UNDERSTANDING THE PROCESS OF LEARNING

Unit III – Understanding the Process of Learning

 Cognition in Learning: Cognitive process-perception, attention, memory,
development of concepts, logical reasoning, critical thinking development of concepts,
strategies for teaching concepts; problem solving.
 Learning as construction of knowledge; learning as cognitive and socio-culturally
meditative process: meta cognition, socio-cultural mediation, experimental learning,
cognitive negotiability, understanding constructivist nature of knowing, doing and practicing
in classroom/field, in community setting; critical appraisal of views of Piaget, Bruner and
Vygotsky with reference to multiple school contexts of India.
 Forms of learner’s engagement in the process of knowledge construction: observing,
demonstration, exploring, discovering, analysing, contextualisation, collaboration, multiple
interpretations, critical reflection based on observation, selected reading and discussion.
 Motivation in Learning: Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation; approaches to motivation:
humanistic approach; cognitive approach (attribution theory-Weiner).
 Multiple ways of organising learning in different subject areas individualised, self-
learning, group learning, cooperative learning etc.

Cognition in learning
Cognitive process
Perception
Attention
Memory
Development of concepts

Logical reasoning tests (also known as critical reasoning tests) are designed to assess a

candidate's ability at skills such as how to interpret patterns, number sequences or the
relationships between shapes
Informally, two kinds of logical reasoning can be distinguished in addition to formal
deduction: induction and abduction. Given a precondition or premise, a conclusion or logical
consequence and a rule or material conditional that implies the conclusion given
the precondition, one can explain that:

 Deductive reasoning determines whether the truth of a conclusion can be determined for

that rule, based solely on the truth of the premises. Example: "When it rains, things
outside get wet. The grass is outside, therefore: when it rains, the grass gets
wet." Mathematical logic and philosophical logic are commonly associated with this type
of reasoning.
 Inductive reasoning attempts to support a determination of the rule. It hypothesizes
a rule after numerous examples are taken to be a conclusion that follows from
a precondition in terms of such a rule. Example: "The grass got wet numerous times
when it rained, therefore: the grass always gets wet when it rains." While they may be
persuasive, these arguments are not deductively valid, see the problem of
induction. Science is associated with this type of reasoning.
 Abductive reasoning, a.k.a. inference to the best explanation, selects a cogent set
of preconditions. Given a true conclusion and a rule, it attempts to select some
possible premises that, if true also, can support the conclusion, though not uniquely.
Example: "When it rains, the grass gets wet. The grass is wet. Therefore, it might have
rained." This kind of reasoning can be used to develop a hypothesis, which in turn can be

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 tested by additional reasoning or data. Diagnosticians, detectives, and scientists often use
this type of reasoning.
Logical reasoning is the process of using a rational, systematic series of steps based on sound
mathematical procedures and given statements to arrive at a conclusion. Geometric proofs
use logical reasoning and the definitions and properties of geometric figures and terms to
state definitively that something is always true. In logical reasoning, an if-then statement
(also known as a conditional statement) is a statement formed when one thing implies
another.

How to develop logical reasoning?

Engaging in Activities that Require Critical Thought
1. Keep trying new things. A great way to improve reasoning skills is to keep trying new things..
2. Exercise. Physical exercise actually has an effect on memory and thinking. ...
3. Journal writing . ...
4. Read fiction. ...
5. Play games that require reasoning skills. ...
6. Create eg.draw, write, paint, .alternate thought patterns
7. Identify bias thoughts

Critical thinking 
It is the objective analysis of facts to form a judgment.[1] The subject is complex, and there
are several different definitions which generally include the rational, skeptical, unbiased
analysis or evaluation of factual evidence.
Critical thinking was described by Richard Paul as a movement in two waves (1994).[2] The
"first wave" of critical thinking is often referred to as a 'critical analysis' that is
clear, rational thinking involving critique. 

