Psychology Reviewer REM – rapid eye movement stage, the stage

which we dream the human eyeball will tend to

Chapter 5 – Nature of Consciousness move side to side. (90 – 120 minutes)
Two modes of Consciousness Scanning hypothesis – eyes move as the
dreamer observes the activity unfolding in the
 Active – motivated searching
dream.
 Passive – merely receptive attitude
 We repeat the cycle 5 times in entire’s
Three Characteristics of Consciousness
night sleep.
 Personal Dream content
 Subjective
 Constantly changing  Consciousness – the human mind is like
an iceberg only 10% is above the
Three factors which determine whether an surface and the 90% is submerged
event or object may be noticed under water
 Surprise Manifest content – it dramatizes the hidden
 Intensity desires and wishes
 Change
Latent content – real meaning of the dream
Altered state of consciousness – is any
manner of being conscious other than being Bizarre features – it arises as the mind tries to
fully and normally awake. conceal the truth.

Daydreaming – involves planning, thinking, of Sleep Orders

ways to solve current problems, or recalling
past memories. Disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep:

Sleep – sleep in human beings is governed by  Insomnia – the condition of no sleep (In
the circadian rhythm. (8 hours or 1/3 of an – no, Som – sleep)
entire day) Disorders of excessive sleep:
Electroencephalogram – instrument that
 Sleep apnea – lack of air, you woke up
measures brain waves during sleep.
catching your breath
 Hypersomnia – excess sleep, sign of
Stage 1 depression
we experience  Narcolepsy – inability to stay awake
light transitional
sleep Disorders of the sleep – wake schedule:

