National Art Education Association

Critical Thought about the Esthetic and Art Education

Author(s): H. James Marshall
Source: Art Education, Vol. 25, No. 5 (May, 1972), pp. 15-18
Published by: National Art Education Association
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 Critical
about the
and at
H. JamesMarshall
The Fall 1971 issue of Studies in Art Education presents
several studies which I believe are leading indicators of the
great effort which art educators have given to understanding
various concepts of art, esthetic education, and the develop-
ment of appropriate art curricula. These educators have
accepted monumental challenges and tasks, and they have
been the pacesetters so greatly needed in the field of art
education. Notwithstandingthe value of these efforts, there
is need for some caution to be exercised, and there are
questions which, while they are still at the hypothetical
level, must be forthcoming concerning the use of ideas
and their meanings.
For centuries, philosophers have tried to describe the
nature of art, or, if you wish, to provide the necessary and
sufficient conditions under which a work of art is brought
into being. Similarly,art educators have grasped for some
means by which art programscould exist and survive among
other curriculawhich are given high priority in the educa-
tional process. Too often (and perhaps legitimately so) we
have looked to other disciplines for models and concepts
of learning which would place artistic thought in a competi-
tive position with the academic areas, such as psychology,
mathematics and science. Whether we wish to admit it or
not, we have tried to prove that art is an act of intelligence,
an intellectual act equivalent to (if not the same as) thought
which characterizesthat of science, mathematics, and other
pursuits for which abstract knowledge is the ultimate aim.
We have likened artistic thought to ideas based on per-
ceptual awareness, logic, psycho-social adjustment,discursive
and emotive communication, creativity,expression, scientific
problem solving, and others. A study of one of these ideas
will exemplify the kinds of difficulties that arise in develop-
ing sound art education theory.
In another writing I analyzed the idea of problem solving
to determine whether or not it is theoretically and ade-
quately applicable to art. My purpose was to establish what
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thought
0
esthetic
education
problem solving means in those fields of knowledge where
the term is used in its most rigorous and clear form, that is,
the positivist point of view such as is used in methods of
science, mathematics, physics, or historical inquiry. Then I
explored the revisionist viewpoint in which the nature and
structure of problem solving is given a looser and broader
meaning. Here, even though there is a less defined boundary
within which problems arise, the characteristicsof inquiry
and the concept of problem are essentially in agreement
with the positivists' intentions. I furtherexamined an instru-
mentalist's approach, mainly Dewey's view of logic and
inquiry and the notions of purpose and common sense in-
quiry, in order to show a contrast with the positions of the
positivists and revisionists. Since Dewey's theory of experi-
ence is fundamental to his view of all human action, his
views on qualitative experience are closely related to those
of logic, inquiry,and purpose. However, even though Dewey
saw problem solving as an explicit characteristicof inquiry,
he made a distinction in the nature of art wherein a strict
concept of problem solving does not apply. The ultimate
aim of this line of thought was to set the meaning of
problem in a theoretical context so that one has a basis for
comparison with the idea of problem solving in the instru-
mentalist theories, namely those of Dewey and others, which
more recently have been proposed for artistic thought and
practice.' Following this brief background, I now indicate
my line of argument and assess the plausibilityor usefulness
of identifying artistic activity as a mode of problem solving.
A Theory of Problem Solving
Both the positivist and common sense views of logic and
inquiry agree on a number of traits that characterize prob-
lem solving. These characteristics(criteria)take the following
form:
1. A Problem arises out of a felt difficulty-a conscious
search for the answer, solution, or action to some con-
ceived aim, goal, situation, or data of events. Problem, seen
15
 in the broadest sense, extends to those situations in which
the inquirerseeks knowledge, an understanding,or explana-
tion for phenomena or facts, for practical or theoretical
events. As seen by some theorists of scientific method, such
as by Copi,2 a problem can originate from the innate desire
to know-to satisfy curiosity without concern about the
practical or theoretical purposes for which such knowledge
may ultimatelyserve.
