– Nerves extending from the

Chapter 7: Nervous System brain and spinal cord

▪ Spinal nerves—carry
impulses to and from
Functions of the Nervous System
the spinal cord
1. Functions of the Nervous System
▪ Cranial nerves—carry
– - Sensory receptors monitor impulses to and from
changes, called stimuli, the brain
occurring inside and outside the
– Functions
body
▪ Serve as
2. Integration
communication lines
– - Nervous system processes and among sensory organs,
interprets sensory input and the brain and spinal
decides whether action is cord, and glands or
needed muscles

3. Motor output
– - A response, or effect, activates Functional Classification
muscles or glands
• Sensory (afferent) division

– Nerve fibers that carry

Organization of the Nervous System information to the central
nervous system
• Nervous system classifications
– Structural classification is based ▪ Somatic sensory
on the structures of the (afferent) fibers carry
nervous system information from the
skin, skeletal muscles,
▪ Central nervous system and joints
▪ Peripheral nervous
▪ Visceral sensory
system
(afferent) fibers carry
– Functional classification is information from
based on the activities of the visceral organs
nervous system
• Motor (efferent) division
▪ Sensory (afferent)
division – Nerve fibers that carry impulses
away from the central nervous
▪ Motor (efferent)
system organs to effector
division
organs (muscles and glands)
Structural Classification
• Motor (efferent) division
• Central nervous system (C N S)
– Two subdivisions
– Organs
▪ Somatic nervous system
▪ Brain = voluntary
▪ Spinal cord • Consciously
– Function (voluntarily)
controls
▪ Integration; command skeletal
center
muscles
▪ Interprets incoming
▪ Autonomic nervous
sensory information
system = involuntary
▪ Issues outgoing
instructions • Automatically
controls
• Peripheral nervous system (P N S) smooth and
 cardiac muscles – Monitor health of nearby
and glands neurons

• Further divided – Dispose of debris

into the
• C N S glial cells: ependymal cells
sympathetic
and – Line cavities of the brain and
parasympatheti spinal cord
c nervous
systems – Cilia assist with circulation of
cerebrospinal fluid
Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function
• C N S glial cells: oligodendrocytes
• Nervous tissue is composed of two
types of cells – Wrap around nerve fibers in the
central nervous system
– Neurons
– Produce myelin sheaths
– Supporting cells collectively
called neuroglia • P N S glial cells

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells – Schwann cells

• Support cells in the C N S are grouped • Form myelin sheath

together as neuroglia around nerve fibers in
the P N S
• General functions
– Satellite cells
– Support
• Protect and cushion
– Insulate neuron cell bodies
– Protect neurons Nervous Tissue: Neurons
• Nervous tissue is made up of two • Neurons = nerve cells
principal cell types
– Cells specialized to transmit
– Supporting cells (called messages (nerve impulses)
neuroglia, or glial cells, or glia)
– Major regions of all neurons
• Resemble neurons
▪ Cell body—nucleus and
• Unable to conduct metabolic center of the
nerve impulses cell
• Never lose the ability to ▪ Processes—fibers that
divide extend from the cell
body
– Neurons
• Cell body is the metabolic center of the
• C N S glial cells: astrocytes
neuron
– Abundant, star-shaped cells
– Nucleus with large nucleolus
– Brace and anchor neurons to
– Nissl bodies
blood capillaries
▪ Rough endoplasmic
– Determine permeability and
reticulum
exchanges between blood
capillaries and neurons – Neurofibrils
– Protect neurons from harmful ▪ Intermediate filaments
substances in blood that maintain cell shape
– Control the chemical • Processes (fibers)
environment of the brain
– Dendrites—conduct impulses
• C N S glial cells: microglia toward the cell body
– Spiderlike phagocytes
 ▪ Neurons may have – Tracts—bundles of nerve fibers
hundreds of dendrites in the C N S

– Axons—conduct impulses away – Nerves—bundles of nerve fibers

from the cell body in the P N S

▪ Neurons have only one – White matter—collections of

axon arising from the myelinated fibers (tracts)
cell body at the axon
– Gray matter—mostly
hillock
unmyelinated fibers and cell
▪ End in axon terminals, bodies
which contain vesicles
• Functional classification
with neurotransmitters
– Sensory (afferent) neurons
▪ Axon terminals are
separated from the ▪ Carry impulses from the
next neuron by a gap sensory receptors to
the C N S
– Synaptic cleft—gap between
axon terminals and the next ▪ Receptors include:
neuron
o Cutaneous
– Synapse—functional junction sense organs in
between nerves where a nerve skin detect
impulse is transmitted pain,
temperature,
• Myelin sheaths
touch, pressure
– Myelin is a white, fatty material
o Proprioceptors
covering axons
in muscles and
– Protects and insulates fibers tendons detect
stretch
– Speeds nerve impulse
transmission

