
H OH H OH HO H H OH
brought back together (reannealed). Synthesis of Not applicable Telomerase
H OH H OH H OH H OH telomeres
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH Eukaryotic Chromosome Organization
D-fructose D-glucose D-galactose D-mannose
DNA replication is semiconservative: one old parent
DNA is organized into 46 chromosomes in human cells. strand and one new daughter strand is incorporated
Monosaccharides are single carbohydrate units In eukaryotes, DNA is wound around histone proteins into each of the two new DNA molecules.
and can undergo three main reactions: oxidation– (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) to form nucleosomes, which leading strand
DNA polymerase III
reduction, esterification, and glycoside formation. may be stabilized by another histone protein (H1). 5’ on leading strand

3’
Glycoside formation is the basis for building complex DNA and its associated histones make up chromatin ssDNA-binding protein

carbohydrates and requires the anomeric carbon to in the nucleus. leading strand template parent DNA
helicase 3’
link to another sugar.
DNA polymerase III
Heterochromatin is dense, transcriptionally on lagging strand
Okazaki fragment 5’
Sugars with a –H replacing an –OH group are termed silent DNA. primase
5’
deoxy sugars. Euchromatin is less dense, transcriptionally 5’

active DNA. lagging strand template

Disaccharides with H1 without H1 DNA polymerase synthesizes new DNA strands,

Common disaccharides include sucrose (glucose-α- 10 nm
reading the template DNA 3' to 5' and synthesizing
30 nm
1,2-fructose), lactose (galactose-β-1,4-glucose), and the new strand 5' to 3'.
maltose (glucose-α-1,4-glucose). The leading strand requires only one primer
and can then be synthesized continuously.
Polysaccharides The lagging strand requires many primers
H2A
Cellulose: main structural component of plant H2B H3
and is synthesized in discrete sections called
cell walls; main source of fiber in the human H4 H1 H2A
Okazaki fragments.
expanded view of
diet H3 H2B
a nucleosome

Starches (amylose and amylopectin): main
energy storage forms for plants
Glycogen: a major energy storage form for
animals
expanded view H4 Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology
Recombinant DNA is DNA composed of nucleotides
from two different sources.
Telomeres are the ends of chromosomes. They
contain a high GC-content to prevent unraveling of DNA cloning introduces a fragment of DNA into a
the DNA. vector plasmid. A restriction enzyme (restriction
endonuclease) cuts both the plasmid and the fragment,
leaving them with sticky ends, which can bind.
Once replicated, the bacterial cells can be used to Transcription BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES
create a protein of interest, or can be lysed to allow DNA transcription
for isolation of the fragment of interest from the TATA
box ATG TGA
Membrane Transport
vector. 5'
–35 –10 coding region
3' Osmotic pressure, a colligative property, is the
DNA libraries are large collections of known DNA 3'
promoter
5'
pressure applied to a pure solvent to prevent
sequences. 5' untranslated
region (UTR)
3' untranslated
region (UTR)
osmosis and is related to the concentration of
Genomic libraries contain large fragments of
+1
transcription the solution.
transcription terminates
DNA, including both coding and noncoding Π = iMRT
mRNA GC-rich stem
regions of the genome. They cannot be used Shine–Dalgarno
AUG UGA and loop
Passive transport does not require ATP because the
coding region
to make recombinant proteins or for gene sequence
5' UUUUUU 3' molecule is moving down its concentration gradient
therapy. or from an area of higher concentration to an area of
5' UTR 3' UTR
cDNA libraries (expression libraries) contain translation lower concentration.
smaller fragments of DNA, and only include
Simple diffusion does not require a
the exons of genes expressed by the sample H2N–protein–COOH
transporter. Small, nonpolar molecules
tissue. They can be used to make recombinant
Steps:Figure I-3-4. Expression of a Prokaryotic Protein Coding Gene passively move from an area of high
proteins or for gene therapy.
Helicase and topoisomerase unwind DNA concentration to an area of low concentration
Hybridization is the joining of complementary base double helix. until equilibrium is achieved.
pair sequences. Osmosis describes the diffusion of water
RNA polymerase II binds to TATA box within
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an automated promoter region of gene (25 base pairs across a selectively permeable membrane.
process by which millions of copies of a DNA upstream from first transcribed base). Facilitated diffusion uses transport proteins
sequence can be created from a very small sample hnRNA synthesized from DNA template to move impermeable solutes across the cell
by hybridization. (antisense) strand. membrane.
DNA molecules can be separated by size using Posttranscriptional modifications: Active transport requires energy in the form of
agarose gel electrophoresis. ATP (primary) or an existing favorable ion gradient
7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap added
Southern blotting can be used to detect the (secondary). Secondary active transport can be
to 5' end
presence and quantity of various DNA strands in further classified as symport or antiport.
Polyadenosyl (poly-A) tail added to 3' end
a sample. After electrophoresis, the sample is
Splicing done by spliceosome; introns
transferred to a membrane that can be probed
removed and exons ligated together.
with single-stranded DNA molecules to look for a molecules
Alternative splicing combines different exons transport
sequence of interest. proteins
to acquire different gene products.
DNA sequencing uses dideoxyribonucleotides,
which terminate the DNA chain because they lack a
3' –OH group.
Translation
{ cell membrane

Occurs at the ribosome.

RNA AND THE GENETIC CODE concentration simple facilitated energy
gradient diffusion diffusion (ATP or ion gradient)

{
Central Dogma: DNA → RNA → proteins A U G C C G U A U G C U A U G C C G U A U G C U
U A C U A CG G C
passive transport active transport

The Genetic Code Endocytosis and exocytosis are methods of

Figure 1.5 Movement Across Memberances

Degenerate code allows multiple codons to encode Met P site A site Pro
engulfing material into cells or releasing material
Met
for the same amino acid. to the exterior of cells, both via the cell membrane.
} anticodon
Pinocytosis is the ingestion of liquid into the cell
G

Initiation: AUG
G

incoming tRNA
C

Termination: UAA, UGA, UAG from vesicles formed from the cell membrane and
Pr
o

phagocytosis is the ingestion of solid material.

Redundancy and wobble (third base in the Three stages: initiation, elongation, termination
codon) allow mutations to occur without
Posttranslational modifications:
affecting the protein.
Folding by chaperones CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
Point mutations can cause:
Formation of quaternary structure
Silent mutations, with no effect on protein Cleavage of proteins or signal sequences Glycolysis
synthesis Occurs in the cytoplasm of all cells, and does not
Covalent addition of other biomolecules
Nonsense (truncation) mutations, which (phosphorylation, carboxylation, glycosylation, require oxygen. Yields 2 ATP per glucose. Important
produce a premature stop codon prenylation) enzymes include:
Missense mutations, which produce a codon
Glucokinase: present in the pancreatic β-islet
that codes for a different amino acid
Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes cells as part of the glucose sensor and is
Frameshift mutations, which result from responsive to insulin in the liver
nucleotide addition or deletion and change Operons (Jacob–Monod model) are inducible or
repressible clusters of genes transcribed as a single Hexokinase: traps glucose
the reading frame of subsequent codons
mRNA. Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1): rate-limiting
RNA is structurally similar to DNA except: regulator promoter operator structural regulator promoter operator structural step
Substitution of a ribose sugar for deoxyribose Phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2): produces
Substitution of uracil for thymine RNA polymerase RNA polymerase
F2,6-BP, which activates PFK-1
Single-stranded instead of double-stranded R
binds
R
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase:
repressor
repressor
inducer I inducer—repressor
repressor—corepressor
complex binds to produces NADH
There are three major types of RNA in transcription: I complex cannot bind R C R C operator and represses
R R to operator—structural
genes are transcribed
enzyme synthesis
3-phosphoglycerate kinase and
Messenger RNA (mRNA): carries the message
repressor cannot
bind to operator
by itself
corepressor (end product)
pyruvate kinase: perform substrate-level
from DNA in the nucleus via transcription of inducible system repressible system
phosphorylation
the gene; travels into the cytoplasm to be
translated
Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes Glucokinase/hexokinase, PFK-1, and pyruvate kinase
Transcription factors search for promoter and catalyze irreversible reactions.
Transfer RNA (tRNA): brings in amino acids;
recognizes the codon on the mRNA using its enhancer regions in the DNA. The NADH produced in glycolysis is oxidized
anticodon Promoters are within 25 base pairs of the aerobically by the mitochondrial electron transport
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): makes up much of the transcription start site. chain and anaerobically by cytoplasmic lactate
ribosome; enzymatically active Enhancers are more than 25 base pairs away dehydrogenase.
from the transcription start site.
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Each NADH: 2.5 ATP; 10 NADH form 25 ATP LIPID AND AMINO ACID METABOLISM
Converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA. Stimulated by Each FADH2: 1.5 ATP; 2 FADH2 form 3 ATP
insulin and inhibited by acetyl-CoA. GTP are converted to ATP. Lipid Transport
2 ATP from glycolysis + 2 ATP (GTP) from citric Lipids are transported via chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL,
The Citric Acid Cycle acid cycle + 25 ATP from NADH + 3 ATP from LDL, and HDL.
Takes place in mitochondrial matrix. Main purpose FADH2 = 32 ATP per molecule of glucose
is to oxidize acetyl-CoA to CO2 and generate high- (optimal). 30–32 ATP per molecule of glucose TGL TGL Adipose

energy electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) and GTP. is the commonly accepted range for energy CE CE
Chylomicron Chylomicron

Glucose
yield Intestine
(epithelium)
(lymph) (blood)
Lipoprotein
Pyruvate Amino acids lipase

PDH Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis Cholesterol TGL

Fatty acids
Glycerol 3-P
CE
Fatty acids
Acetyl-CoA Ketones Glycogenesis (glycogen synthesis) is the building of Chylomicron
remnant
Liver
Alcohol
glycogen using two main enzymes: TGL
Triacylglycerol
Triacylglycerol
Citrate chol
synthase Glycogen synthase, which creates α-1,4 Glucose VLDL
Glycerol 3-P
(blood)
Oxaloacetate Citrate glycosidic links between glucose molecules. It Lipoprotein
lipase

Malate
cis-Aconitase is activated by insulin in the liver and muscles. TGL
Fatty acids
NADH
Branching enzyme, which moves a block of
dehydrogenase chol