Etymology
In the term critical thinking, the word critical, (Grk. κριτικός = kritikos = "critic") derives
from the word critic and implies a critique; it identifies the intellectual capacity and the
means "of judging", "of judgement", "for judging", and of being "able to discern"

Definitions of critical thinking

Traditionally, critical thinking has been variously defined as:

 "the process of actively and skilfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing,

and evaluating information to reach an answer or conclusion"
 "disciplined thinking that is clear, rational, open-minded, and informed by evidence"
 "reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do"
 "purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation,
and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological,
criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based"
 "includes a commitment to using reason in the formulation of our beliefs"
 the skill and propensity to engage in an activity with reflective scepticism (McPeck,
1981)
 disciplined, self-directed thinking which exemplifies the perfection of thinking
appropriate to a particular mode or domain of thinking (Paul, 1989, p. 214)

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  thinking about one's thinking in a manner designed to organize and clarify, raise the
efficiency of, and recognize errors and biases in one's own thinking. Critical thinking is
not 'hard' thinking nor is it directed at solving problems (other than 'improving' one's own
thinking). Critical thinking is inward-directed with the intent of maximizing
the rationality of the thinker. One does not use critical thinking to solve problems—one
uses critical thinking to improve one's process of thinking.
 "an appraisal based on careful analytical evaluation"
Contemporary critical thinking scholars have expanded these traditional definitions to include
qualities, concepts, and processes such as creativity, imagination, discovery, reflection,
empathy, connecting knowing, feminist theory, subjectivity, ambiguity, and inconclusiveness.
Some definitions of critical thinking exclude these subjective practices.

Strategies for teaching concepts

Concept Teaching Instructional Strategy

 Involves the learning of specific concepts, the nature of concepts, and the development of
logical reasoning & critical thinking.
 May be deductive (rule to example) or inductive (example to rule)
 Proceeds through 4 primary phases: ...
 Using Concept Teaching in the Classroom

Models of Instruction

Concept Teaching Instructional Strategy

 Involves the learning of specific concepts, the nature of concepts, and the
development of logical reasoning & critical thinking
 May be deductive (rule to example) or inductive (example to rule)
 Proceeds through 4 primary phases:
1. Clarify goals & conditions
2. Illustrate examples & nonexamples
3. Students provide examples & nonexamples to demonstrate attainment of
concept
4. Guide students to think about their own thinking (examine their decisions,
consequences of choices, how concept fits in with bigger picture)
 Using Concept Teaching in the Classroom

o Select Big Idea concepts and determine the best approach:

 Inductive through direct presentation of the concept first, or
 Deductive (Concept Attainment) through examples/non-examples &
guided discovery
o Clarify aims/establish a “hook” to draw students in
o Proceed through the selected inductive or deductive approach using examples
& non-examples
o Get students to demonstrate their understanding
o Employ higher-level questioning & discussion strategies -- help students
analyze their own thinking processes.

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Concept Formation
Concepts are generalised images / ideas about an object, event, thing or the another.
It is mental abstractions/ categories for things in the physical world.

Jean Piaget theory (concept formation)

Stages of cognitive development
0 – 2 begin to recognize objects
2 – 7 develop language; able to think symbolically; see others’ point of view
7 – 11 able to solve concrete problems logically; able to classify
11 – 15+ able to solve abstract problems logically
Believed people adapt to their environment through assimilation and accommodation
Assimilation: Trying to understand new information by adapting it to what is already known
(Pre-existing schemata).
Accommodation: If new data does not fit into pre-existing schemata, development of new
schemata for the new data.

Jerome Bruner
Three distinct models of learning
 Enactive mode – learning by doing
 Iconic mode – learning by forming mental images
 Symbolic mode – learning through a series of abstract symbols or representations.
As children develop, less emphasis is placed on doing and more is placed on the abstract
Planning for concept teaching
Two approaches
1. Direct presentation :
a. Rule-rule example: concept is defined, explained with examples, and
applications
b. Focus i on labelling and defining the concept.
2. Concept attainment :
a. Example to rule : begin with examples / stimuli
b. Students discover concept through inductive reasoning
c. Labelling and defining come at the end.
d. Higher level thinking (useful from adolescence stage).