– Schwann cells—wrap axons in a

jelly roll–like fashion (P N S) to
form the myelin sheath

▪ Neurilemma—part of
the Schwann cell
external to the myelin
sheath

▪ Nodes of Ranvier—gaps
in myelin sheath along
the axon

– Oligodendrocytes—produce
myelin sheaths around axons of
the C N S

▪ Lack a neurilemma
(plays a role in fiber
regeneration)

• Terminology

– Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies

in the C N S

– Ganglia—collections of cell
bodies outside the C N S in the
PNS
 ▪ Located in special sense
organs, such as nose
and eye

▪ Rare in adults

– Unipolar neurons—have a short

single process leaving the cell
body

▪ Sensory neurons found

in P N S ganglia

▪ Conduct impulses both

toward and away from
the cell body

• Functional properties of neurons

– Irritability

▪ Ability to respond to a
stimulus and convert it
to a nerve impulse

– Conductivity

▪ Ability to transmit the

impulse to other
neurons, muscles, or
glands
• Functional classification
• Electrical conditions of a resting
– Motor (efferent) neurons neuron’s membrane
▪ Carry impulses from the – The plasma membrane at rest is
central nervous system inactive (polarized)
to viscera and/or
muscles and glands – Fewer positive ions are inside
the neuron’s plasma membrane
– Interneurons (association than outside
neurons)

▪ Cell bodies located in

the C N S

▪ Connect sensory and

motor neurons

• Structural classification

– Based on number of processes • Action potential initiation and

extending from the cell body generation
– Multipolar neurons—many – A stimulus changes the
extensions from the cell body permeability of the neuron’s
membrane to sodium ions
▪ All motor and
interneurons are – Sodium channels now open,
multipolar and sodium (N a+) diffuses into
the neuron
▪ Most common
structural type – The inward rush of sodium ions
changes the polarity at that site
– Bipolar neurons—one axon and
and is called depolarization
one dendrite
• Action potential initiation and
generation (continued)
 – A graded potential (localized
depolarization) exists where the
inside of the membrane is more
positive and the outside is less
positive

– If the stimulus is strong enough

and sodium influx great
enough, local depolarization
activates the neuron to conduct
an action potential (nerve
impulse)

• Propagation of the action potential

– If enough sodium enters the

cell, the action potential (nerve
impulse) starts and is
propagated over the entire
axon

– All-or-none response means

the nerve impulse either is
propagated or is not
• Transmission of the signal at synapses
– Fibers with myelin sheaths
conduct nerve impulses more – Step 1: When the action
quickly potential reaches the axon
terminal, the electrical charge
• Repolarization
opens calcium channels
– Membrane permeability
– Step 2: Calcium, in turn, causes
changes again—becoming
the tiny vesicles containing the
impermeable to sodium ions
neurotransmitter chemical to
and permeable to potassium
fuse with the axonal membrane
ions
– Step 3: The entry of calcium
– Potassium ions rapidly diffuse
into the axon terminal causes
out of the neuron, repolarizing
porelike openings to form,
the membrane
releasing the neurotransmitter
– Repolarization involves into the synaptic cleft
restoring the inside of the
– Step 4: The neurotransmitter
membrane to a negative charge
molecules diffuse across the
and the outer surface to a
synaptic cleft and bind to
positive charge
receptors on the membrane of
– Initial conditions of sodium and the next neuron
potassium ions are restored
– Step 5: If enough
using the sodium-potassium
neurotransmitter is released, a
pump
graded potential will be
– This pump, using A T P, restores generated
the original configuration
• Eventually an action
– Three sodium ions are ejected potential (nerve
from the cell while two impulse) will occur in
potassium ions are returned to the neuron beyond the
the cell synapse

– Until repolarization is complete, – Step 6: The electrical changes

a neuron cannot conduct prompted by neurotransmitter
another nerve impulse binding are brief
– The neurotransmitter is quickly
removed from the synapse
either by reuptake or by
enzymatic activity

– Transmission of an impulse is
electrochemical

• Transmission down
neuron is electrical

• Transmission to next
neuron is chemical
• Reflexes

– Rapid, predictable, and

involuntary responses to stimuli

– Occur over neural pathways

called reflex arcs

– Two types of reflexes

▪ Somatic reflexes

▪ Autonomic reflexes

The five basic elements of a reflex arc are as

follows.

• 1. The receptor picks up the stimulus at

the distal end of a unipolar neuron.

• 2. Sensory, afferent, neuron sends the

information into the dorsal root and
dorsal horn.

• 3. An interneuron acts as an integration

center.

• 4. It send the motor neuron to the

effector.

• 5. The Effector, usually muscle.

