Other Senses COGNITION, CONSCIOUSNESS, AND LANGUAGE

• Smell: detection of volatile or aerosolized

chemicals by olfactory chemoreceptors Consciousness Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
(olfactory nerves) • Sensorimotor stage: focuses on
Stage EEG Waves Features
• Taste: detection of dissolved compounds by manipulating the environment to meet
taste buds in papillae Awake Beta and Able to perceive, process, physical needs through circular reactions;
• Somatosensation: four touch modalities alpha access, and express object permanence ends this stage
(pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature) information • Preoperational stage: focuses on symbolic
• Kinesthetic sense (proprioception): ability to 1 Theta Light sleep thinking, egocentrism (inability to imagine
tell where one’s body is in space what another person thinks or feels), and
2 Theta Sleep spindles and K centration (focusing on only one aspect of a
complexes phenomenon)
Object Recognition
3/4 Delta Slow-wave sleep; dreams; • Concrete operational stage: focuses on
• Bottom-up (data-driven) processing: understanding the feelings of others and
declarative memory
recognition of objects by parallel processing manipulating physical (concrete) objects
consolidation; some sleep
and feature detection. Slower, but less prone
to mistakes
disorders • Formal operational stage: focuses on abstract
thought and problem-solving
• Top-down (conceptually-driven) processing: REM Mostly Appears awake
recognition of an object by memories and beta physiologically; dreams;
expectations, with little attention to detail. paralyzed; procedural Problem-Solving and Decision-Making
Faster, but more prone to mistakes memory consolidation; some Problem-solving techniques include trial-and-
• Gestalt principles: ways that the brain can sleep disorders error, algorithms, deductive reasoning (deriving
infer missing parts of an image when it is conclusions from general rules) and inductive
Sleep disorders include dyssomnias (amount or
incomplete reasoning (deriving generalizations from evidence).
timing of sleep), such as insomnia, narcolepsy,
sleep apnea, and sleep deprivation; and Heuristics (simplified principles used to make
LEARNING AND MEMORY
parasomnias (odd behaviors during sleep), such as decisions, “rules of thumb”), biases, intuition, and
Learning nightsleepwalking
and terrors (somnambulism). emotions may assist decision-making, but may
also lead to erroneous or problematic decisions.
• Habituation: the process of becoming used
to a stimulus Consciousness-Altering Drugs
• Dishabituation: occurs when a second Drug addiction is mediated by the mesolimbic
Attention
stimulus intervenes, causing a resensitization pathway, which includes the nucleus accumbens, • Selective attention: allows one to pay
to the original stimulus medial forebrain bundle, and ventral tegmental area. attention to a particular stimulus while
• Observational learning: the acquisition of Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter. determining if additional stimuli require
behavior by watching others attention in the background
Drug Group Function • Divided attention: uses automatic processing to
• Associative learning: pairing together
stimuli and responses, or behaviors and Depressants Sense of relaxation pay attention to multiple activities at one
consequences (alcohol, barbiturates, and reduced time
• Classical conditioning: a form of associative anxiety benzodiazepines) Language Areas in the Brain
learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes
Stimulants Increased arousal • Wernicke’s area: language comprehension;
associated with an unconditioned stimulus
(amphetamines, cocaine, damage results in Wernicke’s aphasia
such that the neutral stimulus alone
ecstasy) (fluent, nonsensical aphasia with lack of
produces the same response as the
comprehension)
unconditioned stimulus; the neutral stimulus Opiates/opioids Decreased reaction to
thus becomes a conditioned stimulus • Broca’s area: motor function of speech;
(heroin, morphine, pain; euphoria
damage results in Broca’s aphasia
opium, pain pills)
(nonfluent aphasia in which generating each
Hallucinogens Distortions of word requires great effort)
+
(LSD, peyote, mescaline, reality and fantasy; • Arcuate fasciculus: connects Wernicke’s
UCS
(food)
Neutral ketamine, psilocybin- introspection and Broca’s areas; damage results in
stimulus
UCR (bell) No Response containing mushrooms) conduction aphasia (the inability to repeat
words despite intact speech generation and
Marijuana has some features of depressants, comprehension)
stimulants, and hallucinogens (in very high
doses).
Memory MOTIVATION, EMOTION, AND STRESS
Human Memory
CS (bell) Motivation
Sensory Short-term Working Long-term
CR (salivation)
Memory
Motivation is the purpose or driving force behind
Memory Memory Memory
(< 1 sec) (< 1 min) (lifetime) our actions.
• Operant conditioning: a form of associative Extrinsic: based on external circumstances
learning in which the frequency of a
Explicit Implicit Intrinsic: based on internal drive or perception
behavior is modified using reinforcement Memory
Memory
(increases behavior) or punishment (decreases (conscious) (unconscious)
Motivation theories
behavior)
Stimulus • Instinct theory: innate, fixed patterns of
Declarative Procedural
Added Removed behavior in response to stimuli
Memory Memory
(facts, events) (skills, tasks)
• Arousal theory: the state of being awake and
Continues

reactive to stimuli; aim for optimal level of

Positive Negative arousal for a given task (Yerkes–Dodson
Episodic Semantic
reinforcement reinforcement Memory Memory law)
Strong Optimal arousal
(events, experiences) (facts, concepts) Optimal performance

• Encoding: the process of putting new

Behavior

Performance

Impaired performance
information into memory because of strong anxiety

Facts are stored via semantic networks. Retrieval

Stops

Positive Negative
punishment punishment of information is often based on priming
Increasing attention
interconnected nodes of the semantic network. and interest
Weak
Recognition of information is stronger than recall. Low High
Arousal
 Somatic symptom
• Drive and theory:
reduction related individuals
disorders act • SOCIAL INTERACTION
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
• Cultural relativism: studying social groups and
to relievesymptom
• Somatic internal states of tension
disorder: at least one cultures on their own terms
• somatic
Maslow’ssymptom,
hierarchywhich
of needs:
mayprioritizes
or may notneeds
be Elementsand
Diagnostic of Social Interaction
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Anxiety disorders
• Discrimination: when prejudicial attitudes
into five
linked categories:
to an underlyingphysiological needs that
medical condition, (DSM): the guide
• Status: by which
a position in most psychological
society used to disorders cause differences
• Generalized anxietyindisorder:
treatment of a
constant
(highestdisproportionate
causes priority), safety and security, love and
concern are characterized, described,
classify individuals. Can and diagnosed.
be ascribed disproportionate
group and persistent worry
belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization (involuntarily assigned), achieved
• Illness anxiety disorder: preoccupation with
Types(voluntarily
of Psychological SOCIAL STRUCTURE
• Specific AND DEMOGRAPHICS
phobias: irrational fears of specific
(lowestor
having priority)
coming down with a serious earned), or Disorders
master (primary objects
medical condition Schizophrenia:
identity) psychotic disorder characterized by • Social anxiety disorder: anxiety due to social
Emotion
• Conversion disorder: unexplained symptoms
distortions
• Role:of setreality and disturbances
of beliefs, in content
values, and norms that Sociology: Theories situations
or performance and Institutions
and form of thought,
define perception,ofand
the expectations behavior.
a certain
Seven affecting
universalmotor or sensory
emotions: function
happiness, sadness, •• Agoraphobia:
Functionalism:fear focuses on the
of places function and
or situations
Positive symptoms include hallucinations, delusions,
status relationships
contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger where it is hard of each
for an component
individual to escapeof
Personality disorders and •disorganized
Group: twothought
or moreand behavior.with
individuals Negative
similar society
Theories of emotion: • Panic disorder: recurrent attacks of intense,
Patterns of inflexible, maladaptive behavior that symptoms include disturbance
characteristics who share of affect
a senseand of avolition.
unity • overwhelming
Conflict theory: focuses on how power
fear and sympathetic nervous
cause distress or impaired functioning • Network:
Depressive disorders observable pattern of social system activity
differentials arewith no clear
created and stimulus.
how theyIt may
First Second lead to agoraphobia.
relationships
Major depressive between
disorder: individuals
contains at leastor maintain order
• Cluster A (odd, eccentric,
Theory “weird”): response
response
groups
one major depressive episode • Symbolic interactionism:
Obsessive–compulsive the study of
disorder: obsessions
paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid
James–Lange Nervous Conscious Organization:
• Pervasive group with a structure how individuals
(persistent, interact through
intrusive thoughts a shared
and impulses) and
• Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, erratic, “wild”): depressive disorder: a depressed
system emotion and culture
mood (eitherdesigned
dysthymiato achieve
or major depression) understanding
compulsions (repetitiveof words, gestures,
tasks that relieve and other
tension but
antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
arousal specific
for at least two years symbols impairment)
cause significant
• Cluster C (anxious, fearful, “worried”):
Cannon–Bard
avoidant, dependent, Nervous Action
obsessive–compulsive Seasonalgoals; exists
affective outsidethe
disorder: of each individual’s
colloquial Body• dysmorphic
Social constructionism: explores
disorder: unrealistic how
negative
membership within the organization
STIMULUS

system name for major depressive disorder with individuals

evaluation of one’sand groups make
appearance decisions
or a specific to
body
arousal and part seasonal onset, with depression occurring agree upon a given social reality
SOCIAL PROCESSES, conscious Self-Presentation and Interacting with Others
during winter months Dissociative disorders
ATTITUDES, emotionAND Dissociative amnesia:
• Display rules: inability
unspokentorules
recallthat
pastgovern Culture
Bipolar and related disorders
BEHAVIOR the expression of emotion • experience. May involve
Material culture: dissociative
physical items onefugue, a
Group Psychology
Schachter–Singer Nervous Conscious
•• Bipolar I disorder: contains at least one
system emotion Impression management: maintenance of amanic sudden change
associates with in location
a given that(art,
group can involve
• Social facilitation: tendency to perform at a the episode
public image through various strategies assumption of a buildings)
clothing, foods, new identity
arousal and
different level (better or worse) when others • Bipolar II disorder: contains at least one •• Dissociative identity
Symbolic culture: thedisorder: two or more
ideas associated with a
cognitive
are around hypomanic SOCIAL
episodeTHINKING
and at least one major personalities
cultural groupthat take control of
appraisal
• Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness in behavior depressive episode • Depersonalization/derealization disorder:
large groups; can lead to drastic changes Social Behavior
• Cyclothymic disorder: contains hypomanic Demographics
feelings of detachment from the mind
in behavior • and
Interpersonal
episodes withattraction:
dysthymia influenced by body, or from the environment
Stress Demographics: the statistical arm of sociology
• Bystander effect: in a group, individuals are physical, social, and psychological factors
Stress:less
thelikely
physiological andtocognitive
to respond a person response
in need • Aggression: behavior with the intention to Migration refers to the movement of people into
to challenges or life changes
• Peer pressure: social influence placed on an Formation
causeof Identity
harm or increase social dominance Personality
(immigration) or out of (emigration) a geographical
• individual by other individuals
Primary appraisal: classifying athey consider
potential Freud’s stages of psychosexual
• Attachment: an emotionaldevelopment
bond to another location.
Psychoanalytic perspective: personality results from
equals
stressor as irrelevant, benign–positive, or person;onusually
• Based tensionsrefers to the
caused by bond between
the libido, with unconscious urges
Demographic and desires
transition: a model used to represent
stressful
• Group polarization: tendency towards making a childatand
failure anya given
caregiver
stage leading to fixation drops
• in birthid,
Freud: and death rates
superego, ego as a result of
• decisions
Secondary in appraisal:
a group that are more
directed at extreme
evaluating Jung:•collective
Altruism: helping behavior
unconscious, in which the
archetypes industrialization
then the thoughts
whether of the
the organism canindividual
cope withgroup
the person’s intent is to benefit someone else at
members
stress, based on harm, threat, and a personal cost Humanistic perspective: emphasizes internal
challenge
• Groupthink: tendency to make decisions feelings of healthy individuals as they strive toward
Conscious SOCIAL
happiness and STRATIFICATION
self-realization
based on ideas and solutions thatthat
ariseleads
Stressor (distress or eustress):
within the group without
anything SOCIAL PERCEPTION AND BEHAVIOR
to a stress response; can includeconsidering outside
environmental, Maslow: hierarchy of needs Social Class
social,ideas
psychological, chemical, and biological Rogers: unconditional
Attribution Theory positive regard
Social stratification is based on socioeconomic
stressors FocusesPreconscious
on the tendency for individuals to infer the status
Type and(SES).
trait theory: personality can be described
Culture
The three stages of the general adaptation syndrome
ego
causes of other people’s behavior as a number of identifiable traits that carry
• Class: a category of people with
are •alarm,
Assimilation:
resistance, one culture
and begins to melt into
exhaustion. superego characteristic behaviors
shared socioeconomic characteristics
• Dispositional (internal) causes relate to the
another
good health bad stress
• Type
Power: the capacity
theories to influence
of personality: peopleGreek
ancient
features of the person who is being
id humors, Sheldon’s somatotypes, division
• Multiculturalism:
1. Alarm
encouragement of multiple
3. Exhaustion considered through real or perceived rewards and into
cultures
Good stage a community tostage
health within enhance Unconscious
Types A and B, and the Myers–Briggs
punishments
Resistance