2. A Problem presupposes that one has a prior idea of what
would count as a solution and requires the attainment of a
solution or conclusion. Although it is clear that the initial
solution set forth may be tentative and subject to change,
or that there may be several candidate solutions considered,
the problem in the process of inquiry ultimately is to reach
a valid or justifiable conclusion. In other words, inquiry is
cognitive; it strives to meet the true/false imperative.
3. Problems vary in the kinds or types of solutions and
subject matter. Although there is some indication that the
subject matter is a primaryfactor determining the problem
solutions (such as is suggested by Dray in historicalexplana-
tion), there is similarity in the structure and procedure
which the inquireremploys. This characteristicis emphasized
by both the positivists (for example, Polya and Hempel in
mathematics)and the revisionists (for example, Toulmin and
Blackin the uses of argument).3
4. Problems involve acts of thought and effort for attaining
beliefs which can be held as true. In this sense, they require
reflection and structured procedures for attaining belief.
They are distinguished from ordinary tasks such as building
a fire, painting a wall, or mowing a lawn. These may be
problematic acts in some instances, yet they do not require
the precise thought, pattern, or structure of a problem of
belief.
5. A solution to a problem is initiated when it can be formed
into a statement, a question, or an explanation, or when a
prediction is made. A problem, whether in the most rigorous
sense of the term or in the common sense meaning, requires
language as an essential component.
6. Problem solving is a reflective and cognitive undertaking.
In addition to the necessary use of discursive symbols, con-
cepts are employed throughout the procedure for attaining
solutions. Knowledge of data and previous or existing
theories (whether implicitly or explicitly asserted), the form-
ing of hypotheses, propositions, the deduction and testing
of consequences, and the determination of simplicity or ap-
propriateness are a part of the total problem situation. As
such they are fundamentallythe conceptual tools with which
warranted beliefs are formulated and issues are resolved.
None of the proponents of the method of inquiry which I
have explored subscribe to the notion that a problem at-
tains an absolute conclusion or "truth";in this respect they
are progressive and open to future events of inquiry.
7. A problem, though it arises out of a felt difficulty and
may concern a practical matter, strives for beliefs which
can be generalized; its ultimate success is in its application
as a law or theory. Even a problem at the common sense
level of action has implicit ideas of general applicability to
similar events, their causes, and effects.
In setting forth these characteristics,I take the position
that a thoroughgoing concept of a problem means that it is
cognitive (theoretical),verbal, and end oriented; it requires
intentional and structured thought processes.
To conceive problem solving as a method of art, the pre-
ceding criteria must apply. This requires, for example, that
art is based on ideas of what can count as something general
(such as the Aristotelianform of comedy) and that its mean-
ing can be established by empirical confirmation. Further,
in keeping with the method of inquiry, a fairly consistent
procedure must apply to all forms of artistic endeavor. A
particular medium (whether visual, musical or literary) is
clearly formulated at the outset or initial stage of the artistic
16
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act. In this view, it is possible to specify the subject matter,
procedure, and solution (the expression, material,form, and
so on) without necessarily involving responses of interaction
in an immediate situation. Accordingly, the process pre-
cludes that art deals with abstract ideas and generalized
qualitative phenomena. Similar criteria for productive art
activity can be set forth and substantiatedby the conditions
which the application and nature of problem solving itself
must meet.
InstrumentalistCriticismsof the Above View
A number of objections may be raised against the theory
I have presented, particularlyfrom Dewey's viewpoint as
described in his Logic:
1. The antecedent condition of inquiry(accordingto Dewey)
is the apprehending of a "felt" or indeterminate situation.