• Somatic reflexes

– Reflexes that stimulate the

skeletal muscles

– Involuntary, although skeletal

muscle is normally under
voluntary control

– Example: pulling your hand

away from a hot object

• Autonomic reflexes

– Regulate the activity of smooth

muscles, the heart, and glands

– Example: regulation of smooth

muscles, heart and blood
 pressure, glands, digestive ▪ Cerebellum
system
Functional Anatomy of the Brain
Five elements of a reflex arc:
• Cerebral hemispheres are paired (left
1. Sensory receptor—reacts to a and right) superior parts of the brain
stimulus
– Include more than half of the
2. Sensory neuron—carries brain mass
message to the integration
– The surface is made of ridges
center
(gyri) and grooves (sulci)
3. Integration center (C N S)—
– Fissures are deeper grooves
processes information and
directs motor output – Lobes are named for the cranial
bones that lie over them
4. Motor neuron—carries
message to an effector • Three main regions of cerebral
hemisphere
5. Effector organ—is the muscle or
gland to be stimulated – Cortex is superficial gray matter
Two-neuron reflex arcs – White matter
Simplest type – Basal nuclei are deep pockets of
gray matter
Example: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex

Development and Regions of the Human Brain

Three-neuron reflex arcs

– Consists of five elements:

receptor, sensory neuron,
interneuron, motor neuron, and
effector

– Example: flexor (withdrawal)

reflex

Left Lateral View of the Brain

Central Nervous System (C N S)

• Functional anatomy of the brain

– Brain regions

▪ Cerebral hemispheres

▪ Diencephalon

▪ Brain stem
Functions of Major Brain Regions
 • Cerebral cortex The motor map in the precentral gyrus. From
inferior to superior there is swallowing, tongue,
– Primary somatic sensory area
jaw, lips, face, eye, brow, neck, thumb, fingers,
▪ Located in the parietal hand, wrist, elbow, arm, shoulder, trunk, and
lobe posterior to the hip motion. The knee, foot, and toes are in the
central sulcus midline in the par central lobule. The sensory
map in the post central gyrus. From inferior to
▪ Receives impulses from superior there is intra-abdominal, pharynx,
the body’s sensory tongue, jaw, gums, teeth, lips, fees, nose, eye,
receptors thumb, fingers, hand, forearm, elbow, arm,
– Pain, head, neck, trunk, hips, leg, knee sensation. The
temperature, foot and genitalia sensation are represented in
light touch the midline in the paracentral lobule.
(except for
special senses)
• Cerebral areas involved in special
▪ Sensory homunculus is senses
a spatial map
– Visual area (occipital lobe)
▪ The left side of the
primary somatic – Auditory area (temporal lobe)
sensory area receives
– Olfactory area (temporal lobe)
impulses from the right
side (and vice versa) • Cerebral cortex

Left Lateral View of the Brain (1 of 2) – Primary motor area

• Located anterior to the

central sulcus in the
frontal lobe

• Allows us to consciously
move skeletal muscles

• Motor neurons form

pyramidal
(corticospinal) tract,
which descends to
spinal cord

• Motor homunculus is a
spatial map

Sensory and Motor Areas of the Cerebral

Cortex (1 of 2)
 association area which includes working
memory and judgement, problem solving,
language comprehension, and Broca’s area
which is the motor speech area. The postcentral
gyrus is the primary somatic sensory area and
the inferior part of it is the gustatory area for
taste. The rest of the upper part of the parietal
lobe is the posterior association area. The
temporal lobe has the olfactory and auditory
areas, and where it meets the parietal lobe is
the speech or language area. The occipital lobe
function in vision.

• Cerebral white matter

The frontal lobe has the precentral gyrus, and is
separated from the parietal lobe by the central – Composed of fiber tracts deep
sulcus. The parietal lobe has the postcentral to the gray matter
gyrus. The parieto occipital sulcus separates ▪ Corpus callosum
parietal from occipital lobes. The lateral sulcus connects hemispheres
separates the frontal and parietal lobes from
the temporal lobe. In a close up of cerebral gray ▪ Tracts, such as the
matter, the gyri are separated by sulcus, while a corpus callosum, are
fissure is a deeper sulcus. Under the cerebrum known as commissures
is the pons and medulla oblongata with the
▪ Association fiber tracts
cerebellum behind them, while the spinal cord
connect areas within a
continues inferiorly from the medulla.
hemisphere

▪ Projection fiber tracts

• Cerebral cortex connect the cerebrum
with lower C N S
– Broca’s area (motor speech centers
area)
Frontal Section (Facing Posteriorly) of the Brain
▪ Involved in our ability Showing Commissural, Association, and
to speak Projection Fibers Running Through the
▪ Usually in left Cerebrum and the Lower C N S
hemisphere at the base
of the precentral gyrus