Problem Solving Method

Students are presented with problems which require them to find either a scientificor
technological solution. It is a student-centered strategy which require students to become
active participants in the learning 

Steps involved in problem solving

 Identification of the problem
 Analysis of the problem and gathering of information bearing on the problem
 Selection of one or more hypotheses
 Testing of hypotheses
 Arriving at a conclusion relative to the solution of the problem

Advantages

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  Development of Long-Term Knowledge Retention
 Use of Diverse Instruction Types
 Continuous engagement
 Development of Transferable Skills:
 Improvement of Teamwork and Interpersonal Skills

Disadvantages
 Potentially Poorer Performance on Tests
 Student Unpreparedness
 Teacher Unpreparedness
 Time-Consuming Assessment
 Varying Degrees of Relevancy and Applicability

LEARNING AS CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE

Cognition is the process of acquiring knowledge through our thoughts, experiences, and
senses.Learning involves acquiring knowledge through experience, study, and being taught.
These two concepts are almost identical and cannot occur without each other. The first step
in cognitive learning is paying attention

Cognitive Processes and Learning*

One way we use the cognitive processes in our daily lives is with learning.
Learning is not just something we do in school or in formal settings. We learn every day.
Sometimes our very survival depends on how well we can learn. That may mean
unlearning our learned limitations and regaining confidence in our ability to direct our
own learning.
In today's world, someone who doesn't know how to learn is left behind. By exploring
your own learning process and determining your natural learning style, you can find the
best ways for you to learn. Then you, not the instructor or the situation, are in charge of
your learning.
Learning is broadly defined as change. The focus can be on what we learn (the product of
learning) or on how we learn (the process). It is about how we change and how we adapt,
grow, and develop. This adaptation, growth, and development occur from the inside out.
All eight cognitive processes play a role in our learning. We enter a learning situation with
some perceptions already formed and some judgments already made. We are more open to
certain kinds of information and more inclined to organize that information in certain
ways.
What if we all could learn how we learn? Then if some kinds of learning were harder than
others, we could find the source of that difficulty rather than rejecting what is being taught
or feeling bad about ourselves for not learning.
Socio-culturally mediative process
I. One issue in cognitive psychology that has received considerable attention in recent
years has to do with the extent to which learning and cognition is SITUATIONAL
and CULTURALLY SPECIFIC rather than something that is largely independent of

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 the specific domain and situation in which it occurs (e.g., Brown, Collins, & Duguid,
1989).
A. It has been suggested, for example, that:
1. meaningful learning and knowledge is situated in a particular cultural
context (culture on a small, not large, scale),
2. knowledge evolves by being used in "authentic" activities,
3. useful knowledge is embedded in action and consists of
PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE rather than the PROPOSITIONAL
KNOWLEDGE traditionally taught in school, and
4. there are substantial differences between school learning and learning
in the real world.
I. With regard to this model, Collins, Brown, & Newman (1989) suggest a framework
for designing learning environments (socio-cultural) in which students:
A. observe and model the desired performance in an environment similar to the
ones in which the performance is to occur;
B. receive external support from a tutor or expert in the form of coaching and/or
conceptual scaffolding;
C. experience the gradual fading of that support,
D. articulate and reflect upon the knowledge, reasoning, and problem-solving
processes in the domain being studied; and
E. forced to explore new ways in which the knowledge or skill can be used.
F. The learning experience is sequenced with regard to:
1. increasing complexity,
2. increasing diversity, and
3. the acquisition of global before local skills

Classroom Applications of Vygotsky's Theory

Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development is based on the idea that
development is defined both by what a child can do independently and by what the child can
do when assisted by an adult or more competent peer (Daniels, 1995; Wertsch, 1991).
Knowing both levels of Vygotsky’s zone is useful for teachers, for these levels indicate
where the child is at a given moment as well as where the child is going. The zone of
proximal development has several implications for teaching in the classroom.