It is inherently doubtful. However, it is an existential situa-
tion necessitating human organic-environmental interac-
tions.4 It is still the case that a problematic situation does
not become "a problem" unless there is a "partial trans-
formation by inquiry of a problematic situation into a de-
terminate situation",5 and to "find out what the problem
is" is to be well along in the process of inquiry.As I see it,
the statement of a problem has meaning only in terms of
its reference to a possible solution.6 Statements or questions,
answers or solutions, are explicit in Dewey's pattern of
inquiry and necessitate the use of language for their formu-
lation. In addition, beliefs or "warrantablyassertible con-
clusions" are the goal. If one is pressed to ask the question,
"Is problem conceived as a component of the method of
inquiryalso a cognitive undertaking?",the answer must be a
straightforwardyes.
2. Throughout the theme of Art as Experience, reference is
made to the "problems" of art. This suggests that Dewey
may have intended to use the term in its most metaphorical
way and to indicate the initial stage of apprehending im-
mediate phenomena and situations. If this is the case, then
the use of the term "problem" is too "loose" to be of
theoretical value for describing the artistic process. I have
previously taken the position that if the artistic process is
conceived as analogous to the method of inquiry (in which
a problem is the occasion of inquiry), then it is thoroughly
a cognitive and conceptual venture. A problem is charac-
terized by a consistent structure and procedure; this is
inherent in other domains of methodical inquiry. Thus, if
the idea of problem applies to art, then procedure and
formal conditions must also be formulated. One might con-
strue the "theory of rhythm",in which expression and form
are described in fairly traditional language, as a conceptual
process whereby objects of art are produced. However, this
appears to be a misinterpretation of the meaning which
Dewey gave to art. Though it is conceivable that such a
process could, in some instances, provide artistic experi-
ence, it does not constitute the "essence" of art which I
believe Dewey intended to convey. Similarly,if we parallel
the idea of problem with Collingwood's view (and I believe
we should take him seriously), art proper would not be
distinguished.7
3. One of the difficulties here appears to stem from the
instrumentalists'contextual viewpoint wherein the human
organism functions in a continual relationship with his en-
vironment. Man is naturally doubtful and uncertain, and
problems do arise out of need in order to adapt to environ-
mental forces. One should not (as Dewey claims) divide
means from ends. But this infers the activity becomes an
internal matter (to the human) and is no longer a problem.
If this signifies no problems, then I agree with Dewey. His
distinction between common sense and scientific inquiry
seems to suggest that there is a difference in the nature of
the two forms of thought. Common sense, though intrinsi-
cally problematic, is capable of being internalized. On the
other hand, scientific inquiry is externalized, becoming a
 "problem"activity. It is at the common sense level where art
takes place, and where Dewey knowingly did not intend to
formalize problems. Unfortunately, the contextualist view-
point often permits one to emphasize whatever he chooses
(either common sense or theoretical, immediate or con-
ceptual materials), while the totality of experience can be
left unattended.
Allowing for a theory of problem solving as I have char-
acterized it, one is permitted by analogy to make the point
that art and science are the same. This argument makes it
clear:
Science is an art. (The method of science is the method
of art.) "Inquiry"is the method of science.
Inquiryis the method of art.
However, a thorough instrumentalist reproach is possible.
Dewey only related art and science; he did not confuse
them. In Art as Experience he discusses esthetic experience
and what life should be if it is to be worthwhile and signifi-
cant. His position on art, properly interpreted, does not
include a theory of problem solving because that is not the
structure of his theory of art. Problem solving is accounted
for in his theory of science, ethics, and political behavior;
if anything, he made science into an art.
4. From the instrumentalistpoint of view, if there are in-
herent qualitative yet cognitive problems, which would be
questioned, one trait must not be emphasized at the expense
of the other trait.A case is made for this point if we examine
the notion of "Qualitative Problem Solving" as proposed by
David Ecker8 wherein qualities are the background which
pervade and control "the relationshipswhich present them."