 Jetlag
REM  Work-shift problems
Stage 2
revitalizes the
memory.
more stable Dysfunctions associated with sleep stages:
sleep occurs
daydreaming.
 Nightmares
 Sleep-walking (somnambulism)
 Sleep-related bed-wetting
Stage 3
growth hormone
is released
Hypnosis – condition which a person has little
will of his own, and acts according to the
suggestions of the hypnotist.
Greek word – means “sleep”
Hypnotic induction – it is a procedure to
induce a hypnotic state used by hypnotists.
Conditions for hypnosis to work:
 Subject is open
 Rapport bet. Hypnotist and desire to
cooperate by subject
 Subject engages in fantasy, imagery
 Unwillingness to accept has lesser
chances to be hypnotized.
Hypnotic phenomena:
 Loss of spontaneity
 Selectivity
 Reduced reality testing
 Enactment of unusual roles
 Posthypnotic suggestibility
 Posthypnotic amnesia
Meditation – the mediator focuses on a single
stimulus.
 Zazen – practiced by Japanese Zen
Buddhists, they focus on the normal flow
of their breathing w/o trying to control it.
Benefits of Meditation:
 Neutralization of the stresses of daily life
 Enriches experiences
 Enhances overall contentment
Biofeedback – the ability of the meditator to
control particular body processes such as heart
rate.
Psychoactive drugs
Drug – anything taken into the human body for
medicinal effects.
Types of drugs that act on the brain/mind:
Depressants – slows awareness
 Heroin – an opium derivative or opiate
from the opium poppy plant. Source of
the morphine. Medically a painkiller or
anesthesia.
 Barbiturates – sedates the user making
him relaxed, more sociable or irritable.
Stimulants – stimulates, heightens arousal
and increase alertness.
 Amphetamines – used by people
engaged in strenuous activities
 Cocaine – decrease fatigue increases
energy
Addiction to these may result to paranoid
schizophrenia.
Methamphetamine hydrochloride / shabu the
poor man’s cocaine.
Milder forms are nicotine in cigarettes and
caffeine in coffee.
Hallucinogens – causes a person to
experience hallucinations.
 Marijuana – cannabis sativa
(tetrahydrocannabinol or THC)
 Lysergic acid or LSD – comes from
fungus which grows from wheat and
other grains.
Chapter 6 – Intelligence
Theories of Intelligence
1. Alfred Binet
Intelligence is a general capacity that
encompasses all mental abilities.
2. Spearman
Factor’s Analysis based on the assumption
that there are mental abilities that seem to
be relatively independent of one another.
 Intelligence factor – present in
every individual but in diff. amounts.
 Specific factors – certain abilities
 3. Louis Thurstone Aptitude – capacity for learning certain
abilities.
Intelligence could be broken down into a
number of primary abilities. IQ Score Description Intelligence
level
 Verbal comprehension – 140+ Genius
understand meaning of words. 130 – 140 Very superior
 Word fluency – think of words 120 – 130 Superior
rapidly 110 – 120 High average
 Numerical – work with numbers 90 – 110 Normal or
 Space – visualize space – form average
relationships 80 – 90 Low average
 Memory – recall verbal stimuli 70 – 80 Borderline
 Perceptual speed – grasp details defective
quickly 50 – 70 Mild mental Can complete
 Reasoning – find general rule on the retardation grade 3 - 4
basis of presented circumstances 25 – 50 Moderate Incapable of
mental school
retardation learning
4. Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of Below 25 Severe Incapable of
intelligence mental learning and
retardation requires close
Three factors: supervision
 Componential intelligence –
analytical thinking, abstract
Causes of Mental Retardation
reasoning and measured in
intelligence tests. 1. Phenylketonuria – genetic disorder
 Experiential intelligence – characterized by mutation in the gene.
insightful and creative thinking 2. Chromosomal aberration
 Contextual intelligence – o Down syndrome – flaws from
practical know-how parent’s egg or sperm cells
o Fragile X syndrome – sex linked
Intelligence Quotient
w/c affect boys 1 out of 1200.
Stanford – Binet IQ score: 3. Infection, radiation or toxic substances
during prenatal period
IQ = metal age / chronological age x 100 4. Prenatal factors such as head injury or
oxygen deprivation resulting in
When IQ declines the possible causes are: o Microcephaly – skull fails to
 Chronic illness grow
o Hydrocephaly – build up of
 Drinking problems
cerebrospinal fluid which
 Un-stimulating lifestyles
damages and enlarges brain
A test has to be reliable (if taken repeatedly) 5. Poor nutrition, frequent pregnancies or
and valid (when it measure what it claims to frequent absences of adult male in the
measure) home.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS III) Giftedness – those children who possess an
untrained and spontaneously expressed
 Measured by solving puzzles, natural ability in at least one ability significantly
assembling objects, completing pictures beyond that typically seen in children of the
and other non-verbal tasks. same age.
Signs of giftedness
1. Tendency to seek out and identify w.
other children and adults
2. Ability to absorb info. Rapidly
3. Early fascination with explanations and
problem solving
4. Talking complete sentence as early as
2-3 yrs. of age
5. Unusually good memory
6. Talent in art, music or number skills
7. Early interest in books
8. Showing kindness, understanding and
cooperation to others.
Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple
intelligence
 Linguistic intelligence
 Logical – mathematical intelligence
 Musical intelligence
 Bodily – kinesthetic intelligence
 Spatial intelligence
 Interpersonal intelligence
 Intrapersonal intelligence
Chapter 7 – Learning
Learning – change in behavior which results
from experience.
Classical conditioning (Ivan P. Pavlov)
 Unconditioned stimulus (US)
 Unconditioned response (UR)
 Conditioned stimulus (CS) and
 Conditioned response (CR)
Instrumental conditioning (Edward Lee
Thorndike) responses became instrumental in
receiving a reward.
 Stimulus – response theory – theory of
connectionism
Thorndike’s laws of learning
 Law of effect
The strength of a connection is
influenced by the consequences of
response.
 Law of Exercise
Repetition of a response strengthens its
connection with the stimulus while
disuse weakens it.
 Law of Readiness
The maturation is necessary for the
desired learning to be welcomed w/o the
possibility of being irritated.
 Law of Belongingness
The connection is increased if the paired
stimuli are familiar or common with the
quality of belongingness (eating
veggies)
Operant conditioning (Burrhus F. Skinner)
- Focused on the behaviors produced by
the response
- Reinforcement is the key element in
skinner’s S-R theory.
- Positive reinforcer – strengthens the
desired response
- Negative reinforce – results in
increased freq. of the response when it’s
withdrawn.
Social learning theory (Albert Bandura)
- Learning within the social context
Principle of social learning theory
- Learn by observing others
- Learning can occur w/p change in
behavior
- Cognition affects learning
- Social learning theory bridge for
transition bet. Cognitive learning and
behaviorist theories
Different individuals are often the models of
behavior of others
- Observer reinforced by model
- By third person
- Imitated behavior leads to reinforcing
consequences
- Consequences of model’s behavior
might affect observer’s behavior
explicitly
Conditions necessary for effective modeling to
occur
- Attention
- Retention (remember)
- Motor reproduction (replicate)
- Motivation (desire)
Implications of SLT
- People learn by observation
- Knowing consequences can increase
appropriate and decrease inappropriate
behavior
- Modeling serves as alternative for
teaching new behavior
- Appropriate behavior must be shown
and inappropriate not shown
- People exposed to a variety of other
models
- Self – regulation provides an effective
method for improving behavior
Chapter 8 – Motivation & Emotion
Active driving force:
 Individual seeks
 Individual wants
 Individual fears
These forces are directed towards:
 He seeks wealth
 He wants peace
 He fears illness
Intrinsic motivation – a person does
something for no obvious tangible reward.
Extrinsic motivation – does something in
order to receive a particular tangible reward.
Motivational constructs
3 unobservable motivational concepts
 Need – lack of something required for
optimal adjustment
 Drive – energy level mobilized by the
person as a result of being deprived of
the goal object
 Incentive – objects that people are
motivated to obtain (goal objects /
incentives)
Incentive value of the object –
motivating characteristics of a particular
goal object relative to other objects in
the same gen. class.
Theories of Motivation
1. Motivational Cycle – three components
Need – physiological deficit.
Drive – discomfort one experiences arising
from the need.
Goal – state which you seek in order to
satisfy a need
2. Freudian
Libido – life instinct that stems from
inherent tendency of all creatures to
survive.
Mortido – death’s instinct that man’s
tendency toward destruction of property,
other people or himself.
Five directions of the libido:
 Narcissism or self-love
 Object love – focused towards other
people
 Introversion – avoid too much
social contact by being alone
 Fixation – obsession – love that is
infinite
 Sublimation – human beings have
animalistic instincts and desires, a
public display of which would not be
acceptable to society
3. Superiority and Compensation (Alfred
Adler) all human beings possess some
form of inferiority or defect.
 Overcompensation – people who are  Safety needs: to feel secure and safe
hostile to competitors, anti-social, out of danger
domineering and some even end up as  Physiological needs: hunger, thirst and
delinquents or criminals. so forth