According to Vygotsky, for the curriculum to be developmentally appropriate, the teacher

must plan activities that encompass not only what children are capable of doing on their own
but what they can learn with the help of others (Karpov & Haywood, 1998).

Vygotsky’s theory does not mean that anything can be taught to any child. Only instruction
and activities that fall within the zone promote development. For example, if a child cannot
identify the sounds in a word even after many prompts, the child may not benefit immediately
from instruction in this skill. Practice of previously known skills and introduction of concepts
that are too difficult and complex have little positive impact. Teachers can use information
about both levels of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development in organizing classroom
activities in the following ways:

 Instruction can be planned to provide practice in the zone of proximal development

for individual children or for groups of children. For example, hints and prompts that
helped children during the assessment could form the basis of instructional activities.

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  Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at different
levels who can help each other learn.
 Scaffolding (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976) is a tactic for helping the child in his or
her zone of proximal development in which the adult provides hints and prompts at
different levels. In scaffolding, the adult does not simplify the task, but the role of the
learner is simplified “through the graduated intervention of the teacher” (Greenfield,
1984, p. 119).

For example, a child might be shown pennies to represent each sound in a word (e.g., three
pennies for the three sounds in “man”). To master this word, the child might be asked to
place a penny on the table to show each sound in a word, and finally the child might identify
the sounds without the pennies. When the adult provides the child with pennies, the adult
provides a scaffold to help the child move from assisted to unassisted success at the task
(Spector, 1992). In a high school laboratory science class, a teacher might provide scaffolding
by first giving students detailed guides to carrying out experiments, then giving them brief
outlines that they might use to structure experiments, and finally asking them to set up
experiments entirely on their own. 

Meta-cognition: 
Metacognition is “cognition about cognition”, or “thinking about thinking”. In other words, it
is a deeper level of thinking that includes our ability to think about our thinking; how we
understand, adapt, change, control, and use our thought processes. It comes from the root
word “meta”, meaning beyond. It can take many forms; it includes knowledge about when
and how to use particular strategies for learning or for problem solving. There are generally
two components of metacognition: knowledge about cognition, and regulation of cognition.

Metacognition also involves thinking about one’s own thinking process such as study skills,
memory capabilities, and the ability to monitor learning. This concept needs to be explicitly
taught along with content instruction. Metacognitive knowledge is about our own cognitive
processes and our understanding of how to regulate those processes to maximise learning

Experiencing Learning and Reflection: Broadly, experiential learning is any learning that

supports students in applying their knowledge and conceptual understanding to real-world
problems or situations where the instructor directs and facilitates learning.
In experiential learning, individuals deepen their knowledge through repeatedly acting and
then reflecting on this action and develop skills through practice and reflection.
Social Mediation: According to Vygotsky, learning is fundamentally a socially mediated and
constructed activity.
Human beings interact with their environment primarily through mediational means; and
these mediational means such as the use of cultural artefacts, tools and symbols, including
language, play crucial roles in the formation of human intellectual capacities. According to
him, knowledge is constructed through mediation.

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING 
Experiential learning is the process of learning through experience, and is more specifically
defined as "learning through reflection on doing". Hands-on learning is a form
of experiential learning but does not necessarily involve students reflecting on their product.