+
Isocitrate IDL
NAD
NAD
+
Isocitrate oligoglucose from one chain and connects it
Malate
dehydrogenase as a branch using an α-1,6 glycosidic link. Cholesterol Metabolism
NADH CO2
Fumarase
α-Ketoglutarate Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen using Cholesterol may be obtained through dietary
Fumarate NAD
+
α-Ketoglutarate two main enzymes: sources or through synthesis in the liver.
dehydrogenase
FADH2
NADH The key enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis is
Succinate
CO2 Glycogen phosphorylase, which removes
dehydrogenase FAD
HMG-CoA reductase.
(complex II)
Succinate
GTP GDP + Pi Succinyl-CoA
single glucose 1-phosphate molecules by
breaking α-1,4 glycosidic links. In the liver, it Palmitic acid, the only fatty acid that humans can
Succinyl-CoA
synthetase is activated by glucagon to prevent low blood synthesize, is produced in the cytoplasm from
sugar. In exercising skeletal muscle, it is acetyl-CoA transported out of the mitochondria.
The Electron Transport Chain
Figure I-13-1. Citric Acid Cycle activated by epinephrine and AMP to provide Fatty acid oxidation occurs in the mitochondria,
glucose for the muscle itself. following transport by the carnitine shuttle, via
Takes place on the matrix-facing surface of the inner
Debranching enzyme, which moves a block of β-oxidation.
mitochondrial membrane.
oligoglucose from one branch and connects it
NADH donates electrons to the chain, which are Ketone bodies form (ketogenesis) during a
to the chain using an α-1,4 glycosidic link.
passed from one complex to the next. Reduction prolonged starvation state due to excess acetyl-CoA
potentials increase down the chain, until the Gluconeogenesis in the liver. Ketolysis regenerates acetyl-CoA for use
electrons end up on oxygen, which has the highest as an energy source in peripheral tissues.
Occurs in both the cytoplasm and mitochondria,
reduction potential. predominantly in the liver. Most of gluconeogenesis
Step 1
Cyt c
Step 2
Cyt c
is just the reverse of glycolysis, using the same Protein Catabolism
2H
+
(ox) 2 H+ (ox)
4 × Cyt c 2 H+
(red)

Q
1 e–
Cyt c
(red)
Q
1 e–
Cyt c
(red) 4 × Cyt
(ox)
c 4 e–
Cu enzymes. Protein digestion occurs primarily in the small
Fe-S

intestine. Carbon skeletons of amino acids are used

centers Q Q QH2 QH2 Fe
Fe

The three irreversible steps of glycolysis must be

QH2 Fe-S QH2 Q QH2
centers 1 e– 1 e– Fe
Heme Q Q +
4 H + O2 Cu

2 e– 4H
+
2H
+ 2H
+
2 H+ 2 H2O 2 H
+
bypassed by different enzymes: for energy, either through gluconeogenesis or ketone
FMN FAD FADH2
body formation. Amino groups are fed into the urea
+
NADH NAD + H
+

Succinate Fumarate + 2 H+
Pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase cycle for excretion.
Complex I Complex II Complex III Complex IV
bypass pyruvate kinase
NADH cannot cross the inner mitochondrial Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase bypasses
membrane, so must use one of two shuttle phosphofructokinase-1 Glycogen
Insulin Glucagon
synthesis
mechanisms to transfer its electrons to energy Glucose-6-phosphatase bypasses hexokinase/
Cellular glucose Glycogenolysis
carriers in the mitochondrial matrix: the glycerol glucokinase Lipid uptake
Stimulates
Inhibits
synthesis
3-phosphate shuttle or the malate–aspartate Plasma glucose
Lipolysis

shuttle. The Pentose Phosphate Pathway Protein

Protein Glucose catabolism
synthesis utilization
Oxidative Phosphorylation Occurs in the cytoplasm of most cells, generating Ureagenesis

NADPH and sugars for biosynthesis. Rate-limiting Glucose efflux Gluconeogenesis

The proton-motive force is the electrochemical gradient Ketogenesis
enzyme is glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase,
generated by the electron transport chain across the
which is activated by NADP+ and inhibited by NADPH
inner mitochondrial membrane. The intermembrane
space has a higher concentration of protons than the
and insulin. Tissue-Specific Metabolism
matrix; this gradient stores energy, which can be used Liver: maintains blood glucose through
to form ATP via chemiosmotic coupling. BIOENERGETICS AND REGULATION OF glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
ATP synthase is the enzyme responsible for generating METABOLISM Processes lipids, cholesterol, bile, urea, and
toxins.
ATP from ADP and an inorganic phosphate (Pi ).
Metabolic States Adipose: stores and releases lipids
Summary of the energy yield of the various
In the postprandial/well-fed (absorptive) Resting muscle: conserves carbohydrates as
carbohydrate metabolism processes:
state, insulin secretion is high and anabolic glycogen and uses free fatty acids for fuel
Glycolysis: 2 NADH and 2 ATP metabolism prevails. Active muscle: may use anaerobic
Pyruvate dehydrogenase: 1 NADH (2 NADH In the postabsorptive (fasting) state, insulin metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, direct
per molecule of glucose because each glucose secretion decreases while glucagon and phosphorylation (creatine phosphate), or fatty
forms two molecules of pyruvate) catecholamine secretion increases. acid oxidation
Citric acid cycle: 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP Prolonged fasting (starvation) dramatically Cardiac muscle: uses fatty acid oxidation
(6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 GTP per molecule increases glucagon and catecholamine Brain: uses glucose except in prolonged
of glucose) secretion. Most tissues rely on fatty acids. starvation, when it can use ketolysis
 Ectoderm Nervous system, epidermis, lens
“Attract”oderm of eye, inner ear
Endoderm ENDOCRINE
Lining of digestive tract, lungs, SYSTEM
“Endernal” organs liver and pancreas
Muscles, skeleton, circulatory
Four Stages of Menstrual Cycle:
Mesoderm
peptides steroids
“Means”oderm system, gonads, kidney Follicular:
Ovulation:
Hormone Source Action Luteal:
Follicle-stimulating (FSH) Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis Menstruation:
Luteinizing (LH) Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis
day 14 ruptures-egg released
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete
Hypothalamus LH surge follicle
(ovulation)
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) glucocorticoids
day 0 LH
no pregnancy corpus luteum atrophies
GnRH corpus luteum
pr e (inhibition stops, cycle
Anterior pituitary Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid gn
an
cy starts anew)
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH) Ectoderm
hormones Nervous system, epidermis, lens pituitary
pr ogesterone zygote

Stimulates milk production andofsecretion

“Attract”oderm eye, inner ear
early in cycle
Prolactin (prevents multiple
FSH
later in
cycle
maintains
uterine wall hCG
Endoderm Lining
Inhibits the perception of pain in of digestive tract, lungs,
the brain
egg development)
Endorphins (LH analog)

Growth hormone Stimulates bone

“Endernal” liver and pancreas
and muscle growth/lipolysis
organs ovary

Stimulates uterine contractionsMuscles,

Mesoderm skeleton, circulatory
during labor,
Oxytocin Hypothalamus; follicle begins to mature
milk secretion during lactation system, gonads, kidney
“Means”oderm
stored in
Antidiuretic (ADH, estrogen
posterior pituitary Stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys
vasopressin)
Hormone Source Action
Thyroid hormones (T3, T4) Stimulates metabolic activity
uterus

Thyroid
Follicle-stimulating (FSH) Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
Calcitonin Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level
Parathyroid hormone Luteinizing (LH) Increases blood calcium level
Parathyroid Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis vascularization
of uterine wall

Increases blood glucose level and Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete
decreases
Glucocorticoids Adrenocorticotropicprotein
(ACTH)
Adrenal cortex synthesis; anti-inflammatory glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids Increases waterAnterior
reabsorption in kidneys
pituitary Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH) hormones
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla Increases blood glucose level and heart rate
Prolactin Stimulates milk production and secretion
Stimulates conversion of glycogen toInhibits glucosethe in perception of pain in the brain
Glucagon Endorphins
the liver; increases blood glucose
Insulin Pancreas
Growth hormone Lowers blood glucose; increases glycogen Stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis
stores
Somatostatin Oxytocin Supresses secretion of glucagon andStimulates
Hypothalamus; insulin uterine contractions during labor,
Testosterone Testes Maintains male secondary milk secretion during lactation
stored insexual characteristics
Estrogen Antidiuretic (ADH, Maintains female secondary sexual characteristics
Ovary/Placenta posterior pituitary Stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys
Progesterone vasopressin) Promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium
Melatonin Thyroid
Pineal hormones (T ,
RegulatesT ) sleep–wake cycles Stimulates metabolic activity
3 4 Thyroid
Atrial natriuretic peptide Calcitonin
Heart Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level
Thymosin Parathyroid
Thymus hormone Parathyroid
Stimulates T-cell development Increases blood calcium level
Increases blood glucose level and decreases
Glucocorticoids
Adrenal cortex protein synthesis; anti-inflammatory
Mineralocorticoids ACTION Increases water reabsorption in kidneys MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
I NERVOUS SYSTEM
Rest All gates POTENTIAL
closed
II Depolarization Na+ gates open
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla Increases blood glucose level and heart rate
III Repolarization Na gates inactivate
+
Sarcomere
K+ gates open Stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose in
cell body Glucagon
Schwann cells IV Hyperpolarization All gates closedPancreas the liver; increases blood glucose
nodes of
Ranvier axon Insulin Lowers blood glucose; increases glycogen stores
nerve
myelin
sheathBlood Somatostatin Supresses secretion of glucagon and insulin
RBC Antibodies
terminals Donates Receives
Testosterone Testes Maintains male secondary sexual characteristics
type antigen to: From:
Estrogen Maintains female secondary sexual characteristics
dendrites A A anti-B A, AB Ovary/Placenta
A, O
Progesterone Promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium
B B anti-A
Melatonin B, AB B, O
Pineal Regulates sleep–wake cycles
AB A, B Atrial natriuretic
None peptideAB only All
Heart Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
O None Thymosin anti-A, B All O only
Thymus Stimulates T-cell development
Resting Potential: Contraction
+ + Initiation:
Enzyme Production Site Function Site I Hydrolysis
Rest Reaction All gates closed
II Depolarization Na+ gates open
Salivary amylase
Action Potential:
(ptyalin)
Salivary glands Mouth III Repolarization
Starch → maltose Na+ gates inactivate
K+ gates open
Pancreatic amylase Pancreas Small intestine IV Starch → maltose
Hyperpolarization All gates closed Sarcomere shortening:
Maltase Intestinal glands Small intestine Maltose → 2 glucoses 2+
Sucrase Intestinal glands Small intestine Sucrose → glucose, fructose 2+
Blood RBC Antibodies Donates Receives
Lactase Intestinal glands Small intestine Lactose → glucose, galactose
Impulse Propagation: type antigen to: From:
+ A A anti-B axon A, AB A, O
Enzyme Production Site Function SiteB B Function
anti-A B, AB B, O
+ Gastric glands
Pepsin Stomach AB HydrolyzesA, B specific None
peptide bonds AB only All
(chief cells)
O None anti-A, B All O only
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Trypsin
actin filament
troponin
Converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin tropomyosin
The Synapse:
Chymotrypsin Pancreas Enzyme Production
Hydrolyzes Site peptide
specific
action Function
bonds Site Hydrolysis Reaction
2+ potential
Carboxypeptidases Small
Salivary amylase – – + + + + + +
2+ Salivary glands
Hydrolyzes Mouth
terminal peptide bond at C-terminus Starch → maltose
A and B (ptyalin) Intestine + + – – – – – – + Ca2+ calcium
Na+
Aminopeptidase Pancreatic amylase Pancreas
Hydrolyzes
+ terminal
+ Small
peptide
– intestine
– bond– at N-terminus
– – Starch
– → maltose myosin binding site