• Situational (external) causes relate to features

panic zone

(homeostasis)
diversity Type Inventory
• Social capital: the investment people
2. Resistance of the surroundings or social context
• Subculture: a group that stagedistinguishes itself • Eysenck’s three major
make in society traits:
in return psychoticism,
for economic or
• Correspondent inference theory: describes
from the primary culture to which it belongs extraversion,
collective neuroticism
rewards
breakdown attributions made by observing the
(burnout) Trait theorists’
intentionalBig Five: openness,
(especially unexpected) • Social reproduction: the passing on of
Socialization Time
Erikson’s stages of
behaviors psychosocial
performed development
by another person conscientiousness,
social extraversion,
inequality, especially poverty, to other
• Socialization: the process of developing agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN)
generations
IDENTITY AND PERSONALITY •• Stem
Fundamental attribution
from conflicts that error:
are thebias toward
result of decisions
and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs making dispositional attributions rather than • Allport’s
Poverty: three
low SES; in types
basic the US,
of the poverty
traits: line is
cardinal,
we are forced to make about ourselves and the
Self-Conceptboundaries
• Norms: and Identity of acceptable behavior situational attributions the government’s
central, calculation of the
and secondary
environment around us at each phase of our lives
within society minimum income requirements to acquire
• Self-concept: the sum of the ways in which • Stages are trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs.
• Stigma: extreme disapproval or dislike Stereotypes,
shame andPrejudice, and Discrimination
doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry
the minimum necessities of life
we describe ourselves: in the present, who we
of a person or group based on • vs.
Stereotypes:
inferiority,attitudes
identityand
vs. impressions that
role confusion,
used to be, and who we might be in the Epidemiology
perceived differences are madevs.
intimacy based on limited
isolation, and superficial
generativity vs.
• future
Identities: individual components of our self- new cases
• Deviance: any violation of norms, rules, or information integrity vs. despair
stagnation,
concept related to the groups to which we Incidence: per time
expectations within a society • Self-fulfilling
• belong
Self-esteem: our evaluation of ourselves Kohlberg’s theory of prophecy: the phenomenon
moral reasoning development population- at risk
• Conformity: changing beliefs or behaviors in of a stereotype creating an expectation of a
• order
Self-efficacy: theadegree
to fit into group orto which
societywe see • Describes the approaches of individuals
particular group, which creates conditions that number of cases(new or old)
ourselves as being capable of a given skill in to resolving moral dilemmas
• Compliance: individuals change behavior lead to confirmation of this stereotype Prevalence: per time
a
given situation •• Six stages are divided into three main
based on the request of others; techniques Stereotype threat: a feeling of anxiety total population
• for
Locus of control: a self-evaluation that refers phases: preconventional, conventional,
gaining compliance include foot-in-the- about confirming a negative stereotypeand
to the door-in-the-face,
way we characterize the influences in Morbidity: the burden or degree of illness associated
door, lowball, and that’s- • postconventional
Prejudice: an irrationally based attitude with a given disease
our lives. Either internal (success or failure is a
not-all prior theory
Vygotsky’s to actual experience
of cultural and biosocial
result of our own
• Obedience: actions)
change or external
in behavior based(success
on a Mortality: deaths caused by a given disease
development
• Ethnocentrism: the practice of making
or failure isfrom
command a result of outside
someone seenfactors)
as an judgmentsdevelopment
• Describes about otherofcultures based
language, on
culture,
authority figure the values
and skills and beliefs of one’s own
culture (in-group vs. out-group)
 A LA
I MCAT QUICKSHEETS
Amino Acids Found in Proteins
Amino acids have an amino group, c arboxylic acid, a
hydrogen atom, and an R group attached to a central
n-carbon.
H o
ON ^
H OH
R G protein-coupled receptors have a membrane
Amino acids are chiral (L), except for glycine; and
have the (S) configuration, except for cysteine.
Side chains determine the chemistry and function of
amino acids:
• Nonpolar, nonaromatic: glycine, alanine,
valine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, proline
• Aromatic: tryptophan, phenylalan ine, tyrosine
• Polar: serine, threonine, asparagine,
glutamine, cysteine
• Negatively charged (acidic): aspartic acid,
glutamic acid
• Positively charged (basic): lysine, arginine,
histidine
Acid—Base Chemistry of Amino Acids
Amino acids are amphoteric.
• At low (acid ie) pH: fully protonated
• At neutral pH: zwitterion
• At high (basic) pH: fully deprotonated
pt is determined by averaging the pd, values that refer
to protonation and deprotonation of the zwitterion.
Peptide Bond Formation and Hydrolysis
Peptide bond formation is a condensation
(dehydration) reaction with a nucleophilic amino
group attacking an electrophilic carbonyl. Peptide
bonds are broken by hydrolysis.
H*or 0 H
Protein Structure
Primary structure: linear sequen ce of amino acids
Secondary structure: local structure, stabilized by
hyd rogen bonding
n-helixes
• ,/J-pleated sheets
Tertiary structure: three-dimensional structure
stabilized by hydrophobic interactions, acid—base
interactions (salt bridges), hydrogen bonding, and
disulfide bonds
H O
|"
BIOCHEMISTRY ąr*
NONENZYMATIC PROTEIN FUNCTION BIOSIGNALING
AND PROTEIN ANASIRS Ion channels can be used for regulating ion flow
Cellular Functions into or out of a cell. There are three main types of
Structural proteins: generally fibrous. Include ion channels: ungated channels, voltage-gated
collagen, elastin, keratin, actin, and tubulin channels, and ligand-gated channels.
Motor proteins: capable of force generation through Enzyme-linked receptors participate in cell signaling
a conformational change. Include myosin, through extracellular ligand binding and initiation
kinesin, and dynein of second messen er cascades.
bound protein associated with a trimeric G protein.
They also initiate second messenger systems.
e
GDP
' •’*°""•"’‹'• ›
Binding proteins: bind a specific substrate, either nactive G protein active G protein
to sequester it in the body or hold its concentration
at steady state
Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs): bind cells to other
GTP
cells or surfaces. Include cadherins, integrins, and
selectins
Antibodies (or immunoglobulins, Ig): target a
specific antigen, which may be a protein on the
surface of a pathogen (invad ing organism)
GDP
or a toxin
ENZYMES
Enzyme Kinetics
Saturation kinetics: As substrate concentration
increases, the reaction rate also increases until a
maximum value is reached.
Atone-hañvpa {S)=
Michaelis—Menten
• Ligases are responsible for joining two large
biomolecules, often of the same type.
• Isomerases catalyze the interconversion of
isomers, including both constitutional and
stereoisomers.
• Lyases catalyze cleavage without the addition
of water and without the transfer of electrons.
The reverse reaction (synthesis) is usually more
biologically important.
Lineweaver—Burk
• Hydrolases catalyze cleavage with the add ition
of water.
• Oxidoreductases catalyze oxidation—reduction
reactions that involve the transfer of electrons.
• Transferases move a functional group from one
molecule to another molecule.
Enzymes, like all catalysts, lower the activation
energy necessary for reactions. They do not
alter the free energy 6G) or enthalpy (A//l
change that accompanies the reaction nor the
final equilibrium position; rather, they change the Cooperative enzymes show a sigmoidal curve.
rate (kinetics) at which equilibrium is reached.

*2 ’** 2 Regulation of Enzyme Activity

’
cn, Hy O- Competitive Noncompetitive Mixed Uncompetitive
H O—
H 0 Binding Site Active site Allosteric site Allosteric site Allosteric site
Impact on f¢ Increases No change Increases or Decreases Decreases
Impact on x No change Decreases Decreases Decreases
Quaternary Structure: interactions between subunits """
Heat and solutes can cause denaturation.
 CARBOHYDRATE STRUCTURE DNA AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
AND FUNCTION
Carbohydrate Classification NH2 Centromeres are located in the middle of
chromosomes and hold sister chromatids
Carbohydrates are organized by their number of together
N until they are separated during anaphase in mitosis.
carbon atoms and functional groups. high-energy N They also contain a high GC-content.
• 3-carbon sugars are trioses, 4-carbon bonds
sugars are tetroses, and so on.
DNA Replication
• Sugars with aldehydes as their most N N Step in Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
oxidized group are aldoses; sugars with O O O Replication Cells Cells (Nuclei)
ketones as their most oxidized group are –
ketoses. O P O P O P O CH2 O Origin of One per Multiple per
– – – replication chromosome chromosome
Sugars with the highest-numbered chiral carbon with O O O
the –OH group on the right (in a Fischer projection) Unwinding of Helicase Helicase
are D-sugars; those with the –OH on the left are DNA double
OH OH helix
L-sugars. D- and L-forms of the same sugar are
enantiomers.
ATP
Stabilization Single- Single-
Diastereomers differ at at least one—but not all—chiral of unwound stranded stranded
carbons. Also include: DNA Structure template DNA-binding DNA-binding
Epimers differ at exactly one chiral carbon. Nucleosides contain a five-carbon sugar bound to strands protein protein
• Anomers are a subtype of epimers that differ a nitrogenous base; nucleotides are nucleosides Synthesis of Primase Primase
at the anomeric carbon. with one to three phosphate groups added. RNA primers
Nucleotides in DNA contain deoxyribose; in RNA,
Cyclic Sugar Molecules Synthesis of DNA DNA
they contain ribose.
DNA polymerase III polymerases α
Cyclization describes the ring formation of Nucleotides are abbreviated by letter: adenine and δ
carbohydrates from their straight-chain forms. (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T), and
uracil (U). Removal of RNA DNA RNase H
When rings form, the anomeric carbon can take on
primers polymerase I (5'→3'
either an α- or β-conformation.
(5'→3' exonuclease)
The anomeric carbon is the new chiral center Watson–Crick Model exonuclease)
formed in ring closure; it was the carbon • The DNA backbone is composed of
containing the carbonyl in the straight-chain form. alternating sugar and phosphate groups, and Replacement of DNA DNA
is always read 5' to 3'. RNA with DNA polymerase I polymerase δ
• α-anomers have the –OH on the
anomeric carbon trans to the free – • There are two strands with antiparallel Joining of DNA ligase DNA ligase
CH2OH group. polarity, wound into a double helix. Okazaki
• β-anomers have the –OH on the anomeric • Purines (A and G) always pair with pyrimidines fragments
carbon cis to the free –CH2OH group. (C, U, and T). In DNA, A pairs with T (via two
Removal DNA DNA
hydrogen bonds) and C pairs with G (via
During mutarotation, one anomeric form shifts of positive topoisomerase topoisomerase
three hydrogen bonds). In RNA, A pairs with
to another, with the straight-chain form as an supercoils II (DNA gyrase) II (DNA gyrase)
U (via two hydrogen bonds).
intermediate. ahead of
• Chargaff’s rules: purines and pyrimidines
advancing
are equal in number in a DNA molecule.
replication
Monosaccharides The amount of A equals the amount of T,
forks
CH2OH CHO CHO CHO and the amount of C equals the amount of
C O H OH H OH HO H G. Synthesis of Not applicable Telomerase
HO H HO H HO H HO H
DNA strands can be pulled apart (denatured) and telomeres
H OH H OH HO H H OH
brought back together (reannealed).
H OH H OH H OH H

OH
Eukaryotic Chromosome Organization
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH DNA replication is semiconservative: one old parent
D-fructose D-glucose D-galactose D-mannose
DNA is organized into 46 chromosomes in human cells. strand and one new daughter strand is incorporated
Monosaccharides are single carbohydrate units In eukaryotes, DNA is wound around histone proteins into each of the two new DNA
and can undergo three main reactions: molecules. (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) to form nucleosomes, which leading strand
DNA polymerase III
may be stabilized by another histone protein (H1). 5’
oxidation–reduction, esterification, and glycoside
on leading strand

formation. DNA and its associated histones make up chromatin 3’ ssDNA-binding protein

in the nucleus. leading strand template

Glycoside formation is the basis for building complex

parent DNA
DNA polymerase III
helicase 3’
Heterochromatin is dense, transcriptionally
carbohydrates and requires the anomeric carbon to on lagging strand
Okazaki fragment
5’
link to another sugar. silent DNA. primase

Sugars with a –H replacing an –OH group are termed Euchromatin is less dense, transcriptionally 5’ 5’

deoxy sugars. active DNA. lagging strand template

with H1 without H1 DNA polymerase synthesizes new DNA strands,

Disaccharides 10 nm
reading the template DNA 3' to 5' and synthesizing
Common disaccharides include sucrose (glucose-α-
30 nm
the new strand 5' to 3'.
1,2-fructose), lactose (galactose-β-1,4-glucose), and H2A
• The leading strand requires only one primer
maltose (glucose-α-1,4-glucose). H2B H3 and can then be synthesized continuously.
H4 H1 H2A expanded view of • The lagging strand requires many primers
Polysaccharides H3 H2B
a nucleosome
and is synthesized in discrete sections
expanded view H4 called Okazaki fragments.
• Cellulose: main structural component of plant
cell walls; main source of fiber in the
human diet Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology
• Starches (amylose and amylopectin): main Recombinant DNA is DNA composed of nucleotides
energy storage forms for plants from two different sources.
Telomeres are the ends of chromosomes. They
• Glycogen: a major energy storage form for contain a high GC-content to prevent unraveling of DNA cloning introduces a fragment of DNA into
animals a vector plasmid. A restriction enzyme (restriction
the DNA.
Once replicated, the bacterial cells can be used to Transcription BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES
create a protein of interest, or can be lysed to allow DNA transcription
for isolation of the fragment of interest from the TATA
box ATG TGA
Membrane Transport
vector. –35 –10 coding region
5' 3' Osmotic pressure, a colligative property, is the
DNA libraries are large collections of known DNA 3'
promoter
5'
pressure applied to a pure solvent to prevent
sequences. 5' untranslated 3' untranslated osmosis and is related to the concentration of
region (UTR) region (UTR)
• Genomic libraries contain large fragments of
+1
transcription the solution.
transcription terminates
DNA, including both coding and noncoding Π = iMRT
mRNA GC-rich stem
regions of the genome. They cannot be and loop
Shine–Dalgarno AUG UGA
Passive transport does not require ATP because
used to make recombinant proteins or for sequence coding region
5' UUUUUU 3' the molecule is moving down its concentration
gene therapy.
5' UTR 3' UTR
gradient or from an area of higher concentration to
• cDNA libraries (expression libraries) translation an area of lower concentration.
contain smaller fragments of DNA, and only
include the exons of genes expressed by the H2N–protein–COOH
• Simple diffusion does not require a
sample tissue. They can be used to make transporter. Small, nonpolar molecules
recombinant proteins or for gene therapy. Steps: passively move from an area of high
• Helicase and topoisomerase unwind DNA concentration to an area of low concentration
Hybridization is the joining of complementary base until equilibrium is achieved.
double helix.
pair sequences. • Osmosis describes the diffusion of water
• RNA polymerase II binds to TATA box within
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an automated promoter region of gene (25 base pairs across a selectively permeable membrane.
process by which millions of copies of a DNA upstream from first transcribed base). • Facilitated diffusion uses transport proteins
sequence can be created from a very small sample to move impermeable solutes across the
• hnRNA synthesized from DNA template
by hybridization. cell membrane.
(antisense) strand.
DNA molecules can be separated by size using Active transport requires energy in the form of
agarose gel electrophoresis. Posttranscriptional modifications:
ATP (primary) or an existing favorable ion gradient
Southern blotting can be used to detect the • 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap added (secondary). Secondary active transport can be
presence and quantity of various DNA strands to 5' end further classified as symport or antiport.
in a sample. After electrophoresis, the sample • Polyadenosyl (poly-A) tail added to 3' end
is transferred to a membrane that can be • Splicing done by spliceosome; introns
probed with single-stranded DNA molecules to removed and exons ligated together. molecules
transport
look for a sequence of interest. Alternative splicing combines different exons proteins

to acquire different gene products.

