Powers of the Mind forebrain so that it is

ready to process
“Learning is the only thing the mind never information from the
senses)
exhausts, never fears, and never regrets.” -
Leonardo Da Vinci Forebrain considered the highest
center of the brain that
Central Nervous System perceives sensations,
initiates voluntary
Brain - (outside: grey matter; inside: white movement, provides
awareness of emotions,
matter); interprets and stores information
memory, thinking,
and sends order to other parts of the body planning, language
abilities and other higher
mental functions.
Hindbrain well-protected core that
It is covered entirely by a
controls basic functions
thin layer of cells called
essential for survival
the cerebral cortex that
is divided into four lobes.
Cerebellum
- responsible for
Frontal lobe
coordination of
- control of
movement,
emotions,
equilibrium,
judgements,
procedural
voluntary
memory
movement, guide
Medulla
to the degree of
- respiration, heart
complexity and
rate, blood
motor capabilities
pressure
Lobotomy
Pons
- a surgical
- sleep and
treatment in the
arousal
1930s that
* The hindbrain also has
involves the
reticular formation but is
removal of the
responsible for
1/3 of the brain
controlling attention and
with the purpose
arousal both for activity
of reducing
and for sleep.
emotions of fear,
anger or sadness
Midbrain area for reward or
Prefrontal cortex (PFC)
pleasure that is
- which matures at
stimulated by food, sex,
the age of 25,
money, music, attractive
regulates activity
faces, and some drugs),
in subcortical
visual and auditory
emotional
reflexes, reticular
centers, planning
formation (responsible
and supervising
for arousing the
moral decisions,

1
 and when its - responsible for
functionality is receptive
altered may lead language (i.e.
to impulsive understanding
aggression. Its verbal and
lack of nonverbal
communication communication)
with amygdala is
implicated with
psychopathy. Spinal Cord
Parietal lobe
- body sensory (outside: white matter; inside: grey matter);
and spatial carries the impulses back and forth from the
reasoning body to brain or vice versa, and controls
Occipital lobe many reflexes
- sense of vision
Temporal lobe
- sense of hearing Reflexes are unlearned,
It also play an important involuntary reaction to
role in theory of mind — stimulus. They have
the ability to understand been pre wired by
the mental states of genetics instructions and
others; hence, just like have evolved through
the PFC, its dysfunction millions of years. They
is implicated in violent protect body parts from
psychopathy (see injury and automatically
Pascual et al., 2013) regulate physiological
responses. Piloerection
is an example of a reflex
that is no longer useful
Special Areas of the Brain today.

Pathway (reflex arc) 1. Flame stimulates

Limbic System Hippocampus
the pain
- responsible for
receptors
consolidating
(sensory
short-term
neurons);
memory (STM) to
2. Sensory
long-term
neurons excite
memory (LTM)
the
Amygdala
interneurons in
- in processing
the dorsal gray
emotions
of the spinal
Language System Broca’s Area cord;
- responsible for 3. Interneurons
expressive excite the motor
language (i.e. neurons in the
speaking) ventral gray of
Wernicke’s Area the spinal cord;
and

2
 Autonomic Nervous System
4. Nerves from the
motor neurons
exit the spinal regulates involuntary actions and
cord to excite controls internal activities of the glands,
the muscle and internal organs, blood vessels etc.
initiate
movement.

Sympathetic Nervous prepares the body for

Peripheral Nervous System System the fight-or-flight
response during periods
Somatic Nervous System (SNS) – of stress or emergency
transmits sensory information; controls situation; located in the
external activities of skeletal muscles, skin thoracic and lumbar
and glands; regulates voluntary actions portions of the spinal
cord

Parasympathetic takes over the body

Spinal nerves 31 pairs Nervous System during the period of
[Cervical – 8, Thoracic relaxation or
-12, Lumbar – 5, Sacral quiescence; it serves to
– 5, Coccygeal – 1] conserve the body’s
resources during times
Cranial nerves 12 pairs [Oily Oranges of injury or exhaustion;
On Tower Tickle Ants located in the cervical
Funnily And Give Velvety and sacral portions of
Angry Hands] the spinal cord

Overview of the Human Nervous System

Central Nervous - Division of the

System (CNS) nervous system
located within
1. the skull (brain)
2. the spine
(spinal cord)
- Where all of the
analysis of
information
takes place