Dipeptidases Maltase
Intestinal glands Intestinal
– glands
Hydrolyzes pairs + Small
– of amino acids
+ intestine
+ + + Maltose
+ → 2 glucoses
synapticEnteropeptidase
cleft Sucrase Intestinaltrypsinogen
Converts glands to trypsin
Small intestine Sucrose → glucose, fructose
Lactase Intestinal glands Small intestine Lactose → glucose, galactose
action Relaxation:
Table 1 K potential
+

Enzyme Production+ Site

+ Function
– – Site
+ + + + Function
Surface Colony Growth Starch
Gastric glands
– Digestion
– + + – – – –
Pepsin Stomach Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
A B C (chiefAcells)
– B– C+ Na + –
+
– – –
Strain 1 + + + – + – + –– – + Hydrolyzes
+ + specific peptide bonds
+
Strain 2 +Trypsin + – + K
+ – + Bone Formation and Remodeling
Converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin
key: + = growth; – = no growth Osteoblast:
Chymotrypsin Pancreas Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
action
Small Osteoclast:
Table 2
Carboxypeptidases potential
K +

+ + +Intestine
+ – Hydrolyzes
– – terminal
– peptide bond at C-terminus
A and B Reformation:
Surface Colony Growth
Aminopeptidase Deep-Agar –
Colony
– –
Growth
– + + +
Hydrolyzes
Na+
+
terminal peptide bond at N-terminus
– – – – + + + +
Strain 1 Dipeptidases
+ Intestinal glands
+ –+ + + – Hydrolyzes
– – pairs
– of amino acids Degradation (resorption):
Enteropeptidase K +
Converts trypsinogen to trypsin
Strain 2 + +
key: + = growth; – = no growth
 CIRCULATION RESPIRATION IMMUNE SYSTEM
Circulatory Pathway Through Heart Gas Exchange
pulmonary veins

L. pulmonary artery trachea Humoral Immunity (Specific Defense)

aorta
L. atrium
alveoli bronchus B-lymphocytes
mitral valve
R. pulmonary artery memory cells plasma cells
L. ventricle IgG
IgA IgM IgD IgE
Nervous system, epidermis, lens
superior vena cava
R. atrium Ectoderm
inferior vena cava
septum Ectoderm of eye, inner
“Attract”oderm bronchioleNervous ear epidermis, lens
system,
tricuspid Valve R. ventricle
“Attract”oderm
Endoderm of eye,ofinner
Lining ear tract, lungs,
digestive
liver and Active imumunity:
pancreas
Endoderm
“Endernal” organs Lining of digestive tract, lungs,
→ →
Mesodermorgans
“Endernal” liver and
Muscles, pancreas
skeleton, circulatory
→ → → O diaphragm Passive immunity:
Mesoderm
“Means”oderm system, gonads,
Muscles, kidney
skeleton, circulatory
→ → → alveoli
“Means”oderm system, gonads, kidney
→
Hormone Source Action
Three portal systems: Follicle-stimulating
Hormone (FSH) Source Stimulates follicle maturation;
Action spermatogenesis
Luteinizing (LH) (FSH)
Follicle-stimulating Stimulates ovulation;
follicle
Cell-Mediated testosterone
maturation;
Immunity synthesis
spermatogenesis
(Specific Defense)
Luteinizing (LH) adrenal cortex
Stimulates ovulation; to makesynthesis
testosterone and secrete
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) glucocorticoids
Stimulates adrenal cortex T-lymphocytes
to make and secrete
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) Anterior pituitary Stimulates theT-cells
glucocorticoids thyroid to produce thyroid
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH) cytotoxic
Anterior pituitary hormones
Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
Fetal Circulation Thyroid-stimulating
Prolactin (TSH) Stimulates milk production and secretion
hormones suppressor T-cells
Fetal Respiration
Endorphins
Prolactin Inhibits theT-cells
Stimulates perception
milk of pain
production andinsecretion
the brain
Foramen ovale: helper
Growth hormone
Endorphins Stimulates
Inhibits the bone and muscle
perception of paingrowth/lipolysis
in the brain
EctodermDuctus arteriosus:Nervous system, epidermis, lens
Growth uterine
Stimulates bone andcontractions during labor,
muscle growth/lipolysis
“Attract”oderm of eye, inner ear Oxytocinhormone Hypothalamus;
milk secretion
Stimulates during
uterine lactation during labor,
contractions
Oxytocin stored in
Hypothalamus;
Endoderm Lining of digestive tract, lungs, Antidiuretic (ADH, milk secretion during lactation in kidneys
Ductus venosus: liver and pancreas posterior
storedpituitary
in Stimulates water reabsorption
memory cells
“Endernal” organs vasopressin)(ADH,
Antidiuretic
Thyroid hormones (T3, T4) posterior pituitary Stimulates
Stimulates water reabsorption
metabolic activity in kidneys
Mesoderm Muscles, skeleton, circulatory vasopressin) Thyroid
DIGESTION
Calcitonin
Thyroid hormones (T3, T4) Nonspecific
Decreases (tones Immune
down) Response
blood calcium
Stimulates metabolic activity level
“Means”oderm system, gonads, kidney Parathyroid hormone Thyroid
Parathyroid Increases blood
Calcitonin Decreases (tonescalcium
down) level
blood calcium level
Parathyroid hormone Parathyroid Increases blood
Increases blood calcium
glucose level
level and decreases
Glucocorticoids
Source
HormoneBlood Components Action Adrenal cortex protein synthesis;
Increases anti-inflammatory
blood glucose level and decreases
timulating (FSH) Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids Increases water reabsorption in kidneys
Adrenal cortex protein synthesis; anti-inflammatory
Plasma: Mineralocorticoids Increases
ng (LH) Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis Epinephrine, Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla Increases water
blood reabsorption
glucose levelinandkidneys
heart rate
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete Epinephrine, Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla Lymphatic
Increases blood System
glucose
orticotropic (ACTH) glucocorticoids Stimulates conversion of level and heart
glycogen rate in
to glucose
Erythrocytes (red blood cells): Glucagon
Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid the liver;
Stimulates increases
conversion blood
of glucose
glycogen to glucose in
Anterior pituitary oral cavity Glucagon
Insulin pharynx Pancreas
stimulating (TSH) hormones 2 2 Lowers
the liver;blood glucose;
increases increases
blood glucoseglycogen stores
tongueInsulin
Somatostatin Pancreas Supresses secretion
Stimulates milk production and secretion Lowers blood glucose;ofincreases
glucagon glycogen
and insulinstores
Testosterone trachea
Somatostatin Testes Maintains male
Supresses secondary
secretion sexualand
of glucagon characteristics
insulin
ns Inhibits the perception of pain in the brain Estrogen Maintains male female secondary lymph
sexualcharacteristics
characteristics
Testosterone Testes
Ovary/Placenta Maintains secondary sexual
hormone 100Stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis Progesterone
Estrogen
esophagus
Promotes female
Maintains lacteals
growth/maintenance
secondary of endometrium
sexual characteristics
Stimulates uterine contractions during labor, Melatonin Ovary/Placenta
Pineal Regulatesgrowth/maintenance
sleep–wake cycles of endometrium
Hypothalamus; Progesterone Promotes
% saturation of hemoglobin

milk secretion during lactation

80
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Melatonin Heart
Pineal Involved in
Regulates osmoregulation
sleep–wake
Lymph nodes cycles and vasodilation
↑ stored in
tic (ADH, Thymosin
Atrial natriuretic peptide Thymus
Heart Stimulates
Involved in T-cell development
osmoregulation and vasodilation
posterior pituitary 60Stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys
ssin) Bohr Effect Thymosin Thymus Stimulates T-cell development
hormones (T3, T4) Stimulates metabolic activity stomach
Thyroid
40

n ↓ ↑ Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level

35
liver I Rest All gates closed
oid hormone 2
Parathyroid Increases blood calcium level
20
25