– Other specialized areas

▪ Anterior association
area (frontal lobe)

▪ Posterior association
area (posterior cortex)

▪ Speech area (for

sounding out words)

In a coronal section of the cerebrum there is the

longitudinal fissure, lateral ventricles, fornix,
basal nuclei, thalamus, third ventricle, pons and
medulla oblongata. Association fibers are white
The precentral gyrus is the primary motor area,
matter fibers that connect gyrus to gyrus or
while anterior to that is the premotor area. The
lobe to lobe on the same side. Commissural
rest of the frontal lobe is the anterior
fibers like the corpus callosum connect one
hemisphere to the other. Projection fibers
project up or down. Descending projection
fibers go through the corona radiata, internal
capsule, and cross at the medulla.

• Basal nuclei

– “Islands” of gray matter buried

deep within the white matter of
the cerebrum

– Regulate voluntary motor

activities by modifying The reticular formation spans the whole length
instructions sent to skeletal of the brainstem. It receives visual information,
muscles by the primary motor auditory information, and ascending general
cortex sensory information such as touch, pain, and
temperature. It sends radiations to the cerebral
• Diencephalon (interbrain) cortex, and descending motor projections to the
– Sits on top of the brain stem spinal cord.

– Enclosed by the cerebral

hemispheres • Diencephalon: thalamus
– Includes three structures – Encloses the third ventricle
• Thalamus – Relay station for sensory
• Hypothalamus impulses passing upward to the
cerebral cortex
• Epithalamus
• Diencephalon: hypothalamus

– Makes up the floor of the

diencephalon

– Important autonomic nervous

system center

• Regulates body
temperature, water
balance, metabolism

– Houses the limbic center for

emotions
In a midsagittal view of the right cerebral
hemisphere, under the corpus callousum and – Regulates the nearby pituitary
posterior to the anterior commissure is the gland
diencephalon. The diencephalon is made up of – Houses mammillary bodies
the mammillary bodies and hypothalamus, part
of which leads to the pituitary gland behind the • Reflex centers for
optic chiasm, the thalamus which encloses the olfaction (smell)
third ventricle, and the pineal gland which is
• Diencephalon: epithalamus
part of the epithalamus. The brainstem is
divided to the midbrain, pons, and medulla – Forms the roof of the third
oblongata. The midbrain has the corpora ventricle
quadrigemina, cerebral aqueduct, and cerebral
– Houses the pineal body (an
peduncle. Behind the pons and medulla is the
endocrine gland)
fourth ventricle covered by the cerebellum
– Includes the choroid plexus—
forms cerebrospinal fluid
• Brain stem • Brain stem: reticular formation

– Provides pathway for ascending – Diffuse mass of gray matter

and descending tracts along the brain stem

– Produce programmed behaviors – Involved in motor control of

key for survival visceral organs

– Includes three structures – Reticular activating system (R A

S)
• Midbrain
• Plays a role in
• Pons
awake/sleep cycles and
• Medulla oblongata consciousness

• Brain stem: midbrain • Filter for incoming

sensory information
– Extends from the mammillary
bodies to the pons inferiorly • Cerebrum

– Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal) – Two hemispheres with

connects the third and fourth convoluted surfaces
ventricles
– Outer cortex of gray matter and
– Two bulging fiber tracts, inner region of white matter
cerebral peduncles, convey
– Controls balance
ascending and descending
impulses – Provides precise timing for
skeletal muscle activity and
– Four rounded protrusions,
coordination of body
corpora quadrigemina, are
movements
visual and auditory reflex
centers – Fibers connect to the
cerebellum from the inner ear,
• Brain stem: pons
eye, proprioceptors of skeletal
– The rounded structure muscles and more
protruding just below the
Protection of the Central Nervous System
midbrain
• In addition to bony protection of the
– Mostly composed of fiber tracts
brain and spinal cord, the central
– Includes nuclei involved in the nervous system is also protected by:
control of breathing
– Meninges
• Brain stem: medulla oblongata
– Cerebrospinal fluid (C S F)
– The most inferior part of the
– Blood-brain barrier
brain stem that merges into the
spinal cord • Meninges

– Includes important fiber tracts – Dura mater

– Contains important centers that • Outermost leathery

control: layer

• Heart rate • Double-layered external

covering
• Blood pressure
• Periosteal
• Breathing
layer—attached
• Swallowing to inner surface
of the skull
• Vomiting
• Meningeal
– Fourth ventricle lies posterior to layer—outer
pons and medulla covering of the
brain
 • Folds inward in several There is the posterior view of a cadaver’s brain,
areas covered with skull and meninges on the right
side. On the left there is the occipital lobe,
• Falx cerebri
tentorium cerebelli between cerebral and
• Tentorium cerebellar hemispheres, and cerebellum. On the
cerebelli right, there is the skull, scalp, dura mater,
transverse sinus, and temporal bone. In the
– Arachnoid layer midline, there is the superior sagittal sinus.
• Middle layer There is arachnoid mater covering the medulla.