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If we are to know if “significant learning” is taking place in the classroom, we must be
capable of recognizing it when it occurs. If you look up the definition of “learn” in a
dictionary, you will likely find the following: 1) to acquire knowledge of a subject or skill
through education or experience, 2) to gain information about somebody or something, or 3)
to memorize something, for example, facts, a poem, a piece of music, or a dance. This
definition is not particularly insightful, although it reminds us that the word can be used
to describe the acquisition of both knowledge and skill, and that acquisition can be by a
variety of means, including education, experience, or memorization. Still, we are left
without a clear understanding of what it means to “acquire knowledge or skill.” Other
things that “we acquire” are obtained by physical means. How does this relate to learning?
Are there different degrees of “acquisition” and, if so, do they represent equal types of
learning? For example, is memorizing a fact the same as learning to interpret a complex
text? How about learning to play a musical instrument? The Oxford English Dictionary
also provides a definition that acknowledges the importance of teaching as a vehicle for
learning, a welcome reminder for teachers. Taking a different view, Atkinson et al. (1993)
describe learning as “a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from practice."
Others (e.g., Simon 1996) have pointed out that the purpose of learning has recently shifted
from being able to recall information (surface learning) to being able to find and use it (deep
learning).
Until several decades ago, most college teachers thought that teaching simply involved filling
a student’s head with information. Knowledge was ‘transmitted’ from an authority (the
teacher) to a learner (the student), generally by lecture. This thinking and practice are firmly
entrenched in most classrooms despite the fact that the ineffectiveness of lecture-based
teaching has been known for quite some time. Modern cognitive psychology tells us that
learning is a constructive, not receptive, process (Glaser 1991). This theory of learning
(constructivism) holds that understanding comes through experiences and interaction with
the environment, and that the learner uses a foundation of previous knowledge to construct
new understanding. Consequently, the learner has primary responsibility for constructing
knowledge and understanding, not the teacher. In a constructivist classroom, the teacher is
no longer the “authority” but instead is a guide or facilitator who assists students in learning.
According to Kolb (1984), the learning cycle begins when the learner interacts with the
environment (concrete experience). Sensory information from this experience is integrated
and compared with existing knowledge (reflective observation). New models, ideas, and
plans for action are created from this information (abstract hypotheses), and finally new
action is taken (active testing). The Kolb cycle is consistent with the earlier work of Piaget
and others who pointed out that learning has both a concrete (active) and an abstract
(intellectual) dimension (Figure 2).
Within the brain, knowledge is organized and structured in networks of related concepts.
Accordingly, new knowledge must connect to, or build upon a framework of existing
knowledge (Zull 2002). Put simply, learning involves building mental models (schema)
consisting of new and existing information. The richer the links between new and existing
information, the deeper the knowledge and the more readily it can be retrieved and applied in
new situations. Building rich links involves an iterative process of building, testing, and
refining schema that organizes knowledge into conceptual frameworks. If existing
knowledge serves as a foundation for new learning, then it is also essential that existing
misconceptions, preconceptions, and naive conceptions are acknowledged and corrected
during the learning process.
There are both ‘surface’ and ‘deep’ approaches to learning (Savin-Baden and Major
2004). Surface approaches to learning concentrate on memorization (Bloom’s lowest level:
knowledge). In surface learning, the learner’s goal is often to complete required

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learning tasks by memorizing information needed for assessments. Surface learners mostly
focus on facts without integration, they are generally unreflective, and they see learning tasks
as external impositions. In contrast, students with deep approaches to learning have an
intention to understand. They generally engage in vigorous interaction with content, relate
new ideas to old ones, relate concepts to everyday experience, relate evidence to conclusions,
and examine the logic of arguments. While doing this, they “construct” their own
knowledge. Think for a minute about your own approaches to learning. Where do they fall
between the surface and deep approaches described above?

Figure 2. Kolb’s learning cycle.

Cognitive Negotiability
Characteristic of a document (such as a check, draft, bill of exchange) that allows it to be
legally and freely (unconditionally) assignable, saleable, or transferable. It allows the passing
of its ownership from one party (transferor) to another (transferee) by endorsement or
delivery.