gallbladder III Depolarization

pancreas
Rest Lipid
Na+gates
All Digestion
gates open
closed
O2 Increases blood glucose level
curve shifts to the RIGHT
and decreases III
IIcolon Repolarization
Depolarization Na++ gates
Na gates open
inactivate
ticoids pH shifts DOWN
K gates
protein20synthesis; 60anti-inflammatory gatesopen
++
Adrenal cortex 0
40 80 100 duodenum III Repolarization Na inactivate
corticoids + Increases water reabsorption in kidneys
PO (mmHg)
2 IV Hyperpolarization
small intestine
KAll+ gates
gates open
closed
ine, Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla ↑
Increases blood ↑ H+level and heart rate
glucose IV Hyperpolarization All gates closed
2 Blood RBC Antibodies Donates Receives
Stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose in type rectumRBC
Blood antigen Antibodies to:
Donates From:
Receives
n
$ H2 $ H+the liver; increases blood glucose anus
A
type A
antigen anti-B A, AB
to: A, O
From:
2 2Pancreas Lowers blood 3glucose; increases glycogen stores
AB AB anti-A
anti-B B, AB
A, AB B, O
A, O
tatin Leukocytes (white blood cells): Supresses secretion of glucagon and insulin
rone Testes Maintains male secondary sexual characteristics BAB BA, B None
anti-A ABAB
B, only AllO
B,
O
AB None
A, B anti-A, B
None All only
AB O only
All
Platelets: Maintains female secondary sexual characteristics
Ovary/Placenta Carbohydrate Digestion
O None anti-A, B All O only
rone Promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium
n Pineal Regulates sleep–wake cycles Enzyme Production Site Function Site Hydrolysis Reaction
riuretic peptide Heart Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
n Thymus Stimulates T-cell development Enzyme
Salivary amylase Production Site Function Site Hydrolysis Reaction
Salivary glands Mouth Starch → maltose
(ptyalin) amylase
Salivary
Pancreatic amylase Salivary
Pancreasglands Mouth
Small intestine Starch →
Starch → maltose
maltose
(ptyalin)
I Rest All gates closed Maltase amylase
Pancreatic Intestinal glands
Pancreas Small intestine Maltose →maltose
2 glucoses
Starch →
II Depolarization Na+ gates open Sucrase Sucrose→ →2glucose,
Maltase Intestinal glands Small intestine Maltose glucosesfructose
Blood TypingIII Repolarization Na +
gates inactivate
Lactase
Sucrase Intestinal glands Small intestine Lactose → glucose,
Sucrose glucose,galactose
fructose
K+ gates open
IV Hyperpolarization All gates closed Lactase Intestinal glands Small intestine Lactose → glucose, galactose
Protein DigestionProduction Site Function Site
Enzyme Function
Gastric glands
Blood RBC Antibodies Donates Receives PepsiEnzyme
n Production Site Function
StomachSite Hydrolyzes specificFunction peptide bonds
(chief cells)
Gastric glands
type antigen to: From: Pepsin Stomach Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
(chief cells) Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
A A anti-B A, AB A, O Trypsin
Converts chymotrypsinogen
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bondsto chymotrypsin
B B anti-A B, AB B, O Trypsin
AB A, B None AB only All Chymotrypsin Pancreas Converts
Hydrolyzes chymotrypsinogen
specific peptide to chymotrypsin
bonds
O None anti-A, B All O only Chymotrypsin
Carboxypeptidases Pancreas Small Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Intestine
Small Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at C-terminus
+ A and B
Carboxypeptidases
Aminopeptidase Intestine Hydrolyzes
Hydrolyzes terminal
terminal peptide
peptide bond
bond atat C-terminus
N-terminus
A and B
Production Site Function Site Hydrolysis Reaction Dipeptidases
Aminopeptidase Intestinal glands pairs of amino
Hydrolyzes terminal peptideacids
bond at N-terminus
amylase Enteropeptidase
Dipeptidases Intestinal glands Converts trypsinogen
Hydrolyzes pairs of aminoto trypsin
acids
Salivary glands Mouth Starch → maltose
Enteropeptidase Converts trypsinogen to trypsin
c amylase Pancreas Small intestine Starch → maltose
Intestinal glands Small intestine
Table 1
Maltose → 2 glucoses
 “Endernal” organs liver and pancreas Endoderm Lining of digestive tract, lungs,
Mesoderm Muscles, skeleton, circulatory “Endernal” organs liver and pancreas
“Means”oderm system, gonads, kidney Mesoderm Muscles, skeleton, circulatory
“Means”oderm system, gonads, kidney
CLASSICAL GENETICS MOLECULAR GENETICS GENETICS OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Hormone Source Action
Law of segregation: Hormone Source plasmids Action
Nucleic
Follicle-stimulating (FSH) Acids Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
Follicle-stimulating (FSH) Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
Luteinizing (LH) Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis
Luteinizing (LH) Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete episomes
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) glucocorticoids Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) glucocorticoids
Transformation
Anterior pituitary Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid Anterior pituitary Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH) Thyroid-stimulating (TSH) hormones
hormones
Prolactin Stimulates milk production andProlactin
secretion Stimulates milk production and secretion
Endorphins
Inhibits the perception of pain in the brain Inhibits the perception of pain in the brain
Law of independent assortment: Endorphins
Stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis
Growth hormone Stimulates bone and muscleGrowth hormone
growth/lipolysis
Stimulates uterine contractions during labor,
Oxytocin Hypothalamus;
Oxytocin Hypothalamus; ≡Stimulates uterine contractions during labor, stored in
milk secretion during lactation
milk secretion during lactation
Antidiuretic (ADH,
stored in posterior pituitary Stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys
Antidiuretic (ADH, vasopressin) Conjugation
posterior pituitary Stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys
vasopressin) Thyroid hormones (T3, T4) Stimulates metabolic activity
Thyroid
Thyroid hormones (T3, T4) Stimulates metabolic activityCalcitonin Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level
Thyroid Parathyroid
Calcitonin Decreases (tones down) blood calciumhormone
level Parathyroid Increases blood calcium level
Statistical Calculations Increases blood glucose level and decreases
Parathyroid hormone Parathyroid Increases blood calcium level Glucocorticoids
Adrenal cortex protein synthesis; anti-inflammatory
Glucocorticoids Increases blood glucose level and decreases
Mineralocorticoids Increases water reabsorption in kidneys
Adrenal cortex protein synthesis; anti-inflammatory
Mineralocorticoids Increases water reabsorptionEpinephrine,
in kidneysNorepinephrine Adrenal medulla Increases blood glucose level and heart rate
product sex piliof glycogen to glucose in
Stimulates conversion
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla Increases blood glucose level and heart rate
Glucagon
the liver; increases blood glucose
Insulin to glucose in Pancreas
Stimulates conversion of glycogen Lowers blood glucose; increases sexglycogen store
Glucagon Transcriptional Regulation
the (Prokaryotes) Somatostatin
liver; increases blood glucose factors
Supresses secretion of glucagon and insulin
sum Insulin Pancreas Testosterone Testes Maintains male secondary sexual characteristic
operon: Lowers blood glucose; increases glycogen stores
Estrogen Maintains female secondary sexual characterist
Somatostatin Supresses secretion of glucagon and insulin Transduction
Ovary/Placenta
Progesterone Promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium
Testosterone Testes Maintains male secondary sexual characteristics
Melatonin Pineal Regulates sleep–wake cycles
Estrogen Maintains female secondaryAtrial
sexual characteristics
natriuretic peptide Heart Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
Genetic Mapping Ovary/Placenta
Progesterone Promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium
Thymosin Thymus Stimulates T-cell development
Melatonin Pineal Regulates sleep–wake cycles
Atrial natriuretic peptide Heart Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
Thymosin Thymus Stimulates T-cell development I Rest All gates closed
II Depolarization Na+ gates open
III Repolarization Na+ gates inactivate
K+ gates open
I Rest All gates closed
IV Hyperpolarization All gates closed
X Y
II
Mutations Depolarization Na+ gates open
III Repolarization Na+ gates inactivate
Blood RBC Antibodies Donates Receives
Point: K+ gates open
8
type bacterium antigen to: From:
IV Hyperpolarization All gates closed
A A anti-B A, AB A, O
genome
release of prophage

Z X Y Z
B
bacteriophage
lysis of B anti-A B, AB B, O integrated prophage
Blood RBC Antibodies Donates Receives release of AB
bacterial cell,
A, B None AB only All replicates
Frameshift:
with
8 bacterial cell
12 12 type antigen to: From: viral progenyO None anti-A,
viral genome B
enters bacterium
All O only
A A anti-B A, AB A, O lytic cycle lysogenic cycle
B B anti-A B, AB B, O
Enzyme Production Site Function Site Hydrolysis Reaction
X Y Z
AB
Viruses A, B None AB only All may enter
prophage integrates

8 4 O None anti-A, B All O only Salivary amylase Salivary glands

lysogenic
cycleMouth
may enter
Starch → maltose
(ptyalin) progeny assembly replication of
lytic cycle

12 viral chromosome
Pancreatic amylase Pancreas Small intestineprophage Starch → maltose
Patterns of Enzyme Production Site Function Site
Maltase
Hydrolysis Reaction
Intestinal glands Small intestine Maltose → 2 glucoses
Sucrase Intestinal glands Small intestine Sucrose → glucose, fructose
Inheritance Salivary amylase Lactase Intestinal glands Small intestine Lactose → glucose, galactose
Salivary glands Mouth Starch → maltose
(ptyalin)
Pancreatic amylase Pancreas Small intestine Starch → maltose
Enzyme Production Site Function Site Function
Maltase Intestinal glands Small intestine DATA
Maltose →PepsinANALYSISGastric glands
2 glucoses Stomach Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
(chief cells)
Sucrase Intestinal glands Small intestine Sucrose → glucose, fructose
Experiment 2 Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Lactase Intestinal glands Small intestine Lactose →Trypsin
glucose, galactose
Converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotryps
Chymotrypsin Pancreas Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Enzyme Production Site Function Site Function Small
Gastric glands Carboxypeptidases
Pepsin Stomach Hydrolyzes specific peptide Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at C-term
EVOLUTION (chief cells) A and bonds
B Intestine
Experiment 1 Aminopeptidase Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at N-term
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Trypsin Dipeptidases Intestinal glands Hydrolyzes pairs of amino acids
Converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin
Enteropeptidase Converts trypsinogen to trypsin
Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium: Pancreas
Chymotrypsin Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Carboxypeptidases Small Table 1
Intestine Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at C-terminus
A and B Surface Colony Growth Starch Digestion
Aminopeptidase Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at N-terminus A B C A B C
p q p2 pq q2 Dipeptidases Intestinal glands Hydrolyzes pairs of amino acids Strain 1 + + + – – –
Enteropeptidase Converts trypsinogen to trypsin Strain 2 + + – + + –
p key: + = growth; – = no growth

q Table 1 Table 2
p2 Surface Colony Growth Starch Digestion Surface Colony Growth Deep-Agar Colony Growth
A B C A B C
2pq Strain 1 + –
Strain 1 + + + – – –
q2 Strain 2 + + – + + – Strain 2 + +
key: + = growth; – = no growth key: + = growth; – = no growth