DNA sequencing uses dideoxyribonucleotides,
which terminate the DNA chain because they lack
a 3' –OH group. Translation cell membrane

Occurs at the ribosome.

RNA AND THE GENETIC CODE concentration

gradient
simple
diffusion
facilitated
diffusion
energy
(ATP or ion gradient)

{
Central Dogma: DNA → RNA → proteins A U G C C G U A U G C U A U G C C G U A U G C U
active transport
U A C U A CG G C passive transport

The Genetic Code Endocytosis and exocytosis are methods of

Degenerate code allows multiple codons to encode Met
P site A site
Pro engulfing material into cells or releasing material
for the same amino acid.
Met
to the exterior of cells, both via the cell membrane.
anticodon
Pinocytosis is the ingestion of liquid into the cell
• Initiation: AUG incoming tRNA
from vesicles formed from the cell membrane
• Termination: UAA, UGA, UAG and phagocytosis is the ingestion of solid
• Redundancy and wobble (third base in Three stages: initiation, elongation, termination material.
the codon) allow mutations to occur
Posttranslational modifications:
without affecting the protein.
• Folding by chaperones CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
Point mutations can cause:
• Formation of quaternary structure
• Silent mutations, with no effect on protein • Cleavage of proteins or signal Glycolysis
synthesis Occurs in the cytoplasm of all cells, and does not
• sequences Covalent addition of other
• Nonsense (truncation) mutations, which require oxygen. Yields 2 ATP per glucose. Important
biomolecules
produce a premature stop codon enzymes include:
(phosphorylation, carboxylation, glycosylation,
• Missense mutations, which produce a
• Glucokinase: present in the pancreatic β-islet
codon that codes for a different amino acid
Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes cells as part of the glucose sensor and is
• Frameshift mutations, which result from responsive to insulin in the liver
nucleotide addition or deletion and Operons (Jacob–Monod model) are inducible or
Hexokinase: traps glucose
change the reading frame of subsequent repressible clusters of genes transcribed as a
single mRNA. • Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1): rate-limiting
codons
regulator promoter operator structural regulator promoter operator structural step
RNA is structurally similar to DNA except: • Phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2): produces
• Substitution of a ribose sugar for
• deoxyribose Substitution of uracil for F2,6-BP, which activates PFK-1
RNA polymerase RNA polymerase

• thymine R
binds
R
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase:
rrepressor
inducer I inducer—repressor
repressor repressor—corepressor
complex binds to
produces NADH
There are three major types of RNA in transcription: R
I complex cannot bind
R to operator—structural
R C R C operator and represses
enzyme synthesis
• 3-phosphoglycerate kinase and
genes are transcribed

• Messenger RNA (mRNA): carries the pyruvate kinase: perform substrate-level

repressor cannot
corepressor (end product)
bind to operator
by itself

message from DNA in the nucleus via
transcription of the gene; travels into the
cytoplasm to be translated
• Transfer RNA (tRNA): brings in amino acids;
recognizes the codon on the mRNA using
its anticodon
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): makes up much of the
ribosome; enzymatically active
inducible system repressible system phosphorylation
Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes Glucokinase/hexokinase, PFK-1, and pyruvate kinase
catalyze irreversible reactions.
Transcription factors search for promoter and
enhancer regions in the DNA. The NADH produced in glycolysis is oxidized
aerobically by the mitochondrial electron transport
• Promoters are within 25 base pairs of the
chain and anaerobically by cytoplasmic lactate
transcription start site.
dehydrogenase.
• Enhancers are more than 25 base pairs
away from the transcription start site.
++––

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase • Each NADH: 2.5 ATP; 10 NADH form 25 ATP LIPID AND AMINO ACID METABOLISM
• Converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA. Stimulated by • Each FADH2: 1.5 ATP; 2 FADH2 form 3 ATP
insulin and inhibited by acetyl-CoA. • GTP are converted to ATP. Lipid Transport
• 2 ATP from glycolysis + 2 ATP (GTP) from citric Lipids are transported via chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL,
The Citric Acid Cycle acid cycle + 25 ATP from NADH + 3 ATP from LDL, and HDL.
Takes place in mitochondrial matrix. Main purpose FADH2 = 32 ATP per molecule of glucose
is to oxidize acetyl-CoA to CO2 and generate high- (optimal). 30–32 ATP per molecule of TGL TGL Adipose

energy electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) and GTP. glucose is the commonly accepted range for CE
Chylomicron
CE
Chylomicron

Glucose
energy yield Intestine
(epithelium)
(lymph) (blood)
Li poprotein
Pyruvate Amino acids lipase

PDH Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis Cholesterol

TGL Fatty acids
Glycerol 3-P
CE
Fatty acids
Acetyl-CoA Ketones Glycogenesis (glycogen synthesis) is the building Chylomicron
remnant
Liver
Alcohol
of glycogen using two main enzymes: TGL
Triacylglycerol
Triacylglycerol
chol
Citrate
synthase • Glycogen synthase, which creates α-1,4 Glucose VLDL
Glycerol 3-P
glycosidic links between glucose molecules.
(blood)
Oxaloacetate Citrate Lipoprotein
lipase

Malate
cis-Aconitase It is activated by insulin in the liver and TGL Fatty acids

• muscles. Branching enzyme, which moves a

NADH chol
dehydrogenase
Isocitrate IDL
NAD
NAD
+

Isocitrate
block of oligoglucose from one chain and
Malate
dehydrogenase connects it as a branch using an α-1,6 Cholesterol Metabolism
Fumarase NADH CO2
glycosidic link. • Cholesterol may be obtained through dietary
α-Ketoglutarate Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen
NAD
α-Ketoglutarate using two main enzymes: sources or through synthesis in the liver.
Fumarate
FADH2
NADH
dehydrogenase • The key enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis is
Succinate • Glycogen phosphorylase, which removes
dehydrogenase FAD CO2
HMG-CoA reductase.
(complex II)
Succinate
GTP GDP + Pi Succinyl-CoA
single glucose 1-phosphate molecules by
breaking α-1,4 glycosidic links. In the liver, Palmitic acid, the only fatty acid that humans can
Succinyl-CoA
synthetase
it is activated by glucagon to prevent low synthesize, is produced in the cytoplasm from
blood sugar. In exercising skeletal muscle, acetyl-CoA transported out of the
it is activated by epinephrine and AMP to mitochondria.
The Electron Transport Chain
provide glucose for the muscle itself. Fatty acid oxidation occurs in the mitochondria,
Takes place on the matrix-facing surface of the inner
• Debranching enzyme, which moves a block of following transport by the carnitine shuttle, via
mitochondrial membrane.
oligoglucose from one branch and connects β-oxidation.
NADH donates electrons to the chain, which are it to the chain using an α-1,4 glycosidic link.
Ketone bodies form (ketogenesis) during a
passed from one complex to the next. Reduction
prolonged starvation state due to excess acetyl-CoA
potentials increase down the chain, until the Gluconeogenesis
in the liver. Ketolysis regenerates acetyl-CoA for use
electrons end up on oxygen, which has the highest Occurs in both the cytoplasm and mitochondria, as an energy source in peripheral tissues.
reduction potential. predominantly in the liver. Most of gluconeogenesis
Step 1 Step 2
is just the reverse of glycolysis, using the same
Protein Catabolism
Cyt c
Cyt c
2H
+
(ox) 2 H+ (ox)
4× Cyt c 2 H+
(red)

Q
1e –
Cyt c
(red)
Q
1e
Cyt c
(red) 4× Cyt c
(ox)
4
eCu enzymes.
Fe-S
centers Q Fe Q QH2 QH2 Fe
Protein digestion occurs primarily in the small
The three irreversible steps of glycolysis must be
Fe-S QH2 QH2
QH2 Q
centers 1 e– 1 e– Fe
Q Q
intestine. Carbon skeletons of amino acids are used
Heme
4 H+ + O2 Cu

bypassed by different enzymes:

+ +
4 H+ 2H 2H
2 e– 2 H+ 2 H2O 2 H
+

FMN FAD FADH2 for energy, either through gluconeogenesis or ketone

NADH NAD + H
+ +

Succinate Fumarate + 2 H
+
• Pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase body formation. Amino groups are fed into the urea
Complex I Complex II Complex III Complex IV
bypass pyruvate kinase cycle for excretion.
NADH cannot cross the inner mitochondrial • Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase bypasses
membrane, so must use one of two shuttle phosphofructokinase-1 Glycogen
Insulin Glucagon
synthesis
mechanisms to transfer its electrons to energy • Glucose-6-phosphatase bypasses hexokinase/
carriers in the mitochondrial matrix: the glycerol glucokinase Lipid
Cellular glucose
uptake
Glycogenolysis Stimulates
Inhibits
3-phosphate shuttle or the malate–aspartate synthesis
Lipolysis
Plasma glucose
shuttle.
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway Protein Glucose
Protein
catabolism
synthesis utilization
Oxidative Phosphorylation Occurs in the cytoplasm of most cells, generating Ureagenesis

NADPH and sugars for biosynthesis. Rate-limiting Glucose efflux Gluconeogenesis

The proton-motive force is the electrochemical
enzyme is glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, Ketogenesis

gradient generated by the electron transport chain

across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The which is activated by NADP+ and inhibited by
intermembrane space has a higher concentration of NADPH and insulin. Tissue-Specific Metabolism
protons than the matrix; this gradient stores energy, • Liver: maintains blood glucose through
which can be used to form ATP via chemiosmotic BIOENERGETICS AND REGULATION OF glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
coupling. METABOLISM Processes lipids, cholesterol, bile, urea, and
ATP synthase is the enzyme responsible for generating toxins.
ATP from ADP and an inorganic phosphate (Pi ). Metabolic States • Adipose: stores and releases lipids
• In the postprandial/well-fed (absorptive) • Resting muscle: conserves carbohydrates as
Summary of the energy yield of the various
state, insulin secretion is high and glycogen and uses free fatty acids for fuel
carbohydrate metabolism processes:
• Glycolysis: 2 NADH and 2 ATP anabolic metabolism prevails. • Active muscle: may use anaerobic
• Pyruvate dehydrogenase: 1 NADH (2 NADH • In the postabsorptive (fasting) state, insulin metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, direct
per molecule of glucose because each secretion decreases while glucagon and phosphorylation (creatine phosphate), or fatty
glucose forms two molecules of pyruvate) catecholamine secretion increases. acid oxidation
• Citric acid cycle: 3 NADH, 1 FADH , and 1
2 • Prolonged fasting (starvation) dramatically • Cardiac muscle: uses fatty acid oxidation
GTP (6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 GTP per increases glucagon and catecholamine • Brain: uses glucose except in prolonged
molecule of glucose) secretion. Most tissues rely on fatty acids. starvation, when it can use ketolysis
 LAN
AP
| MCAT QUICKSHEETS
Organelles of Eukaryotic Cells
• Nucleus: contains all of the genetic material
necessary for replication of the cell
• Mitochondrion: location of many metabolic
processes (pyruvate dehydrogenase, citric
acid cycle, ETC, oxidative phosphorylation,
/3-oxidation, some of gluconeogenesis, urea
cycle) and ATP production
• Lysosomes: membrane-bound structures
containing hyd rolytic enzymes capable of
breaking down many different substrates
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum: interconnected
membranous structure with ribosomes
studding the outside; site of synthesis
of proteins destined for insertion into a
membrane or secretion
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: interconnected
membranous structure where lipid synthesis
and detoxification occurs
• Golgi apparatus: membrane-bound sacs where
posttranslational mod ification of proteins
occurs
• Peroxisomes: organelle containing hydrogen
peroxide; site of d-oxidation of very long chain
fatty acids
REPRODUCTION
Cell Division
• G : cell increases its organelles and cytoplasm
• S: DNA replication
• G2. same as G
• M: the cell divides in
• two Mitosis = PMAT
• Meiosis = PMAT x 2
Mitosis isis
Sexual Reproduction
Meiosis I:
• Two pairs of sister chromatids form tetrads
during prophase I.
• Crossing over leads to genetic recombination
in prophase I.
• Homologous chromosomes separate during
metaphase I.
Meiosis II:
• Essentially identical to mitosis, but no
replication.
• Meiosis occurs in spermatogenesis
(sperm formation) and oogenesis
(egg formation).
BIOLOGY )
THE CELL
Fluid Mosaic Model and Membrane Eukaryotes contain membrane-bound organelles
TraffiC such as a nucleus, while prokaryotes are simpler cells
without a nucleus.
Prokaryotes
• Classified by shape: Spherical bacteria are known
as cocci, while rod-shaped bacteria are
known as bacilli. Spiral-shaped bacteria are
known as spirilli.
• Cell wall and cell me m brane form th
e enve lope. Co mp ositio n of th e cell
• Phospholipid bilayer with cholesterol and waII
embedded proteins further c lassifies bacteria into gram -
" EXterior: hydrophilic phosphate head groups positive and gram -negative. Gram-positive
• Interior: hydrophobic fatty acids bacteria have large quantities of pe ptid o
glycan in th e cell waII, while gram- negative
The original form of the cell theory consisted of bacte ria h ave much smaIIer quantities of
three basic tenets:
• pe ptidoglyc an with lipopolysacch a rides.
• All living things are composed of cells. Structure of flagella in bacteria is much
• The cell is the basic functional unit of life. different than that of eukaryotes. Prokaryotic
• Cells arise only from preexisting cells. flagella contain a basal body that serves as the
A fourth tenet has been added as a result of advances • engine for motion.
All prokaryotes divide by binary fission. The
in molecular biology: cells carry genetic information
in the form of DNA. This genetic material is passed on circular chromosome replicates and attaches to
from parent to daughter cell. the cell wall; the plasma membrane and cell wall
grow along the midline, form ing daughter cells.
HOMEOSTASIS
Four Stages of Early Development Osmoregulation
Cteavage: mitotic divisions • Filtration at the glomerulus. Filtrate (fluid and
Implantation: embryo implant s during blastula small solutes) passes through. Passive
stage • Secretion of acids, bases, and ions from
Gastrulation: ectoderm, endoderm, and interstitial fluid to filtrate. Maintains pH, [K*]
mesoderm form and [waste]. Passive and Active
Neurutation: germ layers develop a nervous system • Reabsorption: essential substances and
blastula water flow from filtrate to blood. Enabled by
(blastocyst) füastocoel çq,qe,y osmolarity gradient and selective permeability
of the walls. Passive and Active
e
archenteron
— blastopore Hormonal Regulation
Aldosterone
endofierm
• Stimulates Na* reabsorption, K* and H*
Ectodem Nervous system, epidermis, lens secretion, increasing water reabsorption,
“Attract”oderm of eye, inner ear blood volume, and blood pressure
Endoderm Lining of digestive tract, lungs, • Secreted from adrenal cortex
“Endernal" organs liver and pancreas • Is regulated by the renin—angiotensin—
Mesoderm Muscles, skeleton, circulatory aldosterone system
“Means"oderm system, gonads, kidney
ADH (Vasopressin)
The Liver's Roles in Homeostasis Increases collecting duct's permeability to water to
increase water reabsorption
1. Gluconeogenesis
• Is secreted from posterior pituitary with high
2. Processing of nitrogenous wastes [solute] in the blood
3. (urea) Detoxification of
fi. wastes/chemicals/drugs Storage of iron Kidneys regulate [salt] and [water] in the blood. Their
5. and vitam in A functional unit is the nephron.
6. Synthesis of bile and blood proteins
7. ,/J-Oxidation of fatty acids to ketones
lnterconversion of carbohydrates fats, and amino
acids
Layers of the Skin
• Stratum corneum
• Stratum lucidum
• Stratum granulosum
• Stratum spinosum
• Stratum basalis
’actve vansooRatoo
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Direct hormones directly stimulate organs; tropic hormones stimulate other glands. Four Stages of Menstrual Cycle:
Mechanisms of hormone action: peptides act via second messengers and steroids act via hormone/receptor
1. Follicular: FSH causes growth of a follicle
binding to DNA. Amino acid-derivative hormones may do either.
2. Ovulation: LH causes follicle to release egg
Hormone Source Action 3. Luteal: corpus luteum forms
Follicle-stimulating (FSH) Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis 4. Menstruation: endometrial lining sheds
Luteinizing (LH) Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis day 14 ruptures-egg released
Hypothalamus LH surge follicle
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete (ovulation)
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) glucocorticoids
day 0 LH
no pregnancy corpus luteum atrophies
GnRH corpus luteum
(inhibition stops, cycle
Anterior pituitary Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid starts anew)
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH) hormones pituitary
progesterone
zygote
early in cycle
Prolactin Stimulates milk production and secretion (prevents multiple
later in maintains
FSH cycle uterine wall hCG
Endorphins Inhibits the perception of pain in the brain egg development)
(LH analog)