Peripheral Nervous - Division of the

System (PNS) nervous system
outside the CNS
- Consists of the
neurons and

3

parts of neurons
found outside of
the CNS
In Real Life
Christopher Reeve suffered a C-2 level
spinal cord injury in an equestrian
competition in 1995. More than five years
after his injury, Chris was able to voluntarily
move one of his fingers.
Due to his experience, he and his wife
established The Reeve Foundation
dedicated to curing spinal cord injury by
funding innovative research, and improving
quality of life for people living with paralysis.
He died in 2004.
- The segments in the neck, or
cervical region, referred to as C1
through C8, control signals to the
neck, arms, hands, and, in some
cases, the diaphragm. Injury above
the C3 level may require a ventilator
for the person to breathe.
Neuron
- structural unit of the nervous
system;100 billion
Although the neuron is the structural unit of
the nervous system, the supporting cells or
glial cells actually outnumber the neuron
(900 billion or 90%). They function as a
scaffold to guide the growth of
developing neurons and support mature
neurons, insulators to prevent electrical
signals interference, and
chemical-releasers essential for the growth
and function of the neuron. Some studies
also suggest that glial cells may also play
a role in neuronal transmission of
signals. The uncontrolled growth of glial
cells results in brain cancer.
- Are neurons and nerves the same
thing?
Neurons are individual cells composed of
dendrites, cell body, axon and terminal
buttons. Nerves, on the other hand, are
bundles of neuron fibers (axons) which
transmit signals over some distance. Both
comprise the nervous system.
- Also called nerve cells or brain
cells
- Basic functional units of the
nervous system
- Specialized cells that transmit and
receive electrical signals in the
body
- At birth, there is about 100 billion
neurons
- Each neuron may be linked with
another 5000 to 10000 neurons - 1
quadrillion neural connections
Functions of a Neuron
1. Receive signals or information
(sensory neuron)
2. Integrate incoming signals to
determine whether or not the
information should be passed along
(interneuron)
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3. Communicate signals to target
cells such as other neurons or
muscles or glands (motor neuron)

Anatomy of a Neuron

1. Cell Body - Also known as the

soma, this contains the nucleus;
provides fuel, manufactures
chemicals, and maintains the 1. Synaptic Vesicles - Spherical
entire neuron in working order membrane packages that store
2. Axon - Carries signals away from neurotransmitter molecules ready
the cell body to neighboring for releases near synapses
neurons, organs or muscles 2. Neurotransmitters - Molecules
3. Myelin Sheath - produced by the that are released from active
glial cells called oligodendrocytes neurons and influence the activity of
(CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS), other cells
Fatty material that insulates an
axon; prevents interference from
electrical signals from adjacent
axons
- Myelinated axons conduct a signal
at a faster pace than unmyelinated
axons. *The loss or destruction of
the myelin sheath results in loss
of neural functioning in the
damaged cells. In the disease
multiple sclerosis, for instance,
symptoms include fatigue, changes
in vision, balance problems, and
numbness or muscle weakness in
the extremities.
4. Dendrites - Receive signals from
other neurons, muscles, or sense
organs and pass the signals towards
the cell body
5. Terminal Button - Region where
neurotransmitters are stored
6. Synapse - Small gap between the
terminal button and its adjacent
organ, muscle, or cell body

5
 Types of Neuron According to Function
communication

Afferent/Sensory bring stimuli from the Via chemical Communication

neurons sensors to the CNS transmission between neurons
- Afferent neurons (intercellular signaling)
access the spinal that occurs in the
cord, efferent synapses by the
neuron exit. process of
neurotransmission
Interneurons/Internun connect sensory and
cial neurons motor neurons Chemical Transmission in 5 Steps
Efferent/Motor bring responses from
neurons the brain to the 1. Neurotransmitter Synthesis
muscles and the glands 2. Neurotransmitter Packaging
3. Neurotransmitter Release
4. Neurotransmitter Binding
Neural Communication
5. Stopping the Chemical signal
is electro-chemical
- 2 processes of neural
communication:
1. Via electrical transmission
[dendrites to axon]
2. Via chemical transmission [terminal
button to synapse]

Via electrical - Also known as

transmission conduction
- Mechanism that
involves the
communication
of the cell body
with its own
terminals via the
axon
(intracellular
signaling or
communication
within the cell)
- Involves
electrical
signals (action
potentials) along
axons to achieve
long distance and
rapid

6
 Overview of the Neuron Growth Cycle

Lock and Key Model

Although there are many different NTs, each Neural Processes

has a unique chemical key that fits and
open certain locks or receptors. 1. Neurogenesis

Prenatal Process of generating

neurons from stem
cells (can produce
another stem cell or
produce another type of
cell) and progenitor cells
(specific to its target
cells)

Postnatal Occurs in the

hippocampus: Mature
neurons and young
neurons encode
different types of
information; mature
neurons are powerful at
representing what they
have encoded in the
past, whereas young
neurons can encode
novel events. The

7
 combination of both the neurons, the
populations facilitates more
the encoding of more neurotrophins
features robustly within generate and the
memories (Almone et al., better they
2014). respond.