Table 2
Surface Colony Growth Deep-Agar Colony Growth
Experiment 1 and Table 1 Two strains Experiment 2 and Table 2
identical incubation Strain
3 plates with different starch 1
agars. + – separately within the agar
Strain 2 + +
key: + = growth; – = no growth
can’t

can’t and
 Regions of
Geometric Arrangement
Angle between
KINETICS & EQUILIBRIUM
Example of Electron Pairs around Shape
Electron Density Electron Pairs
the Central Atom
Experimental determination of rate law: The values of k,
x, and y in the rate law equation (rate = k[A]x[B]y) must be Eauncatalyzed

determined experimentally for a given reaction at a given uncatalyzed

temperature. The rate is usually measured as a function of

free energy
the initial concentrations of the reactants, A and B. Eacatalyzed

catalyzed
Efficiency of Reactions

reaction coordinate

Law of Mass Action

Complex Ion (Coordination Compound)
A Lewis acid–base adduct with a cation bonded
to at least one electron pair donor (including
water). Donor molecules are called ligands and use
coordinate covalent bonds. The central cation can
be bonded to the same ligand multiple times in a
process called chelation.
Intermolecular Forces
1. Hydrogen bonding: The partial positive charge
of the hydrogen atom interacts with the partial
negative charge located on the electronegative
atoms (F, O, N) of nearby molecules.
δ+
δ+ δ–
δ+
2. Dipole–dipole interactions: Polar molecules
orient themselves such that the positive region
of one molecule is close to the negative region
of another molecule.
δ+ H Cl δ–
δ+ H Cl
3. Dispersion forces: The bonding electrons in
covalent bonds may appear to be equally
shared between two atoms, but at any
particular point in time they will be located
randomly throughout the orbital. This permits
unequal sharing of electrons, causing transient
polarization and counterpolarization of the
electron clouds of neighboring molecules,
inducing the formation of more dipoles.
symmetrical
distribution
electron
+ –
δ δ
nucleus
δ+ δ– δ+
free energy
Eaforward
H2 + Cl2
ΔG
reaction coordinate
COMPOUNDS & STOICHIOMETRY
A mole is the amount of a substance that contains
the same number of particles that are found in a
12.000 g sample of carbon-12.
The molecular or formula weight is measured in amu
per molecule (or formula unit). The molar mass is
measured in grams per mole.
Combustion reactions: A fuel, such as a hydrocarbon,
is reacted with an oxidant, such as oxygen, to
produce an oxide and water.
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
Combination reactions: Two or more reactants form
one product.
S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)
Decomposition reactions: A compound breaks down
into two or more substances, usually as a result of
heating or electrolysis.
2 HgO (s) → 2 Hg (l) + O2 (g)
δ–
Single-displacement reactions: An atom (or ion) of
δ+
one compound is replaced by an atom of another
element.
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → Cu (s) + ZnSO4 (aq)
Double-displacement reactions: Also called
metathesis reactions; elements from two different
compounds displace each other to form two new
compounds.
CaCl2 (aq) + 2 AgNO3 (aq) → Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 AgCl (s)
Net ionic equations: These types of equations
δ+ H Cl δ– are written showing only the species that actually
participate in the reaction. Consider the following
equation:
δ– Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) + SO24– (aq) →
Cu (s) + Zn2+ (aq) + SO24– (aq)
The spectator ion (SO24–) does not take part in the
overall reaction, but simply remains in solution
throughout. The net ionic equation would be:
Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Cu (s) + Zn2+ (aq)
Neutralization reactions: These are a specific type
of double-displacement reactions that occur when
an acid reacts with a base to produce a solution of a
salt (and, usually, water):
asymmetrical HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
distribution
Factors affecting reaction rates: reactant
concentrations, temperature, medium, catalysts
Catalysts are unique substances that increase
reaction rate without being consumed; they do this
δ–
by lowering the activation energy.
Eareverse
!"
! cC + dD
aA + bB #!
c d
[C] [D]
Kc = a b
[A] [B]
2 HCl
Kc is the equilibrium constant (c stands for
concentration).
Properties of the Equilibrium Constant
Pure solids and liquids don’t appear in expressions.
Keq is characteristic of a given system at a given
temperature.
If Keq >> 1, an equilibrium mixture of reactants
and products will contain very little of the reactants
compared to the products.
If Keq << 1, an equilibrium mixture of reactants
and products will contain very little of the products
compared to the reactants.
If Keq is close to 1, an equilibrium mixture of
products and reactants will contain approximately
equal amounts of the two.
Le Châtelier’s principle is used to determine the
direction in which a reaction at equilibrium will
proceed when subjected to a stress, such as a
change in concentration, pressure, volume, or
temperature. The key is to remember nthat
– 1 a system
to which these kinds of stresses are applied tends to
change so as to relieve the applied stress.
In a nutshell:
THERMOCHEMISTRY
The law of conservation of energy dictates that
energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but that
all thermal, chemical, potential, and kinetic energies
are interconvertible.
Systems:
Isolated: no exchange of energy/matter with the
environment. Bomb calorimetry creates a nearly
isolated system.
Closed: can exchange energy but not matter with the
environment
Open: can exchange both energy and matter with
the environment. Human beings are open systems
because they can take in energy and matter (eat),
release matter into the environment (respiration,
urination, defecation), and release energy into the
environment (heat transfer from the skin and mucous
membranes).
System processes: THE GAS PHASE
Isothermal: temperature of system remains constant
1 atm = 760 mmHg ≡ 760 torr = 101,325 Pa Deviations due to pressure: As the pressure of a
Adiabatic: no heat exchange occurs Do not confuse STP with standard conditions—the gas increases, the particles are pushed closer and
Isobaric: pressure of system remains constant two standards involve different temperatures and are closer together. At moderately high pressure, a gas’s
used for different purposes. STP (0˚C or 273 K, 1 atm) volume is less than would be predicted by the ideal
Isovolumetric (isochoric): volume remains constant gas law due to intermolecular attraction.
is generally used for gas law calculations; standard
Heat: the transfer of thermal energy from one object conditions (25˚C or 298 K, 1 atm, 1 M concentrations) Deviations due to temperature: As the temperature
to another. is used when measuring standard enthalpy, entropy, of a gas decreases, the average velocity of the
Gibbs free energy, and electromotive force. gas molecules decreases and the attractive
Endothermic: reactions that absorb heat energy
intermolecular forces become increasingly
Exothermic: reactions that release heat energy Boyle’s Law significant. As the temperature of a gas is reduced,
intermolecular attraction (a) causes the gas to
PV = k or P1V1 = P2V2
endothermic exothermic have a smaller volume than would be predicted. At
extremely low temperatures, the volume of the gas
heat Charles’s Law particles themselves (b) causes the gas to have a
V V1 V2
heat = k or = larger volume than would be predicted.
T T1 T2
Van der Waals equation of state: accounts for the
heat Gay-Lussac’s Law deviations from ideality that occur when a gas does
P P P
= k or 1 = 2 not closely follow the ideal gas law
T T1 T2
2
heat
heat Avogadro’s Principle (P + n 2a )(V – nb) = nRT
n1 n2 V
n
Constant-volume and constant-pressure calorimetry: = k or =
V V1 V2 1 mole of gas at STP = 22.4 L
used to indicate conditions under which the heat
changes are measured Combined Gas Law Dalton’s law of partial pressures: states that the
q = mc∆T, where q is the heat absorbed or released Integrates Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, and Gay- total pressure of a gaseous mixture is equal to
in a given process, m is the mass, c is the specific Lussac’s Law the sum of the partial pressures of the individual
heat, and ∆T is the change in temperature P1V1 P2V2 components
=
T1 T2
States and state functions: are described by the PT = PA + PB + PC +…
macroscopic properties of the system. These Ideal Gas Law
properties’ magnitudes depend only on the initial PA = PTXA
and final states of the system, and not on the path PV = nRT
of the change. Common state functions include n A (moles of A)
Real Gases where XA =
pressure, density, temperature, volume, enthalpy, n T (total moles)
internal energy, free energy, and entropy.
Enthalpy (H): is used to express heat changes at Kinetic molecular theory of gases: an explanation of
constant pressure gaseous molecular behavior based on the motion of
individual molecules
Standard heat of formation (∆H°f ): the enthalpy
change that would occur if one mole of a compound Average molecular speeds
was formed directly from its elements in their 1 3
mv2 = kBT
K=
standard states 2 2
Standard heat of reaction (∆H°rxn): the hypothetical Decreasing the volume of a sample of gas makes it Root-mean-square speed
enthalpy change that would occur if the reaction behave less ideally because the individual gas particles
were carried out under standard conditions n–1
are in closer proximity in a smaller volume. (They are urms = (3RMT )
∆H°rxn = (sum of ∆H °f of products) – more likely to engage in intermolecular interactions.)

(sum of ∆H °f of reactants) PHASES & PHASE CHANGES

Hess’s law: states that enthalpies of reactions are
additive
The reverse of any reaction has an enthalpy of the
same magnitude as that of the forward reaction, but
its sign is opposite.
Entropy (S): the measure of the distribution of energy
(“randomness”) throughout a system
∆Suniverse = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurroundings
Gibbs free energy (G): combines the two factors
that affect the spontaneity of a reaction—changes in
enthalpy, ∆H, and changes in entropy, ∆S
pressure

solid liquid
Bond dissociation energy: an average of the energy ∆G = ∆H – T∆S
required to break a particular type of bond in one If ∆G is negative, the reaction is spontaneous. critical
point
mole of gaseous molecules: If ∆G is positive, the reaction is nonspontaneous.
triple
If ∆G is zero, the system is in a state of equilibrium; point
energy
thus, ∆G = 0 and ∆H = T∆S. gas

temperature
Colligative properties: These are physical properties
derived solely from the number of particles present,
not the nature of those particles. These properties
Bond enthalpy: The standard heat of reaction are usually associated with dilute solutions. Molality
can be calculated using the values of bond (m) must be used, in addition to the van ’t Hoff factor
dissociation energies of particular bonds Reaction quotient (Q): Once a reaction commences,
(i) for ionic compounds.
(given in a table). the standard state conditions no longer hold. For the
reaction: Freezing point depression
∆ Hrxn
° =
∑ ∆ Hbonds broken −∑ ∆ Hbonds formed !"
! cC + dD
aA + bB #! ∆Tf = iK f m
c d Boiling point elevation
[C] [D]
Q= a b
[A] [B] ∆Tb = iKbm
Osmotic pressure ACIDS AND BASES REDOX REACTIONS & ELECTROCHEMISTRY
∏ = MRT
Arrhenius definition: An acid is a species that Oxidation: loss of electrons
produces excess H+ (protons) in an aqueous
Vapor pressure lowering (Raoult’s law) solution, and a base is a species that produces Reduction: gain of electrons
PA = XAPÅ; PB = XBPB̊ excess OH– (hydroxide ions). Oxidizing agent: causes another atom to undergo
Solutions that obey Raoult’s Law are called ideal Brønsted–Lowry definition: An acid is a species oxidation, and is itself reduced
solutions. that donates protons, while a base is a species that
Reducing agent: causes another atom to be reduced,
125 accepts protons.
heating of water vapor
and is itself oxidized
Lewis definition: An acid is an electron pair acceptor,
100
and a base is an electron pair donor.
heat used to vaporize water to
water vapor
Galvanic Cells
75
temperature (˚C)