• Weblike extensions
span the subarachnoid • Cerebrospinal fluid
space to attach it to the
pia mater – Similar to blood plasma in
composition
• Subarachnoid space is
filled with cerebrospinal – Formed continually by the
fluid choroid plexuses

• Arachnoid granulations ▪ Choroid plexuses—

protrude through the capillaries in the
dura mater and absorb ventricles of the brain
cerebrospinal fluid into
– C S F forms a watery cushion to
venous blood
protect the brain and spinal
– Pia mater cord

• Internal layer – Circulated in the arachnoid

space, ventricles, and central
• Clings to the surface of canal of the spinal cord
the brain and spinal
cord • Cerebrospinal fluid circulation

– C S F is produced by the choroid

plexus of each ventricle

– C S F flows through the

ventricles and into the
subarachnoid space via the
median and lateral apertures.
Some C S F flows through the
central canal of the spinal cord

There is a close up of a small portion of the skull – C S F flows through the

and brain. From superficial to deep, there is skin subarachnoid space
of the scalp, periosteum, bone of the skull, the – C S F is absorbed into the dural
periosteal and meningeal dura mater, arachnoid venous sinuses via the
mater with arachnoid granulation, blood arachnoid villi
vessels, and pia mater. The superior sagittal
sinus is formed between the two dural layers. Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal
The falx cerebri divides the cerebral Fluid
hemispheres.
Part A. An anterior view of the brain. The lateral • Blood-brain barrier
ventricles have an anterior and inferior horn
– Includes the least permeable
and are separated by the septum pellucidum in
capillaries of the body
the midline. The lateral ventricles go through
the interventricular foramen to the third – Allows water, glucose, and
ventricle, which then, through the cerebral amino acids to pass through the
aqueduct, goes into the fourth ventricle. The capillary walls
fourth ventricle has lateral apertures and leads
into the spinal cord’s central canal. – Excludes many potentially
harmful substances from
entering the brain, such as
wastes

– Useless as a barrier against

some substances

Brain Dysfunctions

• Traumatic brain injuries

– Concussion

▪ Slight brain injury

Part B. A lateral view of the cerebrum with the ▪ Typically little
ventricles highlighted. The lateral ventricles permanent brain
have an anterior, posterior, and inferior horn. damage occurs
The anterior horn connects to the third
ventricle through the interventricular foramen. – Contusion
The third ventricle connects to the fourth
▪ Marked nervous tissue
ventricle through the cerebral aqueduct. The
destruction occurs
fourth ventricle has a median and two lateral
apertures and leads into the central canal of the ▪ Coma may occur
spinal cord.
– Death may occur after head
blows due to:

▪ Intracranial
hemorrhage

▪ Cerebral edema

• Cerebrovascular accident (C V A), or

stroke

– Results when blood circulation

to a brain area is blocked and
brain tissue dies

– Loss of some functions or death

may result

▪ Hemiplegia—one-sided
paralysis

▪ Aphasia—damage to
C. There is a midsagittal view of the brain.
speech center in left
Cerebrospinal fluid is produced by the choroid
hemisphere
plexus of each ventricle. Cerebrospinal fluid
flows through the ventricles in to the • Transient ischemic attack (T I A)
subarachnoid space through the median and
lateral apertures of the fourth ventricle. Some – Temporary brain ischemia
cerebrospinal fluid flows through the central (restriction of blood flow)
canal of the spinal cord. Cerebrospinal fluid – Numbness, temporary paralysis,
flows through the subarachnoid space and is impaired speech
absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via the
arachnoid granulations.
Spinal Cord bodies housed in dorsal
root ganglion
• Extends from the foramen magnum of
the skull to the first or second lumbar – Ventral (anterior) horns house
vertebra motor neurons of the somatic
(voluntary) nervous system
• Provides a two-way conduction
pathway to and from the brain ▪ Send motor information
out ventral root
• Protected by vertebrae and meninges
– Gray matter surrounds the
• 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the
central canal, which is filled
spinal cord
with cerebrospinal fluid
– Cauda equina is a collection of
• White matter of the spinal cord
spinal nerves at the inferior end
– Composed of myelinated fiber
tracts

– Three regions: dorsal, lateral,

ventral columns

– Sensory (afferent) tracts

conduct impulses toward brain

– Motor (efferent) tracts carry

impulses from brain to skeletal
muscles

Spinal Cord With Meninges (Three-

Dimensional, Anterior View)

