 Refers to the conscious or subconscious awareness of changes
in the external or internal environment.
 Refers to the conscious awareness and interpretation of
sensations.
 Primarily a function of the cerebral cortex.
▪ We have no perception of some sensory information because it never
reaches the cerebral cortex (e.g. BP and other autonomic functions)
Stimulation of the sensory receptors
Transduction of the stimulus
Generation of nerve impulses
Integration of sensory input
▪ The nature of the sensation and the type of reaction generated vary
according to the ultimate destination of nerve impulses.
 Each unique type of sensation is called a sensory modality.
 Can be classified as:
▪ General senses
▪ Somatic – tactile, thermal, pain, & proprioception.
▪ Visceral – hunger, nausea, pressure stretch, pain, etc.
▪ Special senses
▪ smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium or balance.
 Can be grouped into different classifications:
▪ Microscopic structure,
▪ Location of the receptors and the origin of stimuli that activate
them, and
▪ Type of stimulus detected
Free nerve endings Bare dendrites associated with pain,
thermal, tickle, itch, and some touch
sensations.
Encapsulated nerve Dendrites enclosed in connective tissue
endings capsule for pressure, vibration, and
some touch sensations.
Separate cells Receptor cells synapse with first-order
sensory neurons; located in retina of eye
(photoreceptors), inner ear (hair cells),
and taste buds of tongue (gustatory
receptor cells).
Exteroceptors Located at or near body surface; sensitive to stimuli
originating outside body; provide information about
external environment; convey visual, smell, taste, touch,
pressure, vibration, thermal, and pain sensations.
Interoceptors Located in blood vessels, visceral organs, and nervous
system; provide information about internal environment;
impulses usually are not consciously perceived but
occasionally may be felt as pain or pressure.
Proprioceptors Located in muscles, tendons, joints, and inner ear;
provide information about body position, muscle length
and tension, position and motion of joints, and
equilibrium (balance).

Mechanoreceptors Detect mechanical stimuli; provide sensations of

touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception, and
hearing and equilibrium; also monitor stretching of
blood vessels and internal organs.
Thermoreceptors Detect changes in temperature.
Nociceptors Respond to painful stimuli resulting from physical or
chemical damage to tissue.
Photoreceptors Detect light that strikes the retina of the eye.
Chemoreceptors Detect chemicals in mouth (taste), nose (smell), and
body fluids.
Osmoreceptors Sense osmotic pressure of body fluids.
 Lower Motor Neurons (LMN)  LMNs receives input
▪ Cell bodies are located in the lower parts of the CNS. from:
▪ Their axons extend to the PNS to innervate skeletal muscles. ▪ Local circuit neurons
▪ A.k.a. final common pathway. ▪ Upper motor neurons
(UMN)
▪ Basal nuclei neurons
▪ Cerebellar neurons

 Cerebral Cortex 1. Premotor area

 Brainstem ▪ Motor planning and
 Basal Nuclei storage of learned
motor activities
 Cerebellum
2. Primary motor
area
▪ Execution of
voluntary
movements
Direct Pathway 1. Vestibular nuclei
▪ Postural reflexes
▪ Receives inputs from visual, vestibular, and proprioceptors
1. Corticospinal
2. Reticular formation
▪ Lateral corticospinal
▪ Helps in posture control and alters muscle tone
▪ distal 3. Superior colliculus
▪ Anterior corticospinal ▪ Receives visual and auditory inputs
▪ Proximal and trunk 4. Red nucleus
▪ Receives cortical and cerebellar inputs
2. Corticobulbar ▪ For fine, precision, voluntary movements

Indirect Pathway Functions of Basal Nuclei:

 Initiation of movements
1. Vestibulospinal  Suppression of unwanted movements
2. Reticulospinal  Regulation of muscle tone
3. Tectospinal  Regulation of non-motor responses
4. Rubrospinal

 Modulates movement
 Primarily for posture and balance

 Functions:
1. Monitoring intentions for movement
2. Monitoring actual movement
3. Comparing command signals for
sensory information
4. Sending out corrective feedback
 Wakefulness and Sleep
 Learning and Memory
 Language

Identify the structures of the brain responsible for each

integrative function.

FOR READING ASSIGNMENT

 Olfactory epithelium ▪ Olfactory (Bowman’s) glands

▪ Olfactory receptors ▪ Produce mucus that moistens the surface of the olfactory epithelium and
dissolves odorants so that transduction can occur.
▪ First-order neuron of olfactory pathway.
▪ Olfactory hairs respond to the odorants.
▪ Supporting cells
▪ Provide physical support, nourishment, and electrical insulation for the
olfactory receptors, and detoxify chemicals.
▪ Basal cells
▪ Undergo cell division to produce new olfactory receptors.