Properties of Acids and Bases

50
heating of water
pH = –log[H+] = log( 1
+ )
[H ]
25
1
pOH = –log[OH–] = log( − )
0
[OH ]
heat used to melt ice to water
heating of ice
!"
! H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
H2O (l) #!
-25

heat added (each division = 4 kJ) Kw = [H+][OH–] = 10–14

pH + pOH = 14
Graham’s law of diffusion and effusion
Diffusion: occurs when gas molecules distribute Weak Acids and Bases
through a volume by random motion !"
! H O+ (aq) + A– (aq)
HA (aq) + H2O (l) #! 3
Effusion: the flow of gas particles under pressure + −
[H3O ][A ]
from one compartment to another through a small Ka = A redox reaction occurring in a galvanic cell has
opening: [HA]
a negative ∆G and is therefore a spontaneous
+ −
[B ][OH ] reaction. Galvanic cell reactions supply energy and
Kb = are used to do work.
[BOH]
This energy can be harnessed by placing the
Salt formation: Acids and bases may react with each
oxidation–reduction half-reactions in separate
other, forming a salt and (often, but not always)
containers called half-cells. The half-cells are then
water in a neutralization reaction.
connected by an apparatus that allows for the flow
HA + BOH → BA + H2O of electrons.
Hydrolysis: This is the reverse reaction, where the salt
Both diffusion and effusion have the same formula:
ions react with water to give back the acid and base. Electrolytic Cells
r1 1  m 
Amphoteric species: is one that can act either
=2  2 
r2  m1  as an acid or a base, depending on its chemical
environment e
SOLUTIONS
Titration and Buffers
1. All salts containing alkali metal (Group 1) or Titration is e
ammonium (NH4+) cations are water-soluble. a procedure
2. All salts containing the nitrate (NO3–) or acetate used to
(CH3COO–) anions are water-soluble. determine the
3. All chlorides, bromides, and iodides are water- molarity of an
soluble, with the exception of Ag+, Pb2+, and Hg2+. acid or base
4. All salts of the sulfate ion (SO42–) are water- by reacting a
soluble, with the exception of Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, known volume
and Pb2+. of a solution
5. All metal oxides are insoluble, with the A redox reaction occurring in an electrolytic cell has
of unknown
exception of the alkali metals and CaO, SrO, a positive ∆G and is therefore nonspontaneous. In
concentration
BaO, all of which hydrolyze to form solutions of strong acid and strong base electrolysis, electrical energy is required to induce a
with a known
the corresponding metal hydroxides. reaction. The oxidation and reduction half-reactions
volume of
6. All hydroxides are insoluble, with the exception are usually placed in one container.
a solution
of the alkali metals and Ca2+, Sr2+, and Ba2+. of known Reduction potential of each species is defined as
7. All carbonates (CO32–), phosphates (PO43–), concentration. the tendency of a species to acquire electrons and
sulfides (S2–), and sulfites (SO32–) are insoluble, The half- be reduced. Standard reduction potential, E ˚, is
with the exception of the alkali metals and equivalence measured under standard conditions: 25˚C, 1 M
ammonium. point defines concentration for each ion in the reaction, a partial
pH = pKa pressure of 1 atm for each gas and metals in their
Units of Concentration pure state.
Percent composition by mass: B A S IC Standard reduction potentials are used to calculate
weak acid and strong base the standard electromotive force (emf or Ec̊ell) of a
Mass of solute
= × 100%
Mass of solution Henderson–Hasselbalch equation: 3 reaction, the difference in potential between two
is used to estimate the pH of a half-cells.
# of mol of compound 3
Mole fraction: × 100% solution in the buffer region where the
total # of moles in system emf = E˚red, cathode – E˚red, anode
concentrations of the species and its
# of mol of solute conjugate are present in approximately
Molarity: Gibbs free energy, ∆G, is the thermodynamic
liter of solution equal concentrations 2 3
criterion for determining the spontaneity of a
[conjugate base] 4
Molality: # of mol of solute pH = pKa + log 4
reaction.
kg of solvent [weak acid] ∆G = –nFEcell
# of gram equivalent weights of solute [conjugate acid]
Normality: pOH = pKb + log
liter of solution [weak base] A C ID IC
 DETERMINING ORGANIC MECHANISMS ORGANIC OXIDATION–REDUCTION PHENOLS & QUINONE DERIVATIVES
Step 1: Know Your Nomenclature Level 0 (no bonds to heteroatoms): alkanes The hydrogen of the hydroxyl group of a phenol is
If given compound names in a question stem or Level 1: alcohols, alkyl halides, amines particularly acidic because the oxygen-containing
passage, be able to draw them. If working with Level 2: aldehydes, ketones, imines anion is resonance-stabilized by the ring.
reaction diagrams, be able to name the compounds. Level 3: carboxylic acids, anhydrides, esters, OH O− O O O
amides −H + − −
Step 2: Identify the Functional Groups Level 4 (four bonds to heteroatoms): carbon +H+
What functional groups are in the molecule? Do dioxide −

these functional groups act as acids or bases? How Oxidation = loss of electrons, fewer bonds to hydrogens, Quinones and Hydroxyquinones
oxidized is the carbon? Are there functional groups more bonds to heteroatoms (O, N, halogens)
that act as good nucleophiles, electrophiles, or Treatment of phenols with oxidizing agents produces
leaving groups? This will help define a category of Reduction = gain of electrons, more bonds to quinones.
reactions that can occur with the given functional hydrogens, fewer bonds to heteroatoms OH O

groups. Na2Cr2O7

Oxidizing Agents H2SO4

Step 3: Identify the Other Reagents Good oxidizing agents have a high affinity for OH
p-benzenediol
O
1,4-benzoquinone

Are the other reagents acidic or basic? Are they electrons (such as O2, O3, and Cl2) or unusually high (hydroquinone)

specific to a particular reaction? Are they good oxidation states (like Mn7+ in permanganate, MnO4—, These molecules can be further oxidized to form a
nucleophiles or a specific solvent? Are they good and Cr6+ in chromate, CrO42—). class of molecules called hydroxyquinones. Many
oxidizing or reducing agents? hydroxyquinones have biological activity.
Reducing Agents O

Step 4: Identify the Most Reactive Functional Group(s) Good reducing agents include sodium, magnesium, OH

More oxidized carbons tend to be more reactive aluminum, and zinc, which have low electronegativities
to both nucleophile–electrophile reactions and and ionization energies. Metal hydrides are also good O

oxidation–reduction reactions. Note the presence of reducing agents, like NaH, CaH2, LiAlH4, and NaBH4,
protecting groups that exist to prevent a particular because they contain the H– ion. Ubiquinones
functional group from reacting. Ubiquinone is also called coenzyme Q and is a vital
electron carrier associated with Complexes I, II,
Step 5: Identify the First Step of the Reaction and III of the electron transport chain.
If the reaction involves an acid or a base: Ubiquinone can be reduced to ubiquinol, which can
protonation or deprotonation later be reoxidized to ubiquinone. This is sometimes
If the reaction involves a nucleophile: called the Q cycle.
nucleophile attacks electrophile, forming a bond
If the reaction involves an oxidizing or ALDEHYDES
reducing agent: most oxidized functional
group is oxidized or reduced, accordingly The dipole moment of aldehydes causes an elevation
of boiling point, but not as high as alcohols because
Step 6: Consider Stereoselectivity Oxidation there is no hydrogen bonding.
If there is more than one product, the major product PCC takes a primary alcohol to an aldehyde.
will generally be determined by differences in strain PCC
Synthesis
or stability between the two molecules. Products OH O
Oxidation of primary alcohols
with conjugation (alternating single and multiple Jones’s reagent, KMnO4, and alkali dichromate Ozonolysis of alkenes
bonds) are significantly more stable than those salts will convert secondary alcohols to ketones
without. Reactions
and primary alcohols to carboxylic acids.
OH O Reactions of enols (Michael additions)
ALCOHOLS Na2Cr 2O7
H2SO4 O O
Base
O O
+ H:Base

Higher boiling points than alkanes R R R — R

Tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidized without O O

Weakly acidic hydroxyl hydrogen breaking a carbon–carbon bond. O O R R
O
+ O + Base

Synthesis Reduction R R R — R
R R
O OH
Addition of water to double bonds
Nucleophilic addition to a carbonyl
SN1 and SN2 reactions LiAlH4
O O— OH
or H+
Reduction of carboxylic acids, aldehydes, NaBH4
H H H
ketones, and esters Nu —
Nu Nu

Alcohols and Reactivity

° Aldehydes and ketones with NaBH4 or Aldol condensation
LiAlH4 Alcohols can be converted to mesylates or tosylates
to make them better leaving groups for nucleophilic An aldehyde acts both as nucleophile (enol form)
° Esters and carboxylic acids with LiAlH4
substitution reactions. and electrophile (keto form). One carbonyl forms an
enolate, which attacks the other carbonyl. After the
Reactions Mesylates (–SO3CH3) are derived from
aldol is formed, a dehydration reaction results in an
methanesulfonic acid.
Substitution reactions after protonation or leaving α,β-unsaturated carbonyl.
Tosylates (–SO3C6H4CH3) are derived from
group conversion O (reacts in
protonated
toluenesulfonic acid. O + OH
C form)
O
H
O O H
catalytic H H R −H2O