In a posterior view of the spinal cord, there are

8 cervical nerves, 12 thoracic nerves, 5 lumbar,
and 5 sacral nerves. The spinal cord ends at the
bottom of the first lumbar vertebra and the
An anterior view of a portion of the spinal cord.
cauda equina continues in the spinal canal with
The spinal cord is covered by dura, arachnoid,
the lumbar and sacral nerves. The meningeal
and pia maters. The spinal cord has a butterfly
coverings end near S 2. The spinal cord has
shaped gray matter made up of the dorsal,
cervical and lumbar enlargements and is
lateral and ventral horns, which is surrounded
covered by dura and arachnoid mater.
by white matter. The white matter includes the
dorsal column, ventral column, and lateral
column. In the center of the spinal cord is the
• Gray matter of the spinal cord and
central canal. Emerging from the dorsal and
spinal roots
ventral sides of the spinal cord are the dorsal
– Internal gray matter is mostly and ventral roots which form the spinal nerve.
cell bodies Before the spinal nerve the dorsal root has the
dorsal root ganglion.
– Posterior (dorsal) horns house
interneurons

▪ Receive information
from sensory neurons
in the dorsal root; cell
A pin on the skin of the shoulder causes sensory
receptors to become activated. The sensory • Mixed nerves
neuron whose cell body is in the dorsal root
– Contain both sensory and
ganglion, enters the dorsal horn of the cervical
motor fibers
spinal cord and synapses. The interneuron
crosses to the opposite side, and ascends in the • Sensory (afferent) nerves
white matter carrying sensory information to
the cerebral cortex through the brainstem to – Carry impulses toward the C N S
the thalamus, where it synapses before the last • Motor (efferent) nerves
neuron brings sensory information to the
cerebral cortex, where integration or processing – Carry impulses away from the C
of the sensory input occurs. From the cortex, an NS
interneuron carries responses to motor neurons Cranial Nerves
and descends through the brainstem, where it
crosses and descends further to synapse, with • 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the
the motor neuron cell body which sends motor head and neck
output to the muscle.
• Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to
thoracic and abdominal cavities

Peripheral Nervous System (P N S) Cranial Nerves Mnemonic Device

• P N S consists of nerves and ganglia • Oh – Olfactory

outside the C N S
• Oh – Optic
Structure of a Nerve
• Oh – Oculomotor
• Nerves are bundles of neuron fibers
• To – Trochlear
found outside the C N S
• Touch – Trigeminal
• Protective connective tissue coverings
• And – Abducens
– Endoneurium is a connective
tissue sheath that surrounds • Feel – Facial
each fiber
• Very – Vestibulocochlear
– Perineurium wraps groups of
• Good – Glossopharyngeal
fibers bound into a fascicle
• Velvet – Vagus
– Epineurium binds groups of
fascicles • At – Accessory

• Home – Hypoglossal
Distribution of Cranial Nerves

A brain with all the cranial nerves, and close ups

of the parts of the head and neck they supply,
are as follows.

• The olfactory nerve is sensory to the

nose for smell.

• The optic nerve is sensory to the eye for

vision.

• The oculomotor, trochlear, and

abducens nerves are motor to the eye
muscles.

• The trigeminal nerve is sensory to the

face through three divisions, and motor
to the chewing muscles.

• The facial nerve is motor to the facial

muscles and some glands and sensory
to some parts of the face.

• The vestibulocochlear is divided to the

vestibular and cochlear nerves which
are sensory to the inner ear.

• The glossopharyngeal nerve is motor

and sensory to the throat.

• The vagus is motor and sensory to the

thoracic and abdominal viscera.

• The accessory nerve is motor to the

sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
muscles.

• The hypoglossal nerve is motor to the

tongue muscles.
 Name/number Origin/course Function Test

Olfactory Fibers arise from Purely sensory; carries Subject is asked to sniff
olfactory receptors in impulses for the sense and identify aromatic
the nasal mucosa and of smell substances, such as oil
synapse with the of cloves or vanilla
olfactory bulbs (which,
in turn, send fibers to
the olfactory cortex)

Optic Fibers arise from the Purely sensory; carries Vision and visual field
retina of the eye and impulses for vision are tested with an eye
form the optic nerve. chart and by testing the
The two optic nerves point at which the
form the optic chiasma subject first sees an
by partial crossover of object (finger) moving
fibers; the fibers into the visual field; eye
continue to the optic interior is viewed with
cortex as the optic an ophthalmoscope
tracts

Oculomotor Fibers run from the Supplies motor fibers to Pupils are examined for
midbrain to the eye four of the six muscles size, shape, and size
(superior, inferior, and equality; pupillary
medial rectus, and reflex is tested with a
inferior oblique) that penlight (pupils should
direct the eyeball; to constrict when
the eyelid; and to the illuminated); eye
internal eye muscles convergence is tested,
controlling lens shape as is the ability to
and pupil size follow moving objects