Olfactory receptors

Olfactory nerve (CN I)

Olfactory bulb

Olfactory tract

Primary olfactory area at inferior medial surface of

temporal lobe

Orbitofrontal area at frontal lobe

 A chemical sense.  Papillae – elevations on the tongue
 Has five primary taste sensation: ▪ Increases surface area and provide a rough texture for the dorsum of
▪ Sour, sweet, bitter, salty, and umami tongue.
 Taste bud  Types:
▪ Gustatory receptor cells ▪ Vallate (circumvallate) papillae
▪ Gustatory hair ▪ Fungiform papillae
▪ Taste pore ▪ Foliate papillae
▪ Supporting cells ▪ Filiform papillae
▪ Basal cells

Gustatory receptor cells

Facial, Glossopharyngeal,
Vagus (CN VII, IX, X)

Gustatory nucleus at the

medulla oblongata

Limbic system, hypothalamus,

thalamus

Primary gustatory area at

parietal lobe

 Accessory structures ▪ Lacrimal apparatus

▪ Eyelids (palpebrae)
▪ Palpebral fissure
▪ Lateral & medial commisure
▪ Lacrimal carucncle
▪ Tarsal plate
▪ Tarsal or Meibomian glands
▪ Conjunctiva
▪ Palpebral
▪ Bulbar
▪ Eyelashes & eyebrows
▪ Sebaceous ciliary glands
 ▪ Extrinsic eye muscles  Eyeball
▪ Fibrous tunic
▪ Cornea
Superior Rectus
▪ Transparent coat that covers the colored iris and helps focus light onto the retina.
Inferior Oblique Inferior Oblique
▪ Sclera
▪ Covers the entire eyeball except the cornea, gives shape to the eyeball, makes it more rigid,
protects its inner parts, and serves as a site of attachment for the extrinsic eye muscles.
Medial Rectus
Lateral Rectus Lateral Rectus

Superior Oblique Inferior Rectus Superior Oblique

 Eyeball (cont.)
▪ Vascular tunic
▪ Choroid
▪ Posterior portion, lines most of the internal surface of the sclera. Contains blood vessels that
provide nutrients to the posterior surface of the retina. Contains melanocytes that produce
the pigment melanin.
▪ Ciliary body
▪ Ciliary process
▪ Ciliary muscles – contracts to change the shape of lens
▪ Zonula fibers/suspensory ligaments – attached to the lens

▪ Vascular tunic (cont.)  Retinal neural layers

▪ Iris ▪ Photoreceptor
▪ Regulates the amount of light entering the eyeball through the pupil. ▪ Rods (dark) and cones
(BGR)
▪ Retina ▪ Bipolar cell layer
▪ Pigmented layer ▪ Horizontal & amacrine cells
▪ Contains melanin. ▪ Ganglion cell layer
▪ Neural layer
▪ Processes visual data before transmitting it to the brain.
▪ Outer synaptic layer
▪ Inner synaptic layer
 ▪ Macula lutea
▪ The exact center of the posterior portion of the retina, at the visual axis of the
eye
▪ Fovea centralis
▪ Depression at the center or macula lutea
▪ Contains only cones
▪ The area of highest visual acuity or resolution

 Interior of the Eyeball

▪ Anterior cavity
▪ Anterior and posterior chamber
▪ Aqueous humor
▪ Scleral venous sinus / canal of Schlemm
▪ Posterior cavity
▪ Vitreous body
▪ Hyaloid canal

Photoreceptors
 The ability to perceive sounds.
Optic nerve (CNII)  Divided into 3 main regions:
▪ Outer
Optic chiasm
▪ Middle
Optic tract
▪ Inner
Lateral geniculate nucleus of thalamus

Superior colliculi & pretectal nuclei

Primary visual area in occipital lobe

  Outer ear  Middle ear
▪ Auricle/pinna ▪ Auditory ossicles
▪ Lobule ▪ Malleus
▪ Incus
▪ Helix
▪ Stapes
▪ External auditory canal
▪ Oval window
▪ Tympanic membrane ▪ Round window
▪ Ceruminous glands ▪ Tensor tympani
▪ Stapedius
▪ Auditory/eustachian tube

 Inner ear (a.k.a. labyrinth) ▪ Membranous labyrinth

▪ Bony labyrinth (contains perilymph)
(contains endolymph)
▪ Semicircular ducts
▪ Semicircular canals
▪ Anterior, posterior, lateral ▪ Utricle & Saccule
▪ Ampulla ▪ Cochlear duct
▪ Vestibule
▪ Cochlea
▪ Cochlear duct (scala media)
▪ Scala vestibuli
▪ Scala tympani

▪ Vestibular membrane
▪ Basilar membrane
▪ Spiral organ/Organ of Corti
▪ Hair cells
▪ 40-80 stereocilia
▪ Tectorial membrane
 Stereocilia / hair cells of the spiral organ
Spiral ganglia
Cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear nerve
(CN VIII)
Cochlear nuclei in medulla oblongata
Superior olivary nucleus (sound localization),
Inferior colliculus of midbrain
Medial geniculate nuclei in thalamus
Primary auditory area in the temporal lobe
 Has two types:
▪ Static
▪ Head tilting, linear acceleration & deceleration
▪ Dynamic
▪ Rotational acceleration & deceleration
 Vestibular apparatus
▪ Utricle, saccule, & semicircular ducts

 Utricle and saccule  Semicircular ducts

▪ Maculae – small thickened region, ▪ Anterior, posterior, lateral
receptors for static equilibrium ▪ Ampula
▪ Consists of hair cells & supporting ▪ Crista – receptor for dynamic
cells equilibrium
▪ Hair bundle: stereocilia & kinocilium ▪ Consists of hair cells &
supporting cells
▪ Otolithic membranes & otoliths ▪ Cupula
 Hair cells of cristae
 Differentiate sensation from perception.
Vestibular ganglia  Describe the process of sensation.
Vestibular branch of  Classify and describe each type of sensory receptors
vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
 Enumerate the receptors for somatic sensation for each
Vestibular nuclei in pons and medulla sensory modality
Inferior cerebellar peduncles (to  Briefly discuss the anatomy & physiology of each special
cerebellum)
sense
Ventral posterior nucleus of
thalamus

Vestibular area in the parietal lobe