Growth hormone Stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis ovary

Hypothalamus; Stimulates uterine contractions during labor,

Oxytocin follicle begins to mature

stored in milk secretion during lactation

Antidiuretic (ADH, estrogen
posterior pituitary Stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys
vasopressin)
uterus
Thyroid hormones (T3, T4) Stimulates metabolic activity
Thyroid
Calcitonin Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level vascularization
Parathyroid hormone Parathyroid Increases blood calcium level of uterine wall

Increases blood glucose level and decreases

Glucocorticoids protein synthesis; anti-inflammatory
Adrenal cortex
Mineralocorticoids Increases water reabsorption in kidneys
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla Increases blood glucose level and heart rate
Stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose in
Glucagon
the liver; increases blood glucose
Insulin Pancreas
Lowers blood glucose; increases glycogen stores
Somatostatin Supresses secretion of glucagon and insulin
Testosterone Testes Maintains male secondary sexual characteristics
Estrogen Maintains female secondary sexual characteristics
Ovary/Placenta
Progesterone Promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium
Melatonin Pineal Regulates sleep–wake cycles
Atrial natriuretic peptide Heart Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
Thymosin Thymus Stimulates T-cell development

NERVOUS SACYTSIOTNEMPOTENTIAL MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

The functional unit is the neuron: Sarcomere
cell body
Schwann cells • Contractile unit of the fibers in skeletal muscle
nodes of
Ranvier axon
• Contains thin actin and thick myosin filaments
myelin
nerve
sheath terminals

dendrites

Resting Potential: Contraction

• 3 Na+ pumped out for every 2 K+ pumped in Initiation:
I Rest All gates closed
II Depolarization Na+ gates open • Depolarization of a neuron leads to an
Action Potential: III Repolarization Na+ gates inactivate action potential.
K+ gates open
• Stimulus acts on the neuron, depolarizing the Sarcomere shortening:
IV Hyperpolarization All gates closed
membrane of the cell body Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+.
• Ca2+ binds to troponin on the actin filament.
Impulse Propagation: Tropomyosin shifts, exposing myosin-binding sites.
• Depolarization (Na+ rushing into axon) • Myosin binds, ATPase activity allows myosin to
followed by repolarization (K+ rushing out of pull thin filaments towards the center of
axon) along the nerve axon the
H zone, and then ATP causes dissociation.
The Synapse: action tropomyosin
actin filament
troponin
• At the synaptic knob, voltage-gated Ca2+ potential
– – + + + + + +
channels open, sending Ca2+ into the cell. + + – – – – – –
Na+ + – – – – – –
Vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane + Ca2+ calcium

sending the neurotransmitter across the – – + + + + + + myosin binding site

synaptic cleft.
• Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on
action
the postsynaptic membrane, triggering K
axon
+ potential
Relaxation:
depolarization. +
–
+
–
–
+
–
+
+
–
+
–
+
– –
+
Na– –+ –
+ –+ +
– +
– +
– +
– • Ca2+ is pumped back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
+
K

action
+
K + potential Bone Formation and Remodeling
+ + + + – – – –
• Osteoblast: builds bone
Osteoclast: breaks down bone
– – – – + + + +
+
Na– +
– –+ –+ –
+ –+ –+ –+ • Reformation: inorganic ions are absorbed from
K+
the blood for use in bone
• Degradation (resorption): inorganic ions are
released into the blood
 CIRCULATION RESPIRATION IMMUNE SYSTEM
Circulatory Pathway Through Heart Gas Exchange • The body distinguishes between “self”
and “nonself” (antigens).
pulmonary veins • Exchange
occurs across
L. pulmonary artery trachea Humoral Immunity (Specific Defense)
aorta the thin
L. atrium
walls of bronchus B-lymphocytes
mitral valve
R. pulmonary artery
• alveoli. memory cells plasma cells make and
L. ventricle
Deoxygenated remember antigen, release antibodies (IgG,
superior vena cava blood speed up secondary IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE),
R. atrium
inferior vena cava enters the response which induce antigen
bronchiole
tricuspid Valve R. ventricle
septum
pulmonary phagocytosis
capillaries • Active imumunity: antibodies are produced
Superior and inferior vena cava → right atrium that surround during an immune response
→ right ventricle → pulmonary arteries → • the alveoli. diaphragm • Passive immunity: antibodies produced by
lungs→ pulmonary veins → left atrium → left O2 from the alveoli one organism are transferred to another
ventricle → aorta → body inhaled air organism
Three portal systems: Blood travels through an extra diffuses down
capillary bed before returning to the heart. its gradient
into the capillaries, where it binds with Cell-Mediated Immunity (Specific Defense)
• Liver (hepatic), kidney, and brain hemoglobin and returns to the heart.
(hypophyseal) • CO from the tissues diffuses from the T-lymphocytes
2
capillaries to the alveoli, and is exhaled. cytotoxic T-cells
Fetal Circulation destroy cells directly
suppressor T-cells
Fetal Respiration
• Foramen ovale: connects right and left helper T-cells regulate B- and T-cells
• Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for
• atria Ductus arteriosus: connects pulmonary activate B- and T-cells to decrease anti-antigen
oxygen than adult hemoglobin.
artery to aorta. Along with foramen ovale, and macrophages by activity
shunts blood away from lungs • Gas and nutrient exchanges occur across the secreting lymphokines
placenta. memory cells
• Ductus venosus: connects umbilical vein
to inferior vena cava, connecting umbilical
circulation to central circulation DIGESTION Nonspecific Immune Response
Includes skin, passages lined with cilia,
Blood Components macrophages, inflammatory response, and interferons
(proteins that help prevent the spread of a virus)
Plasma: aqueous mix of nutrients, wastes,
hormones, blood proteins, gases, and salts
Lymphatic System
Erythrocytes (red blood cells): carry oxygen
pharynx • Lymph vessels meet at the thoracic duct in the
• Hemoglobin: four subunits carry O2 and CO2 oral cavity
upper chest and neck, draining into the left
.
Iron controls binding and releasing. tongue
subclavian vein of the cardiovascular system.
trachea
• Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation: • Vessels carry lymph (excess interstitial
esophagus fluid), and lacteals collect fats by absorbing
Factors leading to right 100

shift of curve: chylomicrons in the small intestine.

% saturation of hemoglobin

80

↑ Temperature • Lymph nodes are swellings along the vessels

60 with phagocytic cells (leukocytes); they
Bohr Effect remove foreign particles from lymph.
40 stomach
↓ pH, ↑ CO liver
35

P
2 20
25

gallbladder
pancreas Lipid Digestion
• O2 release to curve shifts to the RIGHT
colon
tissues
pH shifts DOWN
0
20 40 60 80 100 duodenum
• When chyme is present, the duodenum
enhanced + P (mmHg) small intestine secretes the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) into
when H O2

allosterically binds to Hb. ↑ PCO leads to ↑ [ the blood.

2 • CCK stimulates the secretion of pancreatic
H+]: carbonic
anhydrase
rectum
enzymes
• Bile andinbile,
is made the and
liverpromotes satiety.
and emulsifies fat
CO2 + H2O ⇋ H2CO3 ⇋ H+ + 3
anus
in the small intestine; it’s not an enzyme.
HCO– (white blood cells): function in immunity
Leukocytes • Lipase is an enzyme made in the pancreas
that hydrolyzes lipids in the small intestine.
Platelets: clotting
Carbohydrate Digestion
• Platelets release thromboplastin, which (along
with cofactors calcium and vitamin K) converts Enzyme Production Site Function Site Hydrolysis Reaction
inactive prothrombin to active thrombin. Salivary amylase
(ptyalin) Salivary glands Mouth Starch → maltose
• Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin, which
surrounds blood cells to form the clot. Pancreatic amylase Pancreas Small intestine Starch → maltose
Maltase Intestinal glands Small intestine Maltose → 2 glucoses
Sucrase Intestinal glands Small intestine Sucrose → glucose, fructose
Blood Typing Lactase Intestinal glands Small intestine Lactose → glucose, galactose
Antigens are located on the surface of red
blood cells. Protein Digestion
Blood RBC Antibodies Donates Receives Enzyme Production Site Function Site Function
antigen to: From: Gastric glands
type Pepsin Stomach Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
(chief cells)
A A anti-B A, AB A, O
B B anti-A B, AB B, O Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Trypsin
AB A, B None AB only All Converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin
O None anti-A, B All O only Chymotrypsin Pancreas Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Carboxypeptidases Small
Blood cells with Rh factor are Rh+; these Intestine Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at C-terminus
A and B
individuals produce no anti-Rh antibody. Rh– blood
Aminopeptidase Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at N-terminus
cells lack the antigen; these individuals produce
Dipeptidases Intestinal glands Hydrolyzes pairs of amino acids
an antibody if exposed.
Enteropeptidase Converts trypsinogen to trypsin
 CLASSICAL GENETICS
Law of segregation: Homologous alleles
(chromosomes) separate so that each gamete
has one copy of each gene.
• If both parents are Rr, the alleles separate
to give a genotypic ratio of 1:2:1 and a
phenotypic ratio of 3:1.
Law of independent assortment: Alleles of unlinked
genes assort independently in meiosis.
• For two traits: AaBb parents will produce AB,
Ab, aB, and ab gametes.
• The phenotypic ratio for this cross is 9:3:3:1.
Statistical Calculations
• The probability of producing a genotype that
requires multiple events to occur equals the
product of the probability of each event.
• The probability of producing a genotype
that can be the result of multiple different
events equals the sum of each probability
minus the probability of multiple events
occurring.
Genetic Mapping
• Crossing over during meiosis I can unlink
genes (prophase I).
• Genes are most likely unlinked when far apart.
• One map unit is 1% recombinant frequency
(1 centimorgan).
X Y
Given
recombination 8 bacterium
MOLECULAR GENETICS
Nucleic Acids
• Basic unit: nucleotide (sugar, nitrogenous
base, phosphate)
• DNA’s sugar: deoxyribose; RNA’s sugar: ribose
• 2 types of bases: double-ringed purines
(adenine, guanine) and single-ringed
pyrimidines (cytosine, uracil, thymine)
• DNA double helix: antiparallel strands joined
by base pairs (A=T, G≡C)
• RNA is usually single-stranded: A pairs
with U, not T
Transcriptional Regulation (Prokaryotes)
Regulated by the operon:
• Structural genes: have DNA that codes for
protein Operator gene: repressor binding site
•
• Promoter gene: RNA polymerase’s 1st binding
• site Inducible systems need an inducer for
transcription to occur. Repressible systems
need a corepressor to inhibit transcription.
Mutations
• Point: One nucleotide is substituted by
GENETICS OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Many bacteria contain plasmids, or extragenomic
material. Plasmids that can be integrated into the
genome are known as episomes.
• Transformation occurs when a bacterium
acquires a piece of genetic material from
the environment and integrates that
piece of genetic material into the host
cell genome. This is a common method
by which antibiotic resistance can be
acquired.
• Conjugation is the bacterial form of mating
(sexual reproduction). It involves two cells
forming a cytoplasmic bridge between them
that allows for the transfer of genetic
material. The transfer is one-way, from the
donor male (+) to the recipient female (–).
The bridge is made from appendages called
sex pili that are found on the donor male. To
form the pili, bacteria must contain plasmids
known as sex factors.
• Transduction occurs when a bacteriophage
acquires genetic information from a host
cell. Sometimes, when the new virions are
assembled in a host cell, some of the
genetic material from the host cell is
packaged along with the viral genetic
material. Then, the bacteriophage infects
another bacterium, resulting in transfer of
bacterial genetic material.