Trochlear Fibers run from the Supplies motor fibers Tested in common with
midbrain to the eye for one external eye cranial nerve III for the
muscle (superior ability to follow moving
oblique) objects

Trigeminal Fibers emerge from the Conducts sensory Sensations of pain,

pons and form three impulses from the skin touch, and temperature
divisions that run to the of the face and mucosa are tested with a safety
face of the nose and mouth; pin and hot and cold
also contains motor objects; corneal reflex
fibers that activate the tested with a wisp of
chewing muscles cotton; motor branch
tested by asking the
subject to open mouth
against resistance and
move jaw from side to
side

Abducens Fibers leave the pons Supplies motor fibers to Tested in common with
and run to the eye the lateral rectus cranial nerve III for the
muscle, which rolls the ability to move each
eye laterally eye laterally

Facial Fibers leave the pons Activates the muscles Activates the muscles
and run to the face of facial expression and of facial expression and
the lacrimal and the lacrimal and
salivary glands; carries salivary glands; carries
sensory impulses from sensory impulses from
the taste buds of the taste buds of
anterior tongue anterior tongue
Vestibulocochlear Fibers run from the Purely sensory; Hearing is checked by
equilibrium and hearing vestibular branch air and bone
receptors of the inner transmits impulses for conduction, using a
ear to the brain stem the sense of balance, tuning fork
and cochlear branch
transmits impulses for
the sense of hearing

Glossopharyngeal Fibers emerge from the Supplies motor fibers Gag and swallowing
medulla and run to the to the pharynx (throat) reflexes are checked;
throat that promote subject is asked to
swallowing and saliva speak and cough;
production; carries posterior tongue may
sensory impulses from be tested for taste
taste buds of the
posterior tongue and
from pressure
receptors of the carotid
artery

Vagus Fibers emerge from the Fibers carry sensory Tested in common with
medulla and descend impulses from and cranial nerve nine
into the thorax and motor impulses to the because they both
abdominal cavity pharynx, larynx, and serve muscles of the
the abdominal and throat
thoracic viscera; most
motor fibers are
parasympathetic fibers
that promote digestive
activity and help
regulate heart activity

Accessory Fibers arise from the Mostly motor fibers Sternocleidomastoid

superior spinal cord that activate the and trapezius muscles
(C1 – C5 ) * sternocleidomastoid are checked for
and travel to
muscles of the neck and trapezius muscles strength by asking the
and back subject to rotate head
and shrug shoulders
against resistance

Hypoglossal Fibers run from the Motor fibers control Subject is asked to stick
medulla to the tongue tongue movements; out tongue, and any
sensory fibers carry position abnormalities
impulses from the are noted
tongue
Spinal Nerves • Plexus—networks of nerves serving
motor and sensory needs of the limbs
• Spinal nerves
• Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves
– 31 pairs
in the cervical, lumbar, and sacral
– Formed by the joining of the regions
ventral and dorsal roots of the
• Four plexuses
spinal cord
• Cervical
– Named for the region of the
spinal cord from which they • Brachial
arise
• Lumbar

• Sacral

• Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving

the spinal cord into a dorsal ramus and
a ventral ramus

– Ramus—branch of a spinal
nerve; contains both motor and
sensory fibers

– Dorsal rami—serve the skin and

muscles of the posterior trunk

– Ventral rami (T1 – T12 ) - form

the intercostal nerves that
supply muscles and skin of the
ribs and trunk

– Ventral rami (except T1 – T12 ) —

form a complex of networks
(plexus) for the anterior
•
The anterior view of the upper right limb in
anatomical with the bones and nerves exposed.
The axillary nerve is near the head of the
There is an anterior view of the lower extremity
humerus. The radial and musculocutaneous
with the bones and nerves of the lumbar plexus
nerve are near the distal humerus. The median
exposed. The femoral nerve, lateral femoral
and ulnar nerves are near the radius and ulna
cutaneous nerve, obturator nerve, femur,
respectively.
anterior femoral cutaneous nerve, and
saphenous nerve are shown.
 ▪ Preganglionic neuron is
in the brain or spinal
cord

▪ Postganglionic neuron
extends to the organ

– Has two arms

▪ Sympathetic division

▪ Parasympathetic
division

Comparison of the Somatic and Autonomic

Nervous Systems

A posterior view of the lower extremity

with the bones and sacral plexus exposed.
The superior gluteal nerve, inferior gluteal
nerve, sciatic nerve, posterior femoral
cutaneous nerve, common fibular nerve,
tibial nerve, sural nerve, deep fibular
nerve, superficial fibular nerve, and
plantar branches are all shown from
proximal positioning to distal.