Yet these qualities are symbolically represented; that is, they
are mediated by the artist and become the method of art.9
This conception of artistic activity overemphasizes the con-
ceptual aspects of experience; qualitative phenomena are
only the means to an end in view. As such, this conception
is not art in the fully proper sense.
The immediacy of experience, that is, the quality of sensu-
ous media, is weakened and does not come forward. One
can see this in Ecker'sanalysis of artists' shop talk'? and in
the problems of teaching. In his analysis, qualities are recog-
nized as the media of the artist; in the case of the sculptor,
it may be the qualities of stone, or for the actor, qualities
of the voice or gesture. However, qualities appear to come
into the problematic situation only as they are inherent in
the "object" (out there) and attain value only as the artist
transformsthem for the purpose of forming a new object
or new experience. And yet, at the same time, what is as-
serted seems to be incompatible with this: that theoretically
a problem does not exist out of context with the human
situation, but instead, requires possession by the human.11
Altogether then, there seems to be something questionable
about the understandingof a qualitative phenomenon: what
it is, where and with whom it is located.
At this point, one must see that a clear cut and theoreti-
cally useful view of problem requires a consistent method
and criteria,prescribed by scientific and theoretical activities.
It is apparent that a concept of problem solving determines
many approaches to artistic production, but in such in-
stances the emphasis is placed on the final and extrinsic art
object. This approach is the basis of the selling and market-
ing of art works; exhibitions and competitions, judgments
of good and bad works (or solutions) arise and are formu-
lated from a similar point of view.
In a legitimate instrumentalistor realist viewpoint as pro-
posed by Dewey, Collingwood, Bergson, Croce and others,
art is formed by intrinsic qualities apprehended through the
natural environment and individual situations. There is a j
pattern in man's relationship to the world but his methods,
rather than a method, are multifarious. Tasks or technical
practices may characterize an act of production, but they
do not constitute the immediate sensuous aspects of art or
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the qualitative media which an object can provide. When
problems in art do arise, they are of a theoretical nature
and come into existence only out of the need to intellectu-
alize or to make clear and believable concepts about the
"idea" of art. Or, they are technical problems concerning
how to best make use of materials and tools in the task
of producing objects of art.
The Idea of Esthetic
The meaning which I give to the idea of the esthetic (or
esthetic experience) takes the following form. Experience
constitutes the whole of human life. Experience is a kind
of knowing in which human activities are marked by con-
trasts between the immediate and the intellectualized ap-
prehension of objects and the world of existence. By appre-
hension, one knows objects by their unique and particular
qualities or properties, rather than in terms of universal or
general characteristics distinguished through intellectual
cognitive processes. Immediate experience designates the
knowing of concrete and sensuous phenomena; intellectual
knowing designates abstract thought and concept formation
or belief. Most ordinaryexperience is given meaning through
intellectual knowing; that is, objects are perceived as frag-
ments of time and space, mathematics and quantity rather
than quality. Or, they are perceived as concepts of things
in terms of their usefulness to the practical necessities of
life. As such, concepts of language, of quantitative physics,
of social life and so on, screen one from his personal contact
with objective and mental phenomena. He apprehends
things in terms of their external and conventional mean-
ings.12But true reality is found in the realm of immediate
experience; it is itself of intrinsicworth, and the counterpart
of intellectualized and practical affairs.'3Yet immediate ex-
perience is practical in another way because it is the force
by which human life is revitalized.
Human existence is an inventive evolutionary process
which is indeterminate in time, place, events and the flux
of events. In this sense, it is man's temporalitywhich makes
him unique. His consciousness is a duration of immediate
and intellectual activities. Since immediate activity is the
aspect of man's existence in which esthetic experience is
prime, it is also held to be the "art" in experience. When
one focuses on the distinct character of immediate phe-
nomena, there is a qualitativecomplexity of events and states
of being in which one perceives not separate entities but the
essence of things "melting into one another."'4 They are
intermingled forces of pure quality which interact with the
human who, likewise, as a sensuous body himself, acts upon
the objective world. The two are fused directly and partic-
ularly, without the formation of symbolic images or media-
tion.15 Man's inner life, as reality, is a continuous flux of
ordinary moments, of intense giving and taking between
objects and the self; there are subtle movements, tensions,
relaxations,and directions. Man places himself in "sympathy"
with objective phenomena and partakes in their unique-
nesses. He is united with the world and detached from
external, practical, kinds of experience. His inner life is
consciously renewed with qualitativemedia and their import.