another; they are silent if the sequence of genome

frequencies release of prophage

Z X Y Z amino acids doesn’t change. bacteriophage

lysis of integrated prophage
X and Y: 8% 8 • Frameshift: Insertions or deletions shift reading
bacterial cell,
release of
replicates with
bacterial cell
viral progeny viral genome
12 12
X and Z: 12% frame. Protein doesn’t form, or is nonfunctional. enters bacterium

lytic cycle lysogenic cycle

Y and Z: 4%
X Y Z
Viruses may enter
lysogenic
prophage integrates

may enter
8 4 cycle

12
• Acellular structures of double- or single- progeny assembly replication of
viral chromosome
lytic cycle

Patterns of
Inheritance
• Autosomal recessive: skips generations
• Autosomal dominant: appears in every
generation
• X-linked (sex-linked): no male-to-male
transmission, and more males are affected
EVOLUTION
• When frequencies are stable, the population
is in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium: no
mutations, large population, random
mating, no migration, and equal
reproductive success
p + q = 1; p 2 + 2pq + q2
+++
=1
p = frequency of dominant allele
q = frequency of recessive allele
p = frequency of dominant homozygotes
2
stranded DNA or RNA in a protein coat
• Lytic cycle: virus kills the host cell
• Lysogenic cycle: virus enters host genome
DATA ANALYSIS
A researcher performed the following experiments in
order to investigate the metabolism of two
different strains of bacteria, Strain 1 and Strain 2.
Experiment 1
Strains 1 and 2 were incubated in separate broth
cultures for 24 hours at 37˚C. A sample of each
culture was streaked onto three different plates—
A, B, and C—each containing a different starch–agar
medium; the plates were then incubated for
another 48 hours at 37˚C. The plates were then
examined for surface colony growth and stained
with iodine solution to determine the extent of
starch digestion.
Table 1
prophage
Experiment 2
The two strains were incubated in the same manner
as in Experiment 1. Two 100 mL portions of agar were
poured into two beakers, which were maintained at
43˚C. Next, 0.2 mL of broth culture from Strain 1 was
pipetted into the first beaker, and 0.2 mL of broth
culture from Strain 2 was pipetted into the second
beaker. The agar was swirled around to distribute
the bacteria evenly through the media, and then
poured onto plates. These plates were incubated
for 48 hours at 37˚C and then examined for colony
growth both on the agar surface and lower down
within the oxygen-poor agar layer.
Table 2
Surface Colony Growth Deep-Agar Colony Growth

Surface Colony Growth Starch Digestion

2pq = frequency of heterozygotes Strain 1 + –
A B C A B C
q2 = frequency of recessive homozygotes Strain 12 + + –+ –
+ –
+ – Strain 2 + +
key: + = growth; – = no growth key: + = growth; – = no growth

Once incubated, bacteria will grow if nutrients they can metabolize are available. Keep this in mind as you interpret the procedure and results.

Experiment 1 and Table 1: What are the important aspects? Two strains (1 and
2) undergo identical incubation on 3 plates with different starch agars. Look at Table
1, one strain at a time. The researcher observes growth and starch digestion. Strain 1
grows on all plates, but doesn’t digest the starch: it must be using another nutrient to
grow. We don’t know that Strain 1 can’t digest starch—we just know that it’s not
digesting it in the first 48 hours. Strain 2 uses starch to grow on plates A and B, but
doesn’t digest starch or grow on plate C. Again, we don’t know that Strain 2 can’t
digest the starch in medium C—we just know it’s not doing so in the first 48 hours.
Experiment 2 and Table 2: Note the significant differences between the two
experiments. This time, the strains were separately distributed within the agar
instead of jointly streaked on top of multiple agars. The researcher observes
growth on top and within, the assumption being that the top is oxygen-rich and
within is oxygen-poor. What does it mean that Strain 1 only grows in an oxygen-
rich environment? It is an obligate aerobe that requires oxygen for metabolism.
What does it mean that Strain 2 can grow in oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor
environments? It is a facultative anaerobe.
 Regions of Example
Geometric Arrangement
of Electron Pairs around Shape Angle between KINETICS & EQUILIBRIUM
Electron Density Electron Pairs
the Central Atom
Experimental determination of rate law: The values of
k, x, and y in the rate law equation (rate = k[A]x[B]y) Eauncatalyzed

must be determined experimentally for a given reaction uncatalyzed

at a given temperature. The rate is usually measured as a

free energy
function of the initial concentrations of the reactants, A Eacatalyzed
and B.
catalyzed
Efficiency of Reactions

reaction coordinate

Law of Mass

Complex Ion (Coordination Compound)
A Lewis acid–base adduct with a cation
bonded to at least one electron pair donor
(including
water). Donor molecules are called ligands and use
coordinate covalent bonds. The central cation can
be bonded to the same ligand multiple times in a
process called chelation.
Intermolecular Forces
1. Hydrogen bonding: The partial positive charge
of the hydrogen atom interacts with the partial
negative charge located on the electronegative
atoms (F, O, N) of nearby molecules.
δ+
δ+ δ–
δ+
2. Dipole–dipole interactions: Polar molecules
orient themselves such that the positive
region of one molecule is close to the
negative region of another molecule.
δ+ H Cl δ– δ+ H
δ+ H Cl
3. Dispersion forces: The bonding electrons in
covalent bonds may appear to be equally
shared between two atoms, but at any
particular point in time they will be located
randomly throughout the orbital. This
permits unequal sharing of electrons, causing
transient polarization and
counterpolarization of the electron clouds of
neighboring molecules, inducing the
formation of more dipoles.
symmetrical
distribution
electron
+ –
δ δ
nucleus
free energy
Eaforward
H2 + Cl2
ΔG
reaction coordinate
COMPOUNDS & STOICHIOMETRY
A mole is the amount of a substance that contains
the same number of particles that are found in a
12.000 g sample of carbon-12.
The molecular or formula weight is measured in amu
per molecule (or formula unit). The molar mass is
measured in grams per mole.
Combustion reactions: A fuel, such as a
hydrocarbon, is reacted with an oxidant, such as
oxygen, to produce an oxide and water.
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
Combination reactions: Two or more reactants
form one product.
S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)
Decomposition reactions: A compound breaks down
into two or more substances, usually as a result of
heating or electrolysis.
2 HgO (s) → 2 Hg (l) + O2 (g)
Single-displacement reactions: An atom (or ion) of
δ– one compound is replaced by an atom of another
δ+
element.
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → Cu (s) + ZnSO4 (aq)
Double-displacement reactions: Also called
metathesis reactions; elements from two different
compounds displace each other to form two new
compounds.
CaCl2 (aq) + 2 AgNO3 (aq) → Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 AgCl
(s)
Net ionic equations: These types of equations
are written showing only the species that actually
Cl δ–
participate in the reaction. Consider the following
equation:
Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) + SO2–4 (aq) →
δ– Cu (s) + Zn2+ (aq) + 2– (aq)
SO4
The spectator ion (SO2–) does not take part in the
4
overall reaction, but simply remains in solution
throughout. The net ionic equation would be:
Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Cu (s) +
Neutralization reactions: These are a specific type
of double-displacement reactions that occur when
an acid reacts with a base to produce a solution of
a salt (and, usually, water):
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
asymmetrical
Factors affecting reaction rates: reactant
distribution concentrations, temperature, medium, catalysts
Catalysts are unique substances that increase
reaction rate without being consumed; they do
this by lowering the activation energy.
Eareverse
Action aA + bB -~-- cC +
dD - c
[C]
Kc = d
[D]
2 HCl a b
[A] [B]
Kc is the equilibrium constant (c stands for
concentration).
Properties of the Equilibrium Constant
Pure solids and liquids don’t appear in expressions.
Keq is characteristic of a given system at a given
temperature.
If Keq >> 1, an equilibrium mixture of reactants
and products will contain very little of the reactants
compared to the products.
If Keq << 1, an equilibrium mixture of reactants
and products will contain very little of the products
compared to the reactants.
If Keq is close to 1, an equilibrium mixture of
products and reactants will contain approximately
equal amounts of the two.
Le Châtelier’s principle is used to determine the
direction in which a reaction at equilibrium will
proceed when subjected to a stress, such as a
change in concentration, pressure, volume, or
temperature. The key is to remember that a
system to which these kinds of stresses are applied
tends to change so as to relieve the applied stress.
In a nutshell:
THERMOCHEMISTRY
The law of conservation of energy dictates that
energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but that
all thermal, chemical, potential, and kinetic energies
are interconvertible.
Systems:
Isolated: no exchange of energy/matter with the
Zn2+ (aq)
environment. Bomb calorimetry creates a nearly
isolated system.
Closed: can exchange energy but not matter with the
environment
Open: can exchange both energy and matter
with the environment. Human beings are open
systems because they can take in energy and
matter (eat), release matter into the
environment (respiration, urination, defecation),
and release energy into the
environment (heat transfer from the skin and mucous
membranes).
System processes:
Isothermal: temperature of system remains constant
Adiabatic: no heat exchange occurs
Isobaric: pressure of system remains constant
THE GAS PHASE
1 atm = 760 mmHg ≡ 760 torr = 101,325 Pa Deviations due to pressure: As the pressure of
a Do not confuse STP with standard conditions—the gas increases, the particles are pushed closer
and

Isovolumetric (isochoric): volume remains constant two standards involve different temperatures and are closer together. At moderately high pressure, a gas’s
used for different purposes. STP (0˚C or 273 K, 1 atm) volume is less than would be predicted by the
Heat: the transfer of thermal energy from one object ideal is generally used for gas law calculations; standard gas law due to intermolecular attraction.
to another. conditions (25˚C or 298 K, 1 atm, 1 M concentrations) Deviations due to temperature: As the temperature
is used when measuring standard enthalpy, entropy, of a gas decreases, the average velocity of the
Endothermic: reactions that absorb heat energy
Gibbs free energy, and electromotive force. gas molecules decreases and the attractive
Exothermic: reactions that release heat energy intermolecular forces become increasingly
Boyle’s Law significant. As the temperature of a gas is reduced,
endothermic exothermic intermolecular attraction (a) causes the gas to
PV = k or P1 V1 = P2 V2 have a smaller volume than would be predicted. At
heat extremely low temperatures, the volume of the gas
heat Charles’s Law particles themselves (b) causes the gas to have a
V = k orV1 =
V2
larger volume than would be predicted.
T T1 T2
Van der Waals equation of state: accounts for the
heat Gay-Lussac’s Law deviations from ideality that occur when a gas does
P P1 P2
= k or = not closely follow the ideal gas law
T T1 T2 2
heat (P + n a )(V – nb) = nRT
heat Avogadro’s Principle V2
n n1 n2
Constant-volume and constant-pressure calorimetry:
= k or =
used to indicate conditions under which the heat V V1 V2 1 mole of gas at STP = 22.4 L
changes are measured Combined Gas Law Dalton’s law of partial pressures: states that the
q = mc∆T, where q is the heat absorbed or Integrates Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, and Gay- total pressure of a gaseous mixture is equal to
released in a given process, m is the mass, c is the Lussac’s Law the sum of the partial pressures of the
specific heat, and ∆T is the change in temperature individual
P1V1 P2V2 components
States and state functions: are described by the =T
macroscopic properties of the system. These T1 2
properties’ magnitudes depend only on the PT = PA + PB + PC +…
Ideal Gas Law
initial and final states of the system, and not on PA = PTXA
the path of the change. Common state functions PV = nRT
include pressure, density, temperature, volume, nA (moles of A)
enthalpy, internal energy, free energy, and
Real Gases where XA =
nT (total moles)
entropy.
Enthalpy (H): is used to express heat changes at Kinetic molecular theory of gases: an explanation of
constant pressure gaseous molecular behavior based on the motion
of individual molecules
Standard heat of formation (∆H°f ): the enthalpy
Average molecular speeds
change that would occur if one mole of a compound
1 3
was formed directly from its elements in their K= mv2 = kBT
standard states 2 2
Standard heat of reaction (∆H°rxn): the hypothetical Decreasing the volume of a sample of gas makes it Root-mean-square speed
behave less ideally because the individual gas particles
enthalpy change that would occur if the reaction
were carried out under standard conditions
are in closer proximity in a smaller volume. (They are urms = (3RT
∆H° = (sum of ∆H° of products) –
rxn f
PHASES & PHASE CHANGES
(sum of ∆H° of reactants) Entropy (S): the measure of the distribution of energy
f (“randomness”) throughout a system
Hess’s law: states that enthalpies of reactions are ∆Suniverse = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurroundings
additive
Gibbs free energy (G): combines the two factors
The reverse of any reaction has an enthalpy of the that affect the spontaneity of a reaction—changes in
same magnitude as that of the forward reaction, but enthalpy, ∆H, and changes in entropy, ∆S
pressure

its sign is opposite. solid

liquid
∆G = ∆H – T∆S
Bond dissociation energy: an average of the energy If ∆G is negative, the reaction is spontaneous. critical
required to break a particular type of bond in one point
If ∆G is positive, the reaction is nonspontaneous.
mole of gaseous molecules:
triple
If ∆G is zero, the system is in a state of point

energy
equilibrium; thus, ∆G = 0 and ∆H = T∆S. gas

temperature
Colligative properties: These are physical properties
derived solely from the number of particles present,
not the nature of those particles. These properties
Bond enthalpy: The standard heat of reaction are usually associated with dilute solutions. Molality
can be calculated using the values of bond (m) must be used, in addition to the van ’t Hoff factor
Reaction quotient (Q): Once a reaction commences,
dissociation energies of particular bonds (i) for ionic compounds.
the standard state conditions no longer hold. For the
(given in a table). reaction: Freezing point depression
∆ H° n
rx
= ∑∆ H bonds broken
−∑∆ Hbondsformed
aA + bB ~ - -cC + dD ∆Tf = iK fm
c d
[C] [D] Boiling point elevation
Q= a b
[A] [B] ∆Tb = iKbm
 Osmotic pressure ACIDS AND BASES REDOX REACTIONS & ELECTROCHEMISTRY
∏ = MRT
Arrhenius definition: An acid is a species that Oxidation: loss of electrons
produces excess H+ (protons) in an aqueous
Vapor pressure lowering (Raoult’s law) solution, and a base is a species that produces Reduction: gain of electrons
PA = XAPA˚ ; PB = XBPB˚ excess OH– (hydroxide ions). Oxidizing agent: causes another atom to undergo
Solutions that obey Raoult’s Law are called ideal Brønsted–Lowry definition: An acid is a species oxidation, and is itself reduced
solutions. that donates protons, while a base is a species
Reducing agent: causes another atom to be reduced,
125 that accepts protons.
heating of water vapo r
and is itself oxidized
Lewis definition: An acid is an electron pair acceptor,
100
and a base is an electron pair donor.
heat used to vaporize water to Galvanic Cells
water vapor
temperature (˚C)