Autonomic Nervous System Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

• Motor subdivision of the P N S • Parasympathetic division is also known
– Consists only of motor nerves as the craniosacral division

– Controls the body automatically • Preganglionic neurons originate in:

(and is also known as the – Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
involuntary nervous system)
S2 through S 4
– regions of the
– Regulates cardiac and smooth
spinal cord
muscles and glands
• Preganglionic neurons synapse with
– Two subdivisions
terminal ganglia; from there,
▪ Somatic nervous system postganglionic axons extend to organs
that are served
▪ Autonomic nervous
system

Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems

Compared

• Somatic nervous system

– Motor neuron cell bodies

originate inside the C N S

– Axons extends to skeletal

muscles that are served

• Autonomic nervous system

– Chain of two motor neurons

Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System

All preganglionic sympathetic originate from the

lateral horn of the gray matter of the spinal
cord. Their axons proceed to the ventral root,
spinal nerve, and ventral ramus. From there
they enter the sympathetic trunk through the
white ramus communicans. Some fibers
synapse with A. the same level sympathetic
Parasympathetic fibers, through cranial nerves trunk ganglion, or b, a different level ganglion.
affect the eye, salivary glands, heart, lungs, From the trunk, postganglionic fibers go
stomach, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. The through the gray ramus communicans to the
sacral nerves from S 2 to 4 affect the bladder dorsal and ventral rami to effector such as
and genitals. The sympathetic nervous system blood vessels, arrector pili muscles, and sweat
arises from T 1 to L 2, and through sympathetic glands of the skin. Some preganglionic fibers in
ganglia, innervates the eye, skin, salivary glands, c, go through the sympathetic trunk and
lungs, heart, stomach, pancreas, liver and become splanchnic nerves which synapse with
gallbladder, adrenal glands, bladder, and collateral ganglia such as the celiac ganglion.
genitals. Postganglionic fibers from collateral ganglia
innervate visceral effector organs such as the
small intestine.
Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

• Sympathetic division is also known as

Autonomic Functioning
the thoracolumbar division
• Body organs served by the autonomic
• Preganglionic neurons originate from
T1 through L 2 nervous system receive fibers from
both divisions
• Axons pass through a ramus
– Exceptions: blood vessels,
communicans to enter a
structures of the skin, some
sympathetic trunk ganglion
glands, and the adrenal medulla
• Sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies
– These exceptions receive only
near the spinal cord
sympathetic fibers
• After synapsing at the ganglion, the
axon may synapse with a second
neuron at the same or different level • When body divisions serve the same
organ, they cause antagonistic effects
• Or, the preganglionic neuron may pass
due to different neurotransmitters
through the ganglion without synapsing
and form part of the splanchnic nerves – Parasympathetic (cholinergic)
fibers release acetylcholine
• Splanchnic nerves travel to the
collateral ganglion – Sympathetic postganglionic
(adrenergic) fibers release
• Collateral ganglia serve the
norepinephrine
abdominal and pelvic organs
– Preganglionic axons of both
divisions release acetycholine
 • Sympathetic—“fight or flight” division • Parasympathetic—“housekeeping”
activites
– Response to unusual stimulus
when emotionally or physically – “Rest-and-digest” system
stressed or threatened
– Conserves energy
– Takes over to increase activities
– Maintains daily necessary body
– Remember as the “E” division functions

• Exercise – Remember as the “D” division

• Excitement • Digestion

• Emergency • Defecation

• Embarrassment • Diuresis

Effects of the Sympathetic and

Parasympathetic Divisions of the Autonomic
Nervous System:
Developmental Aspects of the Nervous System thinking clearly,
confusion
• The nervous system is formed during
the first month of embryonic
development

• Infections and other exposures can

have harmful effects during pregnancy

– German measles (rubella)

– Smoking

– Radiation

– Drugs

• Oxygen deprivation destroys brain cells

• The hypothalamus is one of the last

areas of the brain to develop

• Severe congenital brain diseases

include:

– Cerebral palsy

– Anencephaly

– Hydrocephalus

– Spina bifida

• Premature babies have trouble

regulating body temperature because
the hypothalamus is one of the last
brain areas to mature prenatally

• Development of motor control indicates

the progressive myelination and
maturation of a child’s nervous system

• Brain growth ends in young adulthood.

Neurons die throughout life and are not
replaced; thus, brain mass declines with
age

• Orthostatic hypotension is low blood

pressure due to changes in body
position

• Healthy aged people maintain nearly

optimal intellectual function

• Disease—particularly cardiovascular
disease—is the major cause of declining
mental function with age

– Arteriosclerosis is decreased
elasticity of blood vessels

– Decline in oxygen leads to

senility

▪ Forgetfulness,
irritability, difficulty
concentrating and