OH + HBr OH+2 + Br — Alcohols can be used as protecting groups for R

C
CH3 R
C
CH2 R
C
CH2
C
R R
C
C
C
R
H
carbonyls, as reaction with a dialcohol forms enol
H
aldol addition product aldol condensation
product
an unreactive acetal. After other reactions, the
Br — + OH2+ Br + H2O
protecting group can be removed with aqueous acid. Decarboxylation
O O O
O O O O
HO OH H 2O C
+
cat. H+ LiAIH4 cat. H O

OH O
NaI
+ O S O + —
SO3 O O O O OH OH
I
LiAIH4 OH
ClSO2

tosyl chloride

OH
 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES
Carboxylic acids have pKa values around 4.5 due Carboxylic acid derivatives contain three bonds to Amides
to resonance stabilization of the conjugate base. heteroatoms (O, N, halides, and so forth). As such,
Electronegative atoms increase acidity with inductive they can be interconverted through nucleophilic acyl Formation from an anhydride
effects. Boiling point is higher than alcohols because substitution by swapping leaving groups. O O O– O

of the ability to form two hydrogen bonds. Carboxylic acid derivatives can be ranked based on
NH3 +
O + O
H3N
descending reactivity:
Synthesis Acyl halides are the most reactive
Oxidation of primary alcohols with KMnO4 Anhydrides O O
O– O
+
O Carboxylic acids and esters +
O
KMnO 4 NH2 OH
OH OH
Amides are the least reactive H2N
H

A reaction that proceeds down the order of reactivity can

Hydrolysis of nitriles Formation from an ester
occur spontaneously by nucleophilic acyl substitution.
O

CH3Cl CH3CN CH3COH + NH+4

A reaction that proceeds up the order of reactivity requires
special catalysts and specific reaction conditions.
Reactions Hydrolysis (requires acid)
Anhydrides
Formation of soap by reacting carboxylic acids with Synthesis via dehydration of two carboxylic acids
NaOH; arrange in micelles
O

O—Na +

nonpolar tail polar head

Intramolecular formation of a cyclic anhydride
Nucleophilic acyl substitution O O

Ester formation OH
Reduction to an amine
O + H2O
O
OH
LiAlH4
O
O NH2 NH2
ortho-phthalic acid phthalic anhydride

Esters

Reduction to alcohols Transesterification

NITROGEN-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS

Hydrolysis
OH
OH
+ OH
+
O
O
H2O O O OH H
H + H

Strecker Synthesis O H2O

+OH
+ + +
H3O
Decarboxylation Reagents: aldehyde, ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), OH OH
OH

O potassium cyanide (KCN)

C
O R O H NH+3
NH3
NH+3 Reduction
H
R O
+
R OH O

LAH +
O OH OH
proton
transfer

NH2 NH2
Saponification
−
CN R NH+2 −H2O O O
+
R R OH 2
N –
RC O RC O Na+
N NH+ OH+2
H2N + O O HO
H H2N H2O H2N
–
NH RC O NaOH RC O Na+ + HO
CYCLIC CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES R R R
O O HO
proton
–
transfer
O Na+
Lactams RC O RC
OH OH OH triacylglycerol soap glycerol
Cyclic amides are called lactams. These are named H2N
proton
transfer H2N H2O H2 N
OH OH+2
according to the carbon atom bound to the nitrogen:
+
NH+3 NH2 NH 2
R R R
β-lactams contain a bond between the β-carbon and PHOSPHORUS-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS
the nitrogen, γ-lactams contain a bond between the −NH3

γ-carbon and the nitrogen, and so forth. Phosphoric acid is a phosphate group or inorganic
OH+ O phosphate (Pi). At physiologic pH, inorganic
+ H2N
H2N
OH
−H
OH phosphate includes both hydrogen phosphate
O R R (HPO2–
4 ) and dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4 ).
–
N N O N O N O
H H H H Pyrophosphate (PPi ) is P2O4–7 , which is released
β-lactam γ-lactam δ-lactam ε-lactam Gabriel (Malonic-Ester) Synthesis during the formation of phosphodiester bonds
Reagents: potassium phthalimide, diethyl in DNA. Pyrophosphate is unstable in aqueous
Lactones bromomalonate solution, and is hydrolyzed to form two
O O O
molecules of inorganic phosphate.
Cyclic esters are called lactones. These are named CO2C2H5 CO2C2H5 CO2C2H5

O O 4–
− + base
N K + Br C H N C H N C −

not only based on the carbon bound to the oxygen,

SN2
CO2C2H5 CO2C2H5 CO2C2H5
O O O
but also the length of the carbon chain itself. potassium
phthalimide
diethyl
bromomalonate P P
O O O O
O
O O
CO2H
O
−
CO2
− O
R–Br
S N2
O O
+ O CO2C2H5
H3O , ∆
O + NaOH

O
H3N C R
−CO2
+ H2N C R
H2O, ∆ N C R
Nucleotides with phosphate groups, such
O H O CO2 − CO2C2H5
O O
−
O ATP, GTP, and those in DNA, are referred to as
α-acetolactone β-propiolactone γ-butyrolactone δ-valerolactone organic phosphates.
 PURIFICATION METHODS SPECTROSCOPY
Extraction separates dissolved substances based Distillation separates liquids based on boiling point, Infrared spectroscopy measures molecular vibrations
on differential solubility in aqueous vs. organic which depends on intermolecular forces. Types are of characteristic functional groups.
solvents. simple, fractional, and vacuum. Functional Group Wavenumber (cm–1) Vibration

Alkanes 2800 — 3000 C H

thermometer 1200 C C
Alkenes 3080 — 3140 C H
1645 C C
condenser
vacuum adapter
Alkynes 2200 C C
3300 C H
Aromatic 2900 — 3100 C H
clamp to vacuum source 1475 — 1625 C C
water outlet clamp Alcohols 3100 — 3500 O H (broad)
water inlet
distilling flask Ethers 1050 — 1150 C O
receiving flask Aldehydes 2700 — 2900 (O)C H
1700 — 1750 C O
ice bath
heat source Ketones 1700 — 1750 C O
Carboxylic acids 1700 — 1750 C O
vacuum distillation
2800 — 3200 O H (broad)
Amines 3100 — 3500 N H (sharp)

UV spectroscopy involves passing ultraviolet

light through a chemical sample and plotting
absorbance vs. wavelength. It is most useful for
studying compounds containing double bonds and
heteroatoms with lone pairs.
Filtration separates solids from liquids.
1H–NMR is a form of nuclear magnetic resonance.

Type of Proton Approximate Chemical Shift (ppm)

Downfield from TMS
RCH3 0.9
Column RCH2 1.25
R3CH 1.5
–CH=CH 4.6–6
Column packing –C≡CH 2–3
Ar–H 6–8.5
–CHX 2–4.5
residue –CHOH/–CHOR 3.4–4
RCHO 9–10
filter paper RCHCO– 2–2.5
–CHCOOH/–CHCOOR 2–2.6
–CHOH–CH2OH 1–5.5
ArOH 4–12
to vacuum trap –COOH 10.5–12
glass projection to
hold up packing
–NH2 1–5

Ha Hb
clean filter flask deshielding b Cl C O C Hb

shielding Cl Hb

TMS
filtrate
a

vacuum filtration fractional distillation

Simple distillation can be used to separate two liquids

Chromatography uses a stationary phase and a with boiling points below 150°C and at least 25°C apart. 8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0

mobile phase to separate compounds based on δ (ppm)

Vacuum distillation should be used when a liquid to

polarity and/or size. When analyzing an NMR spectrum, look for:
be distilled has a boiling point above 150°C. To prevent
degradation of the product, the incident pressure is Types of protons: corresponds to the number
solvent front
lowered, thereby lowering the boiling point. of peaks seen in the spectrum
Fractional distillation should be used when two Position of peaks: the further left-shifted
liquids have boiling points less than 25°C apart. By (downfield) the peak, the more deshielded
Y
introducing a fractionation column, the sample boils the proton. Usually this corresponds to more
Rf = X and refluxes back down over a larger surface area, electron-withdrawing groups
Y
X improving the purity of the distillate. Integration of peaks: the larger the integration,
the more protons contained under the peak
1 2 3 1 2 3
Recrystallization separates solids based on
thin-layer chromatograms differential solubility in varying temperatures. Splitting: hydrogens on adjacent carbons will
split a peak into n + 1 subpeaks, where n is the
Electrophoresis is used to separate biological number of hydrogens on the adjacent carbon
solvent
macromolecules based on size and/or charge.
sand

Type of
Chromatography Mobile Phase Stationary Phase Common Use
silica or alumina Thin-layer or Paper Nonpolar solvent Polar card Identify a sample
Reverse-phase Polar solvent Nonpolar card Identify a sample
Separate a sample into
sand Column Nonpolar solvent zPolar gel or powder
glass wool or cotton components
stopcock to control flow
Ion-exchange Nonpolar solvent Charged beads in column Separate components by charge
Polar, porous beads in
Size-exclusion Nonpolar solvent Separate components by size
column
collection flask Beads coated with antibody
Purify a molecule (usually a
Affinity Nonpolar solvent or receptor for a target
protein) of interest
molecule
column chromatography
Gas (GC) Inert gas Crushed metal or polymer Separate vaporizable compounds