75

Properties of Acids and Bases

50
heating of water
pH = –log[H+] = log( 1
+
)
[H ]
25
pOH = –log[OH–] = log( 1
)
−
0 [OH ]
heat used to melt ice to wa ter
heat ing of ice H2O (l) ~ ---H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
-25

heat added (each division = 4 kJ) Kw = [H+][OH–] = 10–14

pH + pOH = 14
Graham’s law of diffusion and effusion
Diffusion: occurs when gas molecules distribute Weak Acids and Bases
through a volume by random motion HA (aq) + H2O (l) ~ - -H3O+ (aq) + A– (aq)
Effusion: the flow of gas particles under pressure
from one compartment to another through a small [H O+][A−]
Ka = 3 A redox reaction occurring in a galvanic cell has
opening: [HA]
a negative ∆G and is therefore a spontaneous
[B+][OH−] reaction. Galvanic cell reactions supply energy and
Kb = are used to do work.
[BOH]
This energy can be harnessed by placing the
Salt formation: Acids and bases may react with each oxidation–reduction half-reactions in separate
other, forming a salt and (often, but not always) containers called half-cells. The half-cells are then
water in a neutralization reaction. connected by an apparatus that allows for the flow
HA + BOH → BA + H2O of electrons.

Both diffusion and effusion have the same formula: Hydrolysis: This is the reverse reaction, where the salt
ions react with water to give back the acid and base. Electrolytic Cells
r1  m
1
 2
 = r Amphoteric species: is one that can act
 m  2
 1  either as an acid or a base, depending on its
2
chemical environment e

SOLUTIONS
Titration and Buffers
1. All salts containing alkali metal (Group 1) Titration is e
or ammonium (NH+) cations are water- a procedure
soluble. 4 used to
2. All salts containing the nitrate (NO–) or acetate determine the
3
(CH3COO–) anions are water-soluble. molarity of an
3. All chlorides, bromides, and iodides are water- acid or base
soluble, with the exception of Ag+, Pb2+, and by reacting a
Hg2+. known volume
4. All salts of the sulfate ion (SO42–) are water- of a solution
A redox reaction occurring in an electrolytic cell
soluble, with the exception of a2+, Sr2+, of unknown
Ba2+, concentration has a positive ∆G and is therefore
C strong acid and strong base
and Pb2+. nonspontaneous. In electrolysis, electrical energy is
with a known required to induce a reaction. The oxidation and
5. All metal oxides are insoluble, with the volume of
exception of the alkali metals and CaO, SrO, reduction half-reactions are usually placed in one
a solution container.
BaO, all of which hydrolyze to form solutions of known
of the corresponding metal hydroxides. concentration. Reduction potential of each species is defined
6. All hydroxides are insoluble, with the exception as the tendency of a species to acquire electrons
The half-
of the alkali metals and Ca2+, Sr2+, and Ba2+. equivalence and be reduced. Standard reduction potential, E
7. All carbonates (CO 2– 3–),
3 ), phosphates (PO 4 point defines ˚, is measured under standard conditions: 25˚C,
2–
sulfides (S ), 2–
ulfites (SO ) are pH = pKa 1 M concentration for each ion in the reaction, a
soluble,
and s in partial pressure of 1 atm for each gas and metals
3
with the exception of the alkali metals and BA SIC in their pure state.
ammonium. weak acid and strong base Standard reduction potentials are used to calculate
Henderson–Hasselbalch equation: the standard electromotive force (emf or Ec˚ell) of a
Units of Concentration 3
reaction, the difference in potential between two
is used to estimate the pH of a 3
Percent composition by mass: solution in the buffer region where the half-cells.
Mass of solute concentrations of the species and its
emf = Er˚ed, cathode – Er˚ed, anode
Mass of solution × 100% conjugate are present in approximately
equal concentrations 2 3
# of mol of compound Gibbs free energy, ∆G, is the thermodynamic
Mole fraction: total # of moles in system [conjugate base] 4
criterion for determining the spontaneity of a
pH = pKa + log [weak acid]
4
reaction.
# of mol of solute
Molarity: liter of solution ∆G = –nFEcell
[conjugate acid]
pOH = pKb + log [weak base] A C IDIC
Molality: # of mol of solute
kg of solvent
 PLAN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
| MCAT QUICKSHEETS I
NOMENCLATURE ISOMERS
1. Find the longest carbon chain containing the
principal functional group (highest-priority
groups are generally more oxidized).
2. Number the carbon chain so that the principal
functional group gets lowest possible number.
3. Proceed to number the chain so that the lowest Physical properties are characteristics of processes that
set of numbers is obtained for the substituents. don't change the composition of matter, such as melting
Name the substituents and assign each a number. point, boiling point, solubility, odor color, and density.
5. Complete the name by listing substituents in Chemical properties have to do with the reactivity of
alphabetical order; place commas between the molecule with other molecules.
numbers and dashes beMeen numbers and words.
cn, Stereoisomers
nc— Conformational isomers
CH, c«, cu, differ by rotation around a single (a) bond
• Staggered conformgtions have groups 60° apart,
Ebutyl neopentyl isopropyl " " " " as seen in a Newman projection. anłfi ——
CH, largest groups are 180° apart; gauche -- 60°
CHy-CHy- H— • apan.
Eclipsed confbmations have groups directly in
see-butyl isobupl front of each other. TotaEy eclipsed = largest groups
as directly in front of each other; strain is maximized.
Functionąl
Group Prefix SuTx
Bond order single double triple
Carboxylic acid car6axy— aie acid Comes from:
aIkanoęIox/- • Angte strain: stretch or compress angles from
Anhydrides onhydride 2 zr
carbon/I— normal size
Esters o//‹oxy’cardpnyl— —oare Hybridlzation sp3 sp' sp • Torsional strain: from eclipsing conformations
Amides carbomoyl— —amide • Nonbonded strain: from interactions with
oxo —a( Angles t09.5° 120° t80°
Aldehydes substituents on nonadjacent carbons. In
Ketones oxo— or keto— —one Example C—C C=C C-C cyclohexane, the largest substituent usually takes
Alcohols hydro›‹y— —ol equatorial position to reduce nonbonded strain

ALKANES
• Electronegativity: Nucleophilicity decreases
as electronegativity increases because these
atoms are less likely to share electron density.
Configurationa!Isomers
• Steric hindrance: Bulkier molecules are less
nucleophilic. Can only be interchanged by breaking and reforming
• Solvent: Protic solvents can inhibit bonds
Combustion nucleophilicity by protonating the nucleophile • Enantiomers: nonsuperimposable mirror
CąHg + 5 02 —+ 3 C02 + 4 H20 + or hydrogen bonding. images; have opposite stereochemistry at every
heat sx1 chiral carbon. Same chemical and physical
s,y2 In aprotic solvents, nucleophilicity parallels basicity:
properties except for rotation of plane-polarized
2 steps 1 step F— › Cl— › Be › I— light and reactions in a chiral environment
Favored in polar protic Favored in polar In protic solvents, good bases pick up protons and
solvents aprotic solvents are worse nucleophiles:
2‘ methy 3” I— › B › CI— › F—
rate k[RL, raee* k[Nut2RL] Electrophiłes
Optically active and Racemic mixtures and meso compounds are optimally
Rącernic products Electrophile = “electron-loving”; tend to have inactive.
inverted products a positive charge or positively polarized atom
Strong nucleophile not Favored with strong that accepts an electron pair from a nucleophile. • Diastereomers: non-mirror-image stereoisomers.
required nucleophile Electrophilicity is increased by increasing the positive Differ at some, but not all, chiral centers. They
charge. have different chemical and physical properties.
• Cis-trans: subtype of diastereomers in which
Most common electrophiles: groups differ in position about an immovable
• Carbonyl carbon bond (such as a double bond or in a cycloalkane).
• Substrate carbon in an alkane
• Carbocations Abso!ute Configuration
An alkene is (2’) if the highest-priority substituents
Leaving Groups are on the same side of the double bond, and (£) if
Leaving groups = molecular fragments that retain on opposite sides.
Nuc!eophi!es the electrons after heterotysis (breaking a bond, A stereocenter's configuration is determined by
with both electrons being given to one of the putting the lowest-priority group in the back and
Nucleophile = “nucleus-loving”; tend to have two products). The best leaving groups will be drawing a circle from group 1 to 2 to 3 in
lone pairs or x bonds that can form new bonds able to stabilize the extra electrons. descending priority. If this circle is clockwise, the
to electrophiles. Nucleophilicity is increased by
Most common leaving groups: stereocenter is (/t); if it is counterclockwise, the
increasing electron density.
stereocenter is (S).
Nucleophilicity is determined by four major factors: • Weak bases
• Large groups with resonance
• Charge: Nucleophilicity increases with increasing
electron density (more negative charge). • Large groups with electron-withdrawing atoms
—+—+—++

DETERMINING ORGANIC MECHANISMS ORGANIC OXIDATION–REDUCTION PHENOLS & QUINONE DERIVATIVES

Step 1: Know Your Nomenclature • Level 0 (no bonds to heteroatoms): alkanes
If given compound names in a question stem or • Level 1: alcohols, alkyl halides, amines
passage, be able to draw them. If working with • Level 2: aldehydes, ketones, imines
reaction diagrams, be able to name the compounds. • Level 3: carboxylic acids, anhydrides, esters,
amides
Step 2: Identify the Functional Groups • Level 4 (four bonds to heteroatoms): carbon
The hydrogen of the hydroxyl group of a phenol
is particularly acidic because the oxygen-
containing anion is resonance-stabilized by the
ring.
OH O− O O
−H+ − −

What functional groups are in the molecule? Do dioxide +H−

these functional groups act as acids or bases?
Oxidation = loss of electrons, fewer bonds to
How oxidized is the carbon? Are there functional
hydrogens, more bonds to heteroatoms (O, N,
Quinones and Hydroxyquinones
groups that act as good nucleophiles, Treatment of phenols with oxidizing agents produces
halogens)
electrophiles, or leaving groups? This will help quinones.
define a category of reactions that can occur Reduction = gain of electrons, more bonds
OH O
with the given functional groups. to hydrogens, fewer bonds to heteroatoms
Na2Cr2O7

Oxidizing Agents
H2SO4

Step 3: Identify the Other Reagents

OH O

Are the other reagents acidic or basic? Are they Good oxidizing agents have a high affinity for p-benzenediol 1,4-benzoquinone
(hydroquinone)
specific to a particular reaction? Are they good electrons (such
oxidation statesas(like O3,7+and
O2, Mn high4—,
Cl2) or unusuallyMnO
in permanganate,
nucleophiles or a specific solvent? Are they and Cr6+ in chromate, CrO42 These molecules can be further oxidized to form a
good oxidizing or reducing agents? —). class of molecules called hydroxyquinones.
Reducing Agents Many hydroxyquinones have biological activity.
Step 4: Identify the Most Reactive Functional Group(s) Good reducing agents include sodium, magnesium,
O
OH
More oxidized carbons tend to be more aluminum, and zinc, which have low electronegativities
reactive to both nucleophile–electrophile and ionization energies. Metal hydrides are also
reactions and good reducing agents, like NaH, CaH2, LiAlH4, and O

oxidation–reduction reactions. Note the presence of NaBH4, because they contain the H– ion.
protecting groups that exist to prevent a particular Ubiquinones
functional group from reacting. Ubiquinone is also called coenzyme Q and is a vital
electron carrier associated with Complexes I, II,
Step 5: Identify the First Step of the Reaction and III of the electron transport chain.
• If the reaction involves an acid or a Ubiquinone can be reduced to ubiquinol, which
base: protonation or deprotonation can later be reoxidized to ubiquinone. This is
• If the reaction involves a nucleophile: sometimes called the Q cycle.
nucleophile attacks electrophile, forming a bond
• If the reaction involves an oxidizing or ALDEHYDES
reducing agent: most oxidized
The dipole moment of aldehydes causes an
functional group is oxidized or reduced,
elevation of boiling point, but not as high as
accordingly
Oxidation alcohols because there is no hydrogen bonding.
Step 6: Consider Stereoselectivity • PCC takes a primary alcohol to an aldehyde.
PCC
Synthesis
If there is more than one product, the major product OH O
• Oxidation of primary alcohols
will generally be determined by differences in strain
or stability between the two molecules. Products • Jones’s reagent, KMnO4, and alkali • Ozonolysis of alkenes
with conjugation (alternating single and multiple dichromate salts will convert secondary
Reactions
bonds) are significantly more stable than those alcohols to ketones and primary alcohols to
carboxylic
OHacids. O Reactions of enols (Michael additions)
ALCOHOLS Na2Cr2O7
H2SO4 O O
Base
O O