4. Hedonism – point toward pleasure Classification of motives

seeking as the reason behind all
behaviors. 1. Physiological motives – gained at birth
not learned
5. Rationalism – all actions are directed Need Description
by his reason. Food Hypothalamus
Water Anti-diuretic
6. Homeostasis – body’s inherent hormone
tendency to maintain a constant internal Sex More goal –
environment. There must be equilibrium. oriented
Rest & sleep 8 hours everyday
7. Instinct (William McDougall) – all our Shelter & Proper Lessens
thoughts and behavior are caused by Temperature vulnerability to
inborn instincts. harm and disease
Activity Very energetic
10 primary instincts: Pain drives Sensitivity to pain –
hyperalgesia
1) Acquisition Maternal drives The need to have
2) Construction children
3) Curiosity
4) Flight
5) Gregariousness Sexual behavior – necessary for
6) Pugnacity reproduction (female – estrogen &
7) Reproduction progesterone / Male – testosterone)
8) Repulsion
9) Self-abasement and self-esteem Estrous cycle – signals when a female is
fertile
The Origin of Motives
Mate only once in their life – wolf & eagle
Motives originates either from a biological
source (water or food) or from environmental Hetero means “different”
influences (social acceptance) 2. Psychological and Social Motivation
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs  Independence – connotes freedom
 Affection and belongingness –
 Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment social contact is essential in the
and realize one’s potential normal emotional growth of a child.
 Aesthetic needs: symmetry, order, and  Achievement, social, recognition
beauty and self-esteem – to feel good
 Cognitive needs: to know, understand, when he does deeds for his fellow
and explore men.
 Esteem needs: to achieve, be
competent and gain approval and Self-esteem – the sense of self-worth of
recognition a person, how much he respects
himself.
 Belongingness and love needs: to
affiliate with others, be accepted and
belong
Emotions – comes from the Latin word
“emoverse” which means “to stir up”
Theories on Emotion
1. John B. Watson
Three main emotions already present in
the newborn:
 Fear – crying
 Anger – thrashing
 Love – smiles
2. James – Lange
“We do not run because we are afraid,
we are afraid because we run”
3. Cannon – Bard – it claims the thalamus
send signals of the cerebral cortex and
the rest of the body upon the instigation
of an emotion-instigating stimulus
However based on studies limbic
system and the hypothalamus are
responsible for emotional responses,
NOT the thalamus.
4. Schachter’s – two factor theory that
emotions have 2 ingredients:
 Physical arousal
 Cognitive label
Robert Zajonc – emotional reactions are
sometimes faster than our interpretations of a
situation.
Richard Lazarus – some emotional responses
do not necessitate conscious thinking.
Development of emotional patterns
 Imitation – family & cultural influences
are passed on
 Understanding – person uses his logic
to understand the possible effects of
certain actions
 Conditioning – certain emotions can be
learned through conditioning
Ten physiological reactions to emotions
1. Respiration – breathing cycle
2. Pupillary constriction – pupils of eyes
constrict when angry
3. Blood variations – blood pressure
varies
4. Galvanic skin response (GSR) –
measured by psycho galvanometer
which electrical resistance determines
whether electricity will travel fast or slow
through the material
5. Muscular reaction – tension and
tightening of muscles
6. Salivation – anger decrease saliva
production causes dry mouth
7. Glandular activity – hormones
8. Gastrointestinal motility – fear causes
diarrhea, throwing-up and etc.
9. Goose bumps – hair stands, minute
bumps appear on the surface of skin
10. Metabolic rate – metabolism is
responsible for the amount of heat, that
body gives off
Fear – helps us realize we are in danger.
Adrenaline w/c gives us extra strength.
Paranoia or Anxiety – extreme fear
Happiness – motivated to succeed. When we
are happy, we are more willing to help others.
Positive psychology – “if you do well for
others like family, there is a tendency to feel
good as a result”
Anger – is always disruptive and may result to
hypertension.
Sadness – if lingered longer than normal way
may result to depression.
Guilford’s steps toward emotional maturity
1. Avoid emotion provoking events
2. Change the situation – friend than
enemy
3. Increase skill for coping the situation
4. Re-interpret the situation
5. Keep working toward your goal
6. Find a suitable outlet
7. Develop a sense of humor – “laughter
makes everything bearable”
Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman
4 areas of emotional intelligence
1. Self-awareness – ability to identify
one’s feelings
2. Self-management – possessing
emotional control
3. Social awareness – ability to
empathize with others’ feelings
4. Relationship management – ability to
inspire others towards a common
mission

Prepared by Yvette Pauline Joven