He is in communion with true reality. The immediate realm
of being is the art in esthetic life. Since the human's exist-
ence is generally directed toward intellectual activity, the
vision of the artist (as one who is capable of this union
with immediate phenomena) plays a significant role in re-
newing one's consciousness of true reality. Because he
focuses on sensuous properties and thus can provide others
with distinct aspects of reality itself, his objects of art act as
stimuli. The artist aims at producing objects which impress
one with phenomena; they present rather than represent
or explain qualitative media. Though immediate experience
plays a vital role in the success of the object which the
artist produces, his production of an object is not the es-
sence of art in esthetic life. But, the emotive quality which
17
art objects provide arises out of the continuous flow, the
harmony, and movement of inner life for the artist as well
as for the person who experiences it. Consequently, art is
contingent on an esthetic attitude which is a distinct attribute
of all mankind. However, because of man's intellectual
nature, esthetic experience needs constant and imaginative
renewal.
Because of the various forms and media which are em-
ployed for the production of an object of art, one cannot
discredit the skill and techniques necessary to the success
of an artist's performance. His sensitivity to his "moment"
in history, his manipulation of media, and his awareness
of the modes of artistic forms, such as the visual arts, the
dance, poetry or music, are instruments for the rekindling
of a communion with reality. What is significant about this
view of the realm of art is this: immediate contemplation,
characterized by the embodiment of the human with ob-
jective phenomena, is a sensuous and qualitative act which
is preceding and provisional for the richness and success
the artist attains in the forms he produces.
The Meaningof Estheticfor Art Education
There are a number of criticisms which have been made
to disclaim the idea of immediate esthetic thought. But the
notion of immediate thought as the mode of esthetic experi-
ence is given particular emphasis in the position which
I take. The aim of this essay has been to grasp some insights
about the meaning of art which will speak not only to art
educators but to the profession of education and to avoid
the encouragement of theories which are essentially elitist.
Viewing general education in its broadest sense, it seems
most reasonable that the purpose of educational systems is
to educate the student for knowledge through both con-
crete (immediate and non-conceptual) and abstract modes
of activity. It is patent today that most educators believe
the principles of learning and teaching are based on ideas
of human growth and change. Another idea to which edu-
cators have given considerable attention in recent years is
"creativity."6 Although the term thus far eludes any precise
definition, it is an attempt to describe a mode of thought
activity in which progression and change are inherent char-
acteristics. Forexample, the infant is thought to be creatively
involved with the wonder of bodily manipulation, facial
expressions, the things around him and so on. As the child
moves toward maturity his creative capacities are ever
renewed in a variety and complexity of ways-he paints and
builds, he writes, he makes plays of fantasy or seeks knowl-
edge for the sake of knowing. Many educators, who have
been enchanted by the benefits which creative training
provides, have searched for the means to this end with the
hope that the student could attain his maximum fulfillment
and uniqueness. However, much of this environment (and
pedagogy) has focused on the doing and making of objects,
and on providing concepts or ways by which the student
could manipulate the objects around him.