+ H:Base

• Higher boiling points than alkanes R R R — R

• Tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidized without O O

• Weakly acidic hydroxyl hydrogen breaking a carbon–carbon bond. O O R R
O
+ O + Base

Synthesis Reduction R R R
— R
R R
O OH
• Addition of water to double bonds
Nucleophilic addition to a
• S N1 and SN 2 LiAlH4
carbonyl O — OH
or O
reactions of carboxylic acids, aldehydes,
+
H
• Reduction NaBH4
H H
H
ketones, and esters Nu Nu Nu

Alcohols and Reactivity

° Aldehydes and ketones with NaBH4 or Aldol condensation
LiAlH4 Alcohols can be converted to mesylates or
tosylates to make them better leaving groups for An aldehyde acts both as nucleophile (enol form)
° Esters and carboxylic acids with LiAlH4
nucleophilic substitution reactions. and electrophile (keto form). One carbonyl forms an
enolate, which attacks the other carbonyl. After the
Reactions • Mesylates (–SO 3CH 3) are derived from aldol is formed, a dehydration reaction results in
methanesulfonic acid. an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl.
Substitution reactions after protonation or leaving
• Tosylates (–SO C H CH ) are derived from
group conversion 3 6 4 3
O (reacts in
protonated
toluenesulfonic acid. O + OH
C form)
O
H
O O H
catalytic H H R −H2O

OH + HBr
OH
2 +
Br Alcohols can be used as protecting groups R
C
CH3 R
C
CH2 R
C
CH2
C
R R
C
C
C
R
H
for carbonyls, as reaction with a dialcohol enol
H
aldol addition product aldol condensation
product

Br OH
forms an unreactive acetal. After other
+ Br + H2O
reactions, the
2

Decarboxylation
protectingO group can
O
beO removed
O
with aqueous
O
O acid. O

HO OH H2O C
cat. H cat. H
LiAIH4 O

OH O
NaI
+ O S O + —SO
3 O O O O OH OH
I
LiAIH4 OH
ClSO 2

tosyl chloride

OH
+++

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES

Carboxylic acids have pKa values around 4.5 Carboxylic acid derivatives contain three bonds to Amides
due to resonance stabilization of the conjugate heteroatoms (O, N, halides, and so forth). As such,
base. they can be interconverted through nucleophilic acyl Formation from an anhydride
Electronegative atoms increase acidity with inductive substitution by swapping leaving groups. O O O
– O

effects. Boiling point is higher than alcohols NH3 +

Carboxylic acid derivatives can be ranked based on O + O
because of the ability to form two hydrogen bonds. H 3N
descending reactivity:

Synthesis • Acyl halides are the most reactive

• Anhydrides O O O
– O
+
Oxidation of primary alcohols with KMnO4 • Carboxylic acids and esters +
O
O NH2 OH
KMnO4 • Amides are the least reactive H2N
H
OH OH
A reaction that proceeds down the order of reactivity can
Formation from an ester
Hydrolysis of nitriles occur spontaneously by nucleophilic acyl substitution.
O A reaction that proceeds up the order of reactivity
CH3Cl CH3CN CH3COH + NH4
requires special catalysts and specific reaction
conditions. Hydrolysis (requires acid)
Reactions Anhydrides
Formation of soap by reacting carboxylic acids with Synthesis via dehydration of two carboxylic
NaOH; arrange in micelles acids
O

O +—Nanonpolar tail
+

polar head
Intramolecular formation of a cyclic anhydride
Nucleophilic acyl substitution O O
Reduction to an
Ester formation OH O + H2O
amine
OH
LiAlH4
O
O NH2 NH2
ortho-phthalic acid phthalic anhydride

Esters
Transesterification
• Reduction to alcohols
NITROGEN-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS

Hydrolysis
OH OH
+
OH
+
O
O
H2O O OH
H + H H
O

Strecker Synthesis O H2O

+
OH
+
H3O + +
OH
Decarboxylation Reagents: aldehyde, ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), OH OH
O potassium cyanide (KCN)
C
R O H NH+
NH3
NH
3
+ Reduction
O 3 H
R O+ O
R OH
LAH +
O OH OH
proton
transfer

NH2 NH2
Saponification
−
CN R NH+ −H2O
2 O O
R R
OHN
2
RC O O+– Na
RC
+
N NH
+ OH
2 O O HO
H2N +
H H2N H2O H 2N
NaOH O– Na + HO
RC O RC
CYCLIC CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES R R R
NH

O O HO
proton O– Na
Lactams transfer RC O RC

OH OH OH triacylglycerol soap glycerol

Cyclic amides are called lactams. These are H2N
proton
H2N H2N
transfer H2O
named according to the carbon atom bound to the OH
+
OH 2 +

PHOSPHORUS-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS
+ NH
nitrogen: β-lactams contain a bond between the β- R
NH
3
R
NH
2
R
2

carbon and the nitrogen, γ-lactams contain a bond

between the γ-carbon and the nitrogen, and so −NH3 • Phosphoric acid is a phosphate group or
forth. inorganic phosphate (Pi). At physiologic pH,
OH
+

+
O inorganic phosphate includes both hydrogen
phosphate (HPO2–) and dihydrogen phosphate
H2N −H H2N
OH OH

O (H PO –
4 ).
R R
N N O N O N O 2 4
H H H H • Pyrophosphate (PPi ) is P2O74–, which is released
β-lactam γ-lactam δ-lactam ε-lactam Gabriel (Malonic-Ester) Synthesis during the formation of phosphodiester bonds
Reagents: potassium phthalimide, diethyl in DNA. Pyrophosphate is unstable in
Lactones bromomalonate aqueous solution, and is hydrolyzed to
O O O
form two molecules of inorganic
Cyclic esters are called lactones. These are CO2C2H5 CO2C2H5 CO2C2H5
phosphate.
− + base
N K + Br C H SN 2 N C H N C −
named not only based on the carbon bound to the CO C H
2 2 5
CO C H
2 2 5
CO C H
2 2 5

O O 4–
oxygen, but also the length of the carbon chain
O O
potassium diethyl
phthalimide bromomalonate

itself. P P
O − R–Br
O O
CO2H
H3 O , ∆
+ O CO2
−
CO2C2H5
SN2
O O O
O O
+
H3N C R
−CO 2 + H2N C R
NaOH
N C R O O
O H 2O, ∆
O H O CO2 − CO2C2H5

O O
–
O • Nucleotides with phosphate groups, such
O
O ATP, GTP, and those in DNA, are referred to
 PURIFICATION METHODS SPECTROSCOPY
Extraction separates dissolved substances Distillation separates liquids based on boiling Infrared spectroscopy measures molecular vibrations
based on differential solubility in aqueous vs. point, which depends on intermolecular forces. of characteristic functional groups.
organic solvents. Types are simple, fractional, and vacuum. Functional Group Wavenumber (cm–1) Vibration

Alkanes 2800 — 3000 C H

thermometer 1200 C C
Alkenes 3080 — 3140 C H
1645 C C
condenser Alkynes 2200 C C
vacuum adapter
3300 C H
Aromatic 2900 — 3100 C H
clamp to vacuum source 1475 — 1625 C C
water outlet clamp Alcohols 3100 — 3500 O H (broad)
water inlet
distilling flask Ethers 1050 — 1150 C O

receiving flask Aldehydes 2700 — 2900 (O)C H

1700 — 1750 C O
ice bath
heat source Ketones 1700 — 1750 C O
Carboxylic acids 1700 — 1750 C O
vacuum distillation
2800 — 3200 O H (broad)
Amines 3100 — 3500 N H (sharp)

UV spectroscopy involves passing ultraviolet

light through a chemical sample and plotting
absorbance vs. wavelength. It is most useful for
studying compounds containing double bonds and
heteroatoms with lone pairs.
Filtration separates solids from liquids. 1H–NMR is a form of nuclear magnetic resonance.
Type of Proton Approximate Chemical Shift (ppm)
Downfield from TMS
RCH3 0.9
Column RCH2 1.25
R3CH 1.5
–CH=CH 4.6–6
Column packing 2–3
–C≡CH
Ar–H 6–8.5
–CHX 2–4.5
residue –CHOH/–CHOR 3.4–4
RCHO 9–10
filter paper 2–2.5
RCHCO–
–CHCOOH/–CHCOOR 2–2.6
–CHOH–CH2OH 1–5.5

ArOH 4–12
to vacuum trap –COOH 10.5–12
glass projection to
–NH2 1–5
hold up packing

Ha Hb
clean filter flask deshielding b Cl C O C Hb

shielding Cl Hb

TMS
filtrate
a

vacuum filtration fractional distillation

Simple distillation can be used to separate two

Chromatography uses a stationary phase and liquids with boiling points below 150°C and at least 8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0

a mobile phase to separate compounds based 25°C apart.

δ (ppm)

on polarity and/or size. When analyzing an NMR spectrum, look

Vacuum distillation should be used when a liquid
for:
to be distilled has a boiling point above 150°C. To • Types of protons: corresponds to the number
solvent front
prevent degradation of the product, the incident of peaks seen in the spectrum
pressure is lowered, thereby lowering the boiling • Position of peaks: the further left-shifted
point. (downfield) the peak, the more deshielded
Y
Fractional distillation should be used when two the proton. Usually this corresponds to
liquids have boiling points less than 25°C apart. By more electron-withdrawing groups
R =X
f Y
X introducing a fractionation column, the sample boils • Integration of peaks: the larger the
1 2 3 1 2 3 and refluxes back down over a larger surface area, integration, the more protons contained
thin-layer chromatograms
improving the purity of the distillate. • under the peak Splitting: hydrogens on
Recrystallization separates solids based on adjacent carbons will split a peak into n + 1
differential solubility in varying temperatures. subpeaks, where n is the number of
solvent
hydrogens on the adjacent carbon
sand Electrophoresis is used to separate biological
Type of
Chromatography Mobile Phase Stationary Phase Common Use
silica or alumina Thin-layer or Paper Nonpolar solvent Polar card Identify a sample
Reverse-phase Polar solvent Nonpolar card Identify a sample
Separate a sample
sand Column Nonpolar solvent zPolar gel or powder
glass wool or cotton into components
stopcock to control flow
Ion-exchange Nonpolar solvent Charged beads in column Separate components by charge
Polar, porous beads
Size-exclusion Nonpolar solvent Separate components by size
in column
collection flask Beads coated with antibody
Purify a molecule (usually
Affinity Nonpolar solvent or receptor for a target
a protein) of interest
molecule
column chromatography
Gas (GC) Inert gas Crushed metal or polymer Separate vaporizable compounds

High-performance Small column with Similar to column, but

Nonpolar solvent
liquid (HPLC) concentration gradient more precise
 Work: For a constant force F acting on an object that *Potental*energy: the energy associated with a
moves a displacement of d, the work is W —— Fd cos 8. body's position. Gravitational potential energy of an
• Examples: force, velocity (For a force perpendicular to the displacement, object is due to the force of gravity acting on it,
W —— 0.) [SI unit: joule = N m] and is expressed as: U = mph
Scalars: physical quantities that have magnitude,
but no direction Total mechanical energy
System Worl‹
• Examples: mass, speed £=U+
Displacement (Ax): the change in position that goes
• When the piston expands, K
work is done 6y the
in a straight-line path from the initial position to Mechanical energy is conserved when the sum of
the final position; independent of the path taken kinetic and potential energies remains constant.
(SI unit: m) Work—Energy Theorem
is done on the system
Average velocity: (SI units: S) (w‹ o). Relates the work performed by all forces acting on
• The area under a P ve. 7 a body in a particular time interval to the change
Acceleration: the rate of change of an object's in energy at that time:
velocity; it is a vector quantity: a = Av
bt
(SI units: ) work done in a
S system.