High-performance Small column with Similar to column, but more

Nonpolar solvent
liquid (HPLC) concentration gradient precise
 HYDROSTATICS & FLUID DYNAMICS ELECTROSTATICS CIRCUITS
m kg
Coulomb’s Law Current: the flow of electric charge. Current is given
Density (ρ) = [SI units: 3 ]
V m by:
kg Q C
Specific gravity = subtance [no units]; ρwater = 103 3 I= [SI units: ampère (A) = s ]
water m ∆t
+q1 –q2
F F
Weight = ρgV charge would flow, or from high to low potential.)
r
Pressure: a scalar quantity defined as force per unit
F N kq1q2
area: P = [SI units: pascal = 2 ] F= 2 [SI units: newtons] Ohm’s Law and Resistance
A m r
For static fluids of uniform density in a sealed V = IR (can be applied to entire circuit or individual
Electric Field resistors)
vessel, pressure: P = ρgz ρL
field lines
Absolute pressure in a fluid due to gravity Resistance: opposition to the flow of charge. R =
A
somewhere below the surface is given by the (Resistance increases with increasing temperatures
equation P = Po + ρgz with most conductors.)
+ –
Gauge pressure: Pg = P – Patm [SI Units: ohm (Ω)]
Continuity equation: A1v1 = A2v2
F Circuit Laws
Bernoulli’s equation: P + 1 ρv 2 + ρgh = constant Q
E = qe = 2 [SI units: N or V ]
2 C M Kirchhoff’s laws:
r
Archimedes’ Principle A positive point charge will move in the same 1. At any junction within a circuit, the sum of
direction as the electric field vector; a negative current flowing into that point must equal the
Fbuoy = ρfluid gVsubmerged
charge will move in the opposite direction. sum of current leaving.
N 2.
3
4
5
Electrical Potential Energy (U) voltage drops around a closed-circuit loop.
2
1
6
q at a point
7
0
in space is the amount of work required to move it Series Circuits
N from infinity to that point.
4
Is
3 5 kQq
2 6 U = q∆V = qEd = [SI units: J] a
1 7
r 3Ω
0
b
Electric Dipoles 5Ω Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + …
5V V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ...
c
p is the dipole moment 7Ω I = I1 = I2 = I3 = …
E d
(p = qd).
Fe
translational force, but Parallel Circuits
experiences a torque
3 N displaced about the center causing d Ip
it to rotate so that I1 I2 I3 In
the dipole moment aligns Fe=qE
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ...
Rp R 1 R2 R3 Rn Req R1 R2 R3
V = V1 = V2 = V3 = ...
displaced fluid. I = I1 + I2 + I3 + ...
Ip
If the weight of the fluid displaced is less than Electrical Potential
the object’s weight, the object will sink.
Power Dissipated by Resistors
If the weight of the fluid displaced is greater charge q from infinity to a particular point divided by 2
than or equal to the object’s weight, then it U J P = IV = V = I2R
the test charge: V = q [SI units: volt = ] R
will float. C
Capacitors
Pascal’s Principle Potential Difference (Voltage)
Capacitance: the ability to store charge per unit
–V Q
A change in the pressure applied to an voltage. It is given by: C =
V
enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to ε A
0
every portion of the fluid and to the walls of C' = κ
d
the containing vessel. electron ‘pump’

Cp C1 C C3 Cn Capacitors in parallel: add

2
F1 Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + …
‘load’

A1 A2
d2 Energy Stored by Capacitors
d1 2
Q
+V U = 1 QV = 1 CV 2 = 1
2 2 2 C
F2 kQ J
Voltage (∆V) = q = [SI units: volt = ]
r C
C1
are separated by a distance d, an electric field
is created, and a potential difference exists Capacitors in series: C2
between the plates, given by: V = Ed add as reciprocals, Cs
then take reciprocal
of sum C3
1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
C eq C1 C2 C3

d E C4
F F
P = 1 = 2 and A1d1 = A2d2
A1 A2

so, W = F1d1 = F2d2

 WAVES OPTICS
Describing Waves Refraction Converging lenses
c m
n = (speed of light = 3 × 108 )
Longitudinal wave v S
f>0
Snell’s law: n1sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2. n2 > n1, light
bends toward the normal; when n2 < n1, light bends
away from the normal.

Transverse wave For an object beyond the focal length, the

n image formed is real and inverted.
n
For an object inside the focal length, the
image formed is virtual, upright and enlarged.

Wave formulas focal point.

1
ƒ=
Diverging lenses
v = ƒλ Diffraction
f<0
Standing Waves λ
A
Strings N N
λ = 2L
λ = 2L (n = 1, 2, 3…) λ
n L
nv A A
ƒ= (n = 1, 2, 3…) N N N
2L λ=L −i
Magnification (m) =
A A A 0
N N N N
λ = 2L
––
3 )m) < 1 image reduced; )m) > 1 image
enlarged; )m) = 1 image same size
Inverted image has a negative m; erect image
occur where the displacement is zero. a sin θ = nλ (n = 1, 2, 3…) has a positive m
Open pipes
λ
L = –– Spherical Mirrors ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHENOMENA
λ = 2L (n = 1, 2, 3…) 2
Optics equation: 1 + 1 = 1 = 1
n o i f r
nv L=λ Photoelectric Effect
ƒ= (n = 1, 2, 3…) Any of units of distance may be used, but all
2L 3λ hc
L = –– units used must be the same. E = hf = K is the maximum kinetic energy of an
2
ejected electron; W is the minimum
Concave mirrors K = hf – W energy required to eject an electron,
(max amplitude). called the work function.

λ
L = ––
Closed pipes 4 Nuclear Binding Energy
4L
λ= (n = 1, 3, 5…) L = 3λ
–– Mass defect: the difference between the sum of the
n 4 f>0
nv masses of nucleons in the nucleus and the mass
ƒ= (n = 1, 3, 5…)
4L L = 5λ
––
4 conversion of matter to energy, embodied by:
E = mc2. binding energy that holds
If an object is placed inside the focal length of
open end is always an antinode. nucleons within the nucleus.
a concave mirror instead, the image formed is
behind the mirror, enlarged and virtual.
SOUND Exponential Decay
Convex mirrors
Sound propagates through a deformable medium by Half-life
the oscillation of particles parallel to the direction of n = noe–λt
the wave’s propagation.
P f<0 Alpha decay
Intensity (I ) = [SI units: 2 ]
A m 238U → 234 4He
92 90 2
I
Sound level (β) = 10 log I0 [unit: decibel = dB]
Beta-minus decay
(Note than an increase of 10 dB is an increase in 137 Cs → 137Ba + 0 e– + −
ve
55 56 –1
intensity by a factor of 10. An increase of 20 dB is an Regardless of the position of the object, a
increase in intensity by a factor of 100.) convex mirror forms only a virtual upright Beta-plus decay
image. 22Na → 22Ne + 0 e+ + v
11 10 +1 e
Doppler Effect
Thin Spherical Lenses 100
percentage of radioactive nuclei remaining

to one another, the perceived frequency of Optics equation: 1 = 1 + 1

f 0 i
the sound received differs from the actual
frequency emitted even though the source
velocity and frequency is unchanged. Observer and detector moving closer:
(v ± v D ) + sign in numerator
f& = f – sign in denominator
50
(v ∓ v S )
Stationary source: vs = 0 Observer and detector moving apart:
25
Stationary detector: vD = 0 – sign in numerator
+ sign in denominator 12.5
6.25
3.125
1.5625
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
number of half-lives
 MATHEMATICS DATA ANALYSIS
Estimation Finding the resultant using the component method: Measures of Central Tendency and Distribution
Scientific notation: A method of simplifying Resolve vectors into x- and y-components Mean: the average of the data points;
calculations by reducing numbers to a significand Sum all the vectors in the x-direction to get the impacted heavily by outliers
between one and ten and the exponent power of ten: resultant for the x-direction, and do the same Median: the central value of a data set; not
0.0000037 = 3.7 10–6. Allows estimation by powers for the y-components affected by outliers
R = R x2 + R y2 Mode: the most common data point(s); not
Multiplication: If you round one number up, round affected by outliers
the other down to compensate. Right-Hand Rule for Finding Direction Range: the difference between the largest and
Division: If you round one number up, round the of Cross-Product Resultant smallest value in a set; impacted heavily by
other up to compensate. outliers
Standard deviation: a measure of how spread out
Roots and Logarithms vector that is the product of values are from the mean; affected by outliers
two other vectors. If C = A × B,
2
then C is represented by the
x x2 x x2 x x2 x x2
palm while A is represented
1 1 6 36 11 121 16 256 by the thumb and B is

2 4 7 49 12 144 17 289
negatively skewed positively skewed
3 9 8 64 13 169 18 324
RESEARCH DESIGN
4 16 9 81 14 196 19 361
5 25 10 100 15 225 20 400 Question Selection
Scientific method: determine whether sufficient
background exists and whether the question is testable
x med med x
number raised to a power, remember not to take the FINER method: determine whether a study is
square root of the exponent, but to divide it by two. Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant
Probability
Logarithmic identities
Causality Mutually exclusive: two events that cannot
log A × B = log A + log B occur together
Controls: experimental subjects that are maintained
A
= log A – log B
log with similar but noninterventional treatments to Independent: the probability of either event is
B establish causality. not affected by the occurrence of the other
B Hill’s criteria: help determine the strength of causal For independent events:
log A = B log A
relationships. Only temporality is necessary. P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B)
1
log = –log A
A P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)
Error Sources
Converting common and natural logarithms Probability is usually expressed as a percent, but all
Small sample size: amplifies the effects of
math should be completed using decimals.
In x statistical anomalies
log x = Defects in precision and accuracy: create
2.303 random or systematic variations in the data Statistical Testing
log (n × 10m) ≈ m + 0.n 99.7%
Null hypothesis: a hypothesis of no difference;
95%
always the comparator
p-value: the probability that results were obtained
Trigonometry 68%

A
by chance given that the null hypothesis is true
Confidence interval: a range of values believed
45° to contain the true value with a given level of
30°
√2
probability (confidence)
2 1
√3 0.15% 2.4% 13.5% 34% 34% 13.5% 2.4% 0.15%
Visual Data Interpretation
60° 45° −3 σ −2 σ −1 σ x +1 σ +2 σ +3 σ Graphs: analyze the axes first to determine
C D 1 B 1
whether the scale is linear, logarithmic, or
Bias: systematic data error. Common types
opposite semilog and what the units are. Determine
sin θ = include selection bias, detection bias,
hypotenuse whether relationships are direct or inverse.
and the Hawthorne effect. Minimized by
adjacent proper participant selection, blinding, and
Pie charts: compare portions of data to a
cos θ = whole or relative responses of a group
hypotenuse randomization.
Confounding: an analysis error wherein a Bar charts and histograms: compare absolute
opposite or relative responses between groups
tan θ = variable that has a relationship with the other
adjacent Box plots: contain information about
two variables is overlooked
measures of central tendency and distribution;
Vector Addition and Subtraction Ethics may be comparative or single
Tip-to-tail method of finding resultant of two vectors: Beneficence: the requirement to do good
–Q Nonmaleficence: “do no harm” 1000
Autonomy: the right of individuals to make
minus 299,000

P–Q P Q decisions for themselves

P+Q
900
Justice: the need to consider only morally
P relevant differences between patients and to
km
s

distribute healthcare resources fairly

Speed of light

Q
800
true speed

Generalizability
700
Statistical significance and causality do not make
something generalizable or a good intervention.
Clinical significance and the target population must
1 2 3 4 5
also be considered.
Experiment No.