Neurogenesis in the Practice 1. When we

hippocampus is practice
thought to persist something, it gets
through adulthood, easier for the
however, a recent study signals to cross
suggests (see Sorrells et the synapse.
al., 2018) that such is - Formation of
an extremely rare double
phenomenon among connections
humans, thereby raising - Thickening of the
questions about its dendrites and
contribution to brain myelin sheath
repair or normal brain thereby
function. decreasing the
gap in the
synapse
2. Synaptogenesis - formation of 2. Extensive
synapses between neurons in the long-term
nervous system. It is facilitated by: repeated
experiences
induce long-term
Learning - When we learn potentiation
something, two (LTP). The more
or more neurons neurons “fire”,
communicate the more the
with each other, axons and
thereby fostering dendrites grow
dendritic accustomed to
connections each other,
- Learning thereby, making
increase neural connections
activity which in easier to make.
turn regulated 3. If you learn
specific something new
molecules that and do it only
are produced and once or twice, the
secreted by dendrite
neurons to act as connection is
a brain nutrient very fragile and
that can promote can disappear
their health within hours
(neurotrophins). (Short-term
The more active memory).

8
 3. Neuroplasticity - brain’s ability to
(neurotrophic
grow and change; occurs throughout factors)
the lifespan Later in life,
- The brain is plastic throughout our inappropriate neuronal
lives cell death may result
- The brain can be ‘re -wired’ in many from pathological causes
ways : such as traumatic injury,
environmental toxins,
1. Mental activity (thought, feeling, or cardiovascular disorders,
action infectious agents, or
2. Creation of neural structures genetic diseases
3. Repetition of mental activity
4. Strengthening neural connections Necrosis analogous to neuronal
assassination, in which
neurons explode and
4. Neural Pruning - – Process that cause an inflammatory
involves synapse, axon and reaction after being
dendrite elimination that occurs destroyed by poisons,
between early childhood and the suffocation, or toxins
onset of puberty to increase the such as glutamate.
efficiency of neuronal transmissions
Neurons may lose their connecting powers
especially if neurons are not used at
appropriate times during brain development
If neurons are not used at appropriate times
during brain development, their ability to
make connections dies.
5. Cell death

Apoptosis Programmed cell death Neurotransmitters

that occurs through a
series of events termed - Also called transmitter substance,
apoptosis and is an
appropriate and neurotransmitters are chemicals
essential event during contained in synaptic vesicles held
brain development: by the terminal buttons. There are
- Neurons that are about 40 to 60 different
extra Neurons substances that act as
that have fulfilled neurotransmitters.
their functions,
- The binding between a
- Neurons that
have lose their neurotransmitter and a receptor site
connecting follows the lock-and-key model.
powers and This means that a neurotransmitter
- Neurons that fail would only fit a receptor site
to obtain intended for that
life-preserving neurotransmitter.
chemicals

9
 wherein the fiber tracts are still under
maturation. The thicker the dendrites, the
faster the signals travel. The myelin coating
also reduces interference.

4. Practice and repetition builds

stronger synaptic connections.
Practice enables signals to cross the
synapse because the contact area becomes
wider and more neurotransmitters are
stored there.

Ways To Improve Brain Functions

Physical activity aIncrease blood flow to

the brain. Although the
brain is only 2% of our
Learning and Neural Communication body weight, it uses
20-30% of the body’s
Learning occurs when two neurons energy in the form of
communicate with each other (i.e. neurons oxygen and glucose.
However, since the brain
have “learned” when one neuron sends a
cannot store any energy
message to another neuron) (Hannaford, sources, it is necessary
1995) to deliver a constant
supply of these essential
1. Long Term Potentiation (LTP) substances.
The more neurons “fire”, the more the axons - Increased blood
and dendrites grow accustomed to each flow to the brain
leads to
other, thereby, making connections easier to
formation of new
make. Practice and repetition makes blood vessels
permanent! (angiogenesis)
that in turn
2. Practice and repetition build contributes
double connections. increased
Faster, stronger, double connections last a neurogenesis
(Bloor, 2005).
very long time; hence, we remember what Angiogenesis,
we learn better. just like
neurogenesis,
3. Effects of practice on myelination. persists for a
Practice causes the dendrites grow thicker lifetime as
with a fatty coating of myelin. A study by opposed to initial
belief.
Bengtsson et al (2005) reveals that training
- Increased blood
can induce myelination if it is in a period flow to the brain