Linear Motion • When solving for time, Power: the rate at which work is performed; it is
v = v, + af given by: P —— (SI unit: watt =S) Conservation of Energy
?at2 is initially launched and When there are no nonconservative forces (such as
Mechanical Energy friction) acting on a system, the total
V+2' ’j + 2ax ground.
Energy is a scalar quantity (SI unit: joule). mechanical energy remains constant: AT = AT
(v,+v) • To find max height, + AT = 0
2 Kinetic energy: the energy associated with moving
objects. It is given by:
v,+v 0 at the highest point of y_y2
2 Thermal Expansion
Linear expansion: the increase in length by most
Projectile Motion solids when heated
Mnemonic: when temperature increases, the length
v=O Newton's thirdl w:If body A exerts a'force on body of a solid increases “a Lot"(n£A/)
B, then B will exert a force back onto A that is
equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction. This ML —— UT
h can be expressed as Fg = —F,. Volume expansion: the increase in volume of fluids
Newton's law of gravitation: All forms of matter when heated
experience an attractive force to other forms of
matter in the universe. The magnitude of the force is
• Vertical component of velocity = v sin 8 Gm ’z Heat Transfer
represented by: F ——
• Horizontal component of velocity = v cos fi r’ Conduction: the direct transfer of energy via
Frictional forces • Mass (m): a scalar quantity that measures a molecular collisions
body's inertia Convection: the transfer of heat by the physical
Static friction (/s): is the force that must be
overcome to set an object in motion. It has the • Weight (F ): a vector quantity that measures motion of a fluid
formula: 0 < /, < ps/\/ a body's gravitational attraction to the earth
Radiation: the transfer of energy by electromagnetic
(Fq = mg)
Kinetic friction (/y): opposes the motion of objects waves
moving relative to each other. It has the formula: Uniform circular motion: •
Specific Heat
F,
g = mc&T (mnemonic: looks like MCAT)
F ——
/7IV • Can only be used to find Q when the object
r does not change phase
Equilibrium • Q › 0 means heat is gained; Q ‹ 0 means heat
is lost
First condition of equilibrium: An object is in
translational equilibrium when the sum of forces [Common units: joules, calories, or Calories (kcal)]
Newton's first law (law of inertia): A body in a state pushing it one direction is counterbalanced by the Heat of transformation: the quantity of heat required
of motion or at rest will remain in that state unless sum of forces acting in the opposite direction. It to change the phase of 1 g of a substance.
acted upon by a net force. can be expressed as OF = 0. Q = ml (p hase changes are isothermal processes)
NS
Newton's second law: When a net force is applied to First law of thermodynamics: AL/ = Q — W
a body of mass m, the body will be accelerated in the
same direction as the force applied to the mass. This Process First Law Becomes
is expressed by the formula F = ma [SI unit: Adiabatic (g = 0) bU —— —W
newton Constant \oIume (W = 0) gg q
kg m
(N) = ]. Isothermal (AL/ = 0) 0 —— w
• Fg pytj › F-¿ pg: QDFSOh
dCC9leFdt9S downward Second law of thermodynamics: In any
• Fy = F¿ y' terminal velocity thermodynamic process that moves from one state
is reached (person travels at
of equilibrium to another, the entropy of the system
Problem-Solving Guide and environment together will either increase or
• Resolve the forces into x- and y-components. remain unchanged.
• OF = 0 must be true for equilibrium;
therefore, SF, = 0 and SF = 0.
 HYDROSTATICS & FLUID DYNAMICS ELECTROSTATICS CIRCUITS
m kg
Density (ρ) = [SI units: ] Coulomb’s Law Current: the flow of electric charge. Current is given
V ρ 3 by:
m kg Q C
Specific gravity = subtance
[no units]; ρ = 103 I= [SI units: ampère (A) = ]
∆t s
ρwater water 3
m +q1 –q2
F F (The direction of current is the direction positive
Weight = ρgV r charge would flow, or from high to low potential.)
Pressure: a scalar quantity defined as force per unit kq1q2
area: P =
F
[SI units: pascal =
N
]
F= 2 [SI units: newtons] Ohm’s Law and Resistance
A m
2 r
V = IR (can be applied to entire circuit or individual
• For static fluids of uniform density in a sealed Electric Field
vessel, pressure: P = ρgz resistors)
field lines ρ
• Absolute pressure in a fluid due to gravity Resistance: opposition to the flow of charge. R = L
somewhere below the surface is given by (Resistance increases with increasing temperaturesA
the equation P = Po + ρgz with most
+ –
• Gauge pressure: Pg = P – Patm conductors.) [SI Units:
Continuity equation: A1v1 = A2v2 ohm (Ω)]
1 Fe Q N V
Bernoulli’s equation: P + ρv 02 + ρgh = constant
2 E= = 2 [SI units: or ] Circuit Laws
q r C M
• A positive point charge will move in the same Kirchhoff’s laws:
Archimedes’ Principle
direction as the electric field vector; a negative 1. At any junction within a circuit, the sum of
Fbuoy = ρfluid gVsubmerged charge will move in the opposite direction. current flowing into that point must equal the
sum of current leaving.
N Electrical Potential Energy (U)
4
5
2. The sum of voltage sources equals the sum of
The electrical potential energy of a charge q at a point
3

2 6 voltage drops around a closed-circuit loop.

1
0
7 in space is the amount of work required to move it
from infinity to that point.
N
U = q∆V = qEd =
kQq
[SI units: J]
Series Circuits
4
3 5
r Is a
2 6

1 7
Electric Dipoles b
0
3Ω Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + …
c VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + ...
5V 5Ω
• p is the dipole IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = …
E d
moment (p = qd). 7Ω
• The dipole feels no net Fe
translational force, but
experiences a torque
about the center
d Parallel Circuits
3 N displaced
causing it to rotate so Ip
that Fe=qE
1 1 1 1
the dipole moment aligns I1 I2 I3 In Req = R + R +R + ...
1 2 3
with the electric field.
• The buoyant force is equal to the weight of the Rp R1 R2 R3 Rn VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = ...
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + ...
displaced fluid.
If the weight of the fluid displaced is less than Electrical Potential Ip
the object’s weight, the object will sink. The amount of work required to move a positive test
If the weight of the fluid displaced is greater charge q from infinity to a particular point divided by
U J
Power Dissipated by Resistors
than or equal to the object’s weight, then it the test charge: V = [SI units: volt = ]
2
V
q C
P = IV = = I2 R
will float. R

Pascal’s Principle Potential Difference (Voltage) Capacitors

• A change in the pressure applied to an –V Capacitance: the ability to store charge per unit
Q
enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished voltage. It is given by: C =
to every portion of the fluid and to the V
ε A
walls of the containing vessel. electron ‘pump’
C' = κ d
Capacitors in parallel: add
Cp C1 C C Cn
2 3 Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + …
F1
‘load’

A1 A2
d2 Energy Stored by Capacitors 2
d1 1 1 2 1 Q
+V U= QV = CV =
W kQ J 2 2 2 C
F2 Voltage (∆V) = = [SI units: volt = ]
q r C
C1
• When two oppositely charged parallel plates
are separated by a distance d, an electric field
is created, and a potential difference exists Capacitors in series:
C2
between the plates, given by: V = Ed add as reciprocals,
then take reciprocal Cs
of sum C3
1 1 1 1
C eq = C1 + C2 + C 3 + ...

d E
C4

F F
P= 1
= 2
and A d = A d
A1 A2 1 1 2 2

so, W = F1d1 = F2d2

 WAVES MATHEMATICS OPTICS DATA ANALYSIS
2

Estimation
Describing Waves Finding the resultant using the component method:
Refraction Converging
Measures oflenses
Central Tendency and Distribution
Scientific notation: A method of simplifying •c Resolve vectors into x- and y-components
m
n = (speed of light = 3 × 108 S • Mean: the average of the data points;
Longitudinal by
calculations wave
reducing numbers to a significand v
) • Sum all the vectors in the x-direction to get the impacted heavily by outliersf>0
between one and ten and the exponent power of Snell’sresultant for θthe=x-direction,
law: n1sin and donthe
n2 sin θ2. When
1 2 > n1 , • Median: the central value of a data set; not
ten: 0.0000037 = 3.7 × 10–6. Allows estimation by same toward
light bends for the the
y-components
normal; when n2 < n1, light affected by outliers
powers of ten, which is often all that is necessary on • The
bends awaymagnitude of the resultant R = Rx A2 +y
from the normal. • Mode: the most common data point(s);
the MCAT. R
not affected by outliers
Multiplication: If you round one number up, round Right-Hand Rule for Finding Direction • Range: the difference between the largest and
Transverse
the waveto compensate.
other down • smallest valuebeyond
in a set;
theimpacted heavily
the by
of Cross-Product Resultant For an object focal length,
Division: If you round one number up, round the n outliers
image formed is real and inverted.
Thenright-hand rule is used
other up to compensate. to find the direction of a • Standard deviation:
For an object insideathemeasure
focal of how spread
length, the
Roots and Logarithms vector that is the product of out values
image are isfrom
formed the upright
virtual, mean; affected by
and enlarged.
two other vectors. If C = A ×
• outliers
There is no image formed if an object is at the
B, then C is represented by
Wave x2
x formulas
x x2 x x2 x x2 focal point. 2
1 the palm while A is
ƒ= represented by the thumb
1 1 6 36 11
T 121 16 256
and B is represented by the Diverging lenses
2 4 7 49 v = 12
ƒλ 144 17 289 Diffraction fingers.

3 9 8 64 13 169 18 324 negatively skewed

f<0
positively skewed
Standing Waves RESEARCH
λ DESIGN
4 16 9 81 14 196 19 361
Strings N
2L 25
N λ = 2L
Question Selection
λ5= 10 100 15 225 20 400
(n = 1, 2, 3…)
ntable can be used to estimate
L
Scientific method: determineλwhether sufficient
This
nv A even-powered
A
ƒ roots
= (nnumbers.
= 1, 2, 3…) N
background exists and whether the question is testable
of When takingNsquare roots
N
of a
2L λ=L
FINER method: determine whether a study is
number raised to a power, remember not to take −
A A A
Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant Magnification (m)x =med med x
the square root of theNexponent,
N but
N to divide
N it by
λ = 2––L
i
two. 3
• ⎪m⎪ < 1 image reduced;
0 ⎪m⎪ > 1 image
Logarithmic identities
Causality Probability
enlarged; ⎪m⎪ = 1 image same size
The ends of the strings are always nodes. Nodes To locate dark fringes, use the formula:
log A × B = log A + log B •
• Mutually exclusive:
Inverted image has atwo eventsm;
negative that cannot
erect image
occur where the displacement is zero. Controls: experimental subjects that are maintained
A with similar abut
sinnoninterventional
θ = nλ (n = 1, 2, treatments
3…) to occur
has a together
positive m
log
= log A – log
Open pipes BB L = –λ– establish causality. • Independent: the probability of either event is
2L not affected by the occurrence of the other
λ= (n = 1, 2, 3…)B Spherical Mirrors
log A = B log A
2 Hill’s criteria: help determine the strength of causal ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHENOMENA
n L= λ relationships. Only1 temporality
Optics equation:
1 1 1 is necessary. For independent events:
nv 1
+ =
o
=
ƒ =2L (n = 1, 2, 3…)
log = –log A
i f r PhotoelectricP(A
Effect
and B) = P(A) × P(B)
A 3 λ • Any of units of distance may be used, but
L = –– Error Sources
Converting common and natural logarithms
2 all units used must be the same. E = hf = hP(A
c or B) = P(A)
K is +the
P(B) – P(Akinetic
maximum and energy
B) of an
The open ends of the pipes are always antinodes • Small sample size: amplifies the effects of ejected electron; λ
Probability is usually expressed as a W is the minimum
percent, but all
Concave mirrors anomalies
statistical energy required to eject an electron,
(max amplitude). In x K = hfshould
math – be completed using decimals.
called the work function.
log x = • Defects in precision and accuracy: W
λ
Closed pipes 2.303L = – – create random or systematic variations in
4L
4
the data
Statistical
Nuclear Testing
Binding Energy
λ= (n = 1,log (n × 10m) ≈ m + 0.n
3, 5…) 3––λ
L= Mass• defect:
Null hypothesis: a hypothesis
the difference betweenofthe nosum
difference;
of the
nvn 4 99.7%
f>0 massesalways the comparator
of nucleons in the nucleus and the mass
ƒ= (n = 1, 3, 5…) 95%
Trigonometry
4L L = 5––λ • p-value:
of the nucleus. the
Theprobability
mass defect that resultsfrom
results werethe
68%
4
A
obtained
conversion by chance
of matter given embodied
to energy, that the null
by:
The closed end of the pipe is always a node, and the E = mchypothesis
2 is true
. This energy is the binding energy that
45°
open end is always
30 ° an antinode. • If an object is placed inside the focal length of • nucleons
holds Confidence interval:
within a range of values believed
the nucleus.
√
2
a concave mirror instead, the image formed to contain the true value with a given level
2 1
is behind the mirror, enlarged and virtual. of probability
√
3 SOUND 0.15% 2.4% 13.5% 34% 34% 13.5% 2.4% 0.15%
Exponential Decay(confidence)
Convex mirrors
60° 45°
Sound propagates through a deformable medium by Visual Data
Half-life Interpretation
C D 1 B 1 −3 σ −2 σ −1 σ x +1 σ +2 σ +3 σ
the oscillation of particles parallel to the direction of n = •noeGraphs:
Alpha decay
analyze the axes first to determine
the wave’s propagation. opposite • Bias: systematic data error. Common types
Psinθ = W f<0 whether the scale is linear, logarithmic,
Intensity (I ) = hypotenuse
[SI units: ] include selection bias, detection bias, or semilog and what the units are.
A 2
⎛adjacent and the Hawthorne effect. Minimized by Determine
I ⎟⎞m 238
92U → 90Th + 2 whether relationships are direct
234
Sound level (β) =cos θ =⎜
10 log [unit: decibel = dB] proper participant selection, blinding, and
hypotenuse ⎜⎝I0 ⎟⎠ or inverse.
randomization. Beta-minus
• Pie137 decay compare portions of data to a
charts:
(Note than an increase ofopposite
10 dB is an increase in 137
Cs → Ba + 0 e–λt– responses of a group
tanθ = • Confounding: an analysis error wherein a whole
56 or relative
intensity by a factor of 10. An increase of 20 dB is an
adjacent • Regardless of the position of with
the object, a
55
−
–1 e
variable that has a relationship the other + •v Bar charts and histograms: compare
increase in intensity by a factor of 100.)
twoconvex mirror
variables forms only a virtual upright
is overlooked Beta-plus decayor relative responses between
absolute
Vector Addition and Subtraction image. 22 22 0 +
Doppler Effect 11Na → 10Ne + +1 e + e
groups
Tip-to-tail method of finding resultant of two vectors: Ethics v • Box plots: contain information about
• When a source and a detector move Thin Spherical Lenses 100measures of central tendency and distribution;
• Beneficence: the requirement to do good
–Q the perceived equation: 1 = 1“do1
percentage of radioactive nuclei remaining

relative to one another, Optics + no harm” may be comparative or single

• Nonmaleficence: f 0 i
frequency of the sound received differs
km minus 299,000

from the actualP–Q Q

frequency emitted even
P
• Autonomy: the right of individuals to make
decisions for themselves
Observer and detector moving closer:
though the source velocity and P+Qfrequency
• Justice: the need to consider only morally
Punchanged.
1000
is • + sign in numerator
s

relevant differences between patients and to 50

– sign in denominator
Speed of light

(v ± v D )
Q
f ′ = f(v ∓ vS )
distribute healthcare resources fairly 900
Observer and detector moving apart:
Stationary source: vs = 0 Generalizability 25
– sign in numerator
Stationary detector: vD = 0 Statistical significance and causality do not make
800
• + sign in denominator 12.5 true speed
6.25
something generalizable or a good intervention. 3.125
1.5625
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Clinical significance and the target population must 0
700
number of half-lives
also be considered.