Often teachers of art believe the way to foster creative
behavior is to provide children with new or different ma-
terials and techniques which they claim are exciting and are
motivating changes from the sense of boredom seemingly
inherent in traditional art activities. The need for such an
approach is not unfounded, but too frequently the child is
not led beyond the fascination of the new material or
technique, nor does his experimentation continue beyond
the making of a single "successful" product. What results is
a taste of gimmickry, an object for display, or a seasonal
decoration which lacks imaginativeexpression and meaning
which could arise from the child's particular experience
with particularesthetic qualities. The emphasis is placed on
concept learning or a productive skill rather than on an
expression of esthetic import. The point is not to belittle
the productive aspect of human activity, but rather to em-
phasize the notion of growth, progression and change im-
plicit in this concept of education, and to suggest that
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education which directs itself only to the formation of con-
cepts and externalized activity suppresses the immediate
and esthetic life, thus restrictingthe quality of human and
culturalmobility.
In light of this point of view, an education for esthetic life
should be as fundamentalas education for analytic life in the
objectives of general education. Art education is only a
more "specialized" aspect of general education with its
primary purpose to enrich experience and to renew one's
"childlike" openness to the immediate world. A student's
work of art begins with this kind of sensuous media and
perhaps, will be manifested in the objects he produces.
In this essay it has not been possible to scrutinize all of
the concepts about art which I have suggested are open to
question. However, the idea of problem solving in art has
been explored in order to show the difficulties one faces
in validating theory and practice for artistic activity. In con-
clusion, I have attempted to indicate the nature of esthetic
life, its importance to artistic thought, and how its signifi-
cance must be recognized in the teaching of art.
H. James Marshall is associate professor of art education,
Universityof Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
FOOTNOTES
The idea that problem solving characterizes artistic
thought has been held for some time, most often the con-
ceptual orientation derives from psychology and learning
theory. However, one of the most recent and thorough ac-
counts analogous to Dewey's theory of inquiry is David W.
Ecker'snotion of "The Artistic Process as Qualitative Prob-
lem Solving," The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism,
XXINo. 3 (Spring1963), pp. 283-290.
2
Irving M. Copi, in his Introduction to Logic, provides
some insights about the occasions of scientific method
wherein the search for knowledge itself is the aim.
3
For other sources characterizing the idea of problem
solving in this essay see: Marshall,Harold James. The Rele-
vance of ProblemSolving to ArtisticActivity:A CriticalStudy
(Unpublished Ed. D. Dissertation. University Park: Library,
The PennsylvaniaState University,1967).
4 See John Dewey, Logic: The Theory of Inquiry. (New
York:Holt, Reinhartand Winston, Inc., 1938), pp. 105-106.
5
Ibid., p. 108.
6
Ibid., p. 108.
7
Cf. R. G. Collingwood, The Principlesof Art (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1958), particularlyhis discussion of
"craft"and the notion of means-end relationship.
8
Op. Cit., Ecker.
9 David W.
Ecker, Toward a Methodological Conception
of Problem and Control in Art Education (Unpublished Ed.
D. Dissertation,Wayne State University, reproduced at Ann
Arbor,Michigan; UniversityMicrofilms,Inc., 1962).
10
Ibid., 157-166.
1
Ibid., 132-137.
12 See Henri Bergson, "The Individualand the Type," from
Laughterin A Modern Book of Esthetics, edited by Melvin
Rader (New York: Holt, Reinhartand Winston, 1960), p. 81.
13 Henri Bergson, An Introduction to Metaphysics (New
York: The LiberalArts Press, 1955), p. 17.
14 Bergson also makes a strong case for the immediacy of
experience in human life in Time and'Free Will (New York:
Harper and Row, 1960), p. 137.
15The human seen as a sensuous being is a prime con-
sideration for W. J. Madenfort,Jr., A Phenomenology of the
Estheticand Art Education(Unpublished Ed. D. Dissertation,
University Park: Library,The PennsylvaniaState University,
1965). See pp. 66-122.
16 For example, see Jerome S. Bruner,The Process of Edu-
cation (New York: Random House, Inc., 1960) and E. Paul
Torrance, Creativity (Washington, D.C.: The National Edu-
cation Association of the United States, April, 1963).