10
 enhances waste Memory training In general, memory
removal and training increases
energy sources synaptogenesis. Further,
such as oxygen it leads to neurotrophin
and glucose. production which
Sustained stimulates dendritic
moderate-intensity growth and then physical
aerobic exercise causes changes in the brain
neurogenesis. A 2016 by provided that the same
Nokia and colleagues neurons are being
study found that adult constantly stimulated.
male rats that did For instance, London
sustained aerobic taxi drivers have
exercise (treadmill) for 8 increased gray matter
weeks has 2-3 x more and hippocampal
hippocampal neurons volume. The longer they
compared with those drive, the bigger these
that were sedentary and regions get. (Maguire et
with those that did al., 2006).
high-intensity training – a
20-minute cycle of spurts Mnemonic device is a
of sprinting then jogging. form of memory training
However, those that did that combines
weightlifting did not show visualization, imagery,
any signs of spatial navigation, and
neurogenesis. rhythm and melody. A
popular ancient method,
Meditation Meditation increases known as Method of Loci
brain-derived (MoL), is utilized in a
neurotrophic factor 2003 study by Maguire
(BDNF) (Tang et al., and colleagues which
2015; Cahn et al., 2017), involves “picturing highly
a protein that promotes familiar routes through a
the survival of nerve building (your childhood
cells (neurons) by home) or a town (your
playing a role in the way to work).
growth, maturation
(differentiation), and Intermittent energy which “refers to eating
maintenance of these restriction (IER) patterns that included
cells. Meditation extended time periods
enhances of the brain during which little or no
that is associated with food is consumed
pain tolerance, body (typically 16-24 h)
awareness, interspersed with periods
meta-thinking of ad libitum eating” (van
(awareness of how you Praag et al., 2014),
think), memory, lowers leptin, a hormone
emotional control, produced by fat. As a
happiness, and attention result, the brain receives
(Fox et al., 2014). a chemical signal to

11
 produce more energy, cells to produce natural
thereby leading to brain nutrients, called
increased synaptic neurotrophins, that can
plasticity and neural dramatically increase the
growth, decreased risk size and complexity of
of neurodegenerative nerve cell dendrites …
diseases, and improved make surrounding cells
cognitive function. stronger and more
resistant to the effects of
Sleep Sleep promotes neural aging” (Katz & Rubin,
growth by growing the 2014).
dendritic spines or tiny
protrusions that connect Learn to play a Resting also on the
neurons and thereby musical instrument assumption that we learn
facilitates the best by association of
transmission of our sensorimotor
information across experiences to
synapses (Yang et al., information, playing a
2014). Try to sleep musical instrument can
within the window hour strengthen connections
of 10PM to 2AM wherein between auditory and
the deepest and motor regions (e.g.,
regenerative sleep arcuate fasciculus) while
occurs. Stage N3 (Delta activating multimodal
sleep or slow wave integration regions (e.g.,
sleep) is the around the intraparietal
regenerative period sulcus), thereby
wherein the body heals promoting neuroplasticity
and repairs itself. across the life span
Together with (Wan & Schlaug, 2010).
acetylcholine, slow wave
sleep is deemed as Dance A study published by
responsible for memory New England Journal of
consolidation (Power, Medicine (see Verghese
2004) et al., 2003) compared
the effectiveness of
Neurobics “calls for presenting the cognitive activities in
brain with nonroutine or warding off Alzheimer's
unexpected experiences and dementia and found
using various that dancing had the
combinations of your greatest effect (76% risk
physical senses – vision, reduction); higher than
smell, touch, taste, and doing crossword puzzles
hearing – as well as your at least four days a week
emotional ‘sense.’ It (47%) and reading
stimulates patterns of (35%). It was
neural activity that create hypothesized that
more connections dancing promotes
between different brain synaptogenesis because
areas and causes nerve it integrates all

12
 sensorimotor functions.

Learn a foreign Expanding vocabulary

language (Anderson, 2016) and
learning a foreign
language promotes
neuroplasticity (Kimppa
et al, 2016) and causes
anatomical changes in
the brain (Li et al., 2014).

Reading a novel Researchers at Emory

University have detected
changes in “resting-state
connectivity” of the brain
after reading a novel
(Berns et al., 2013). The
fMRI revealed that
heightened connectivity
in the left temporal
cortex (i.e., an area
associated with
receptive language) and
central sulcus (i.e.,
primary sensory motor
region) are retained on
the mornings following
reading assignments.

Neuroenhancers and Neuroenhancement is

nootropic the “non-medical use of
supplements prescription medication
for pursuit of increasing
cognitive and intellectual
capacities” (Vargo &
Petróczi, 2016).

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