Cognitive Negotiability: A learner constructs meanings on the basis of his/her experiences

and level of cognitive negotiability. Students tend to learn and understand things faster if they
see it the practical way, rather than learn it from textbooks and listen to what the teacher
teaches. Cognitive negotiability is about providing authentic, real world experiences to the
individuals.
Situated Learning and Cognitive Apprenticeship: Situated learning “takes as its focus the
relationship between learning and the social situation in which it occurs”. At its simplest,
situated learning is learning that takes place in the same context in which it is applied.
Learning should not be viewed as simply the transmission of knowledge from one individual
to another, but a social process whereby knowledge is co-constructed; such learning is
situated in a specific context and embedded within a particular social and physical
environment.
Cognitive apprenticeship is a theory that honours the situated nature of knowledge. Cognitive
scientists maintain that the context in which learning takes place is critical. So, in cognitive
apprenticeships, the activity being taught is modelled in real-world situations. Situations
might be said to co-produce knowledge through activity.

Understanding constructivist nature of knowing, doing and practicing in

classroom/field, in community setting

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 Take Charge of Your Learning
We are born to learn. Learning is how we grow and develop. It is how we adjust and adapt
to an ever-changing and demanding world.
When we look at learning, we need to examine three factors:
 What - the content or skill to be learned
 How - the learning context
 Who- the learning style of the learner
When all of these factors are congruent, the result is effective, efficient learning. When
they are not congruent, at best we have a high energy cost, and at worst we have no
learning.
To take charge of your own learning, capitalize on lessons from the past to plan for the
future. Think about the cognitive processes we just explored, as well as your descriptions
of your best and worst learning experiences. Answer the following questions and then
think of your preferred learning pattern to anticipate what will make your next learning
experience better.
I. Current conceptions of knowing, doing and practicing stress that learning is:
(constructivist way)
A. ACTIVE "in that the student must do certain things while processing incoming
information in order to learn the material in a meaningful manner" (Shuell,
1988, p. 278).
* The task of the teacher is to create a learning environment that will engage
those psychological processes of the student that are responsible for learning.
B. CONSTRUCTIVE "in that new information must be elaborated and related to
other information in order for the student to retain simple information and
understand complex material" (Shuell, 1988, p. 278).
C. CUMULATIVE "in that all new learning builds upon and/or utilizes the
learner's prior knowledge in ways that determine what and how much is
learned" (Shuell, 1988, p. 278).
D. SELF-REGULATED in that the learner must make various decisions as
learning progresses as to what should be done next (e.g., rehearse a particular
piece of information, seek an answer to a question that just came to mind) and
make periodic checks on how well he or she understands the material being
learned.
E. GOAL ORIENTED "in that learning is most likely to be successful if the
learner is aware of the goal (at least in a general sense) toward which he or she
is working and possesses expectation that are appropriate for attaining the
desired outcome" (Shuell, 1988, p. 278).
F. SOCIO-CULTURAL in nature, in that what students learn and how they learn
it is dependent on a variety of social and cultural factors. That is, meaningful
learning involves more than purely cognitive operations.

CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF VIEWS OF PIAGET, BRUNER AND VYGOTSKY

WITH REFERENCE TO MULTIPLE SCHOOL CONTEXTS OF INDIA

Type of schools

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  ICSE / CISE – Indian Certificate of secondary education / council of Indian School
certificate examinations.
 CBSE – Central Board of Secondary Education, India
 State Board – followed by all state governments
 Matriculation Board - followed

Concept Piaget Bruner Vygotsky

/educationist views
learning Active construction, Learning should be Collaborative
restructuring prior reconstruction of construction of
knowledge occurs experience. This is socially defined
through multiple done in ICSE board knowledge & values
opportunities and and to a certain occurs through
diverse process to extent CBSE schools socially constructed
connect to what is opportunities in the
already known. This form of group work
principal is accepted and projects in ICSE
by Govt. Matric and Schools only
CBSE schools in
India, but followed
only in ICSE board.
Teaching method Challenge students, Teach through Co- construct
guide students effective strategies, knowledge with
thinking towards correct students is prioritised
understanding is misconceptions are in ICSE board.
done at ICSE boards prioritised in CBSE
boards.
Role of teacher Facilitator, guide, Allow the student Facilitator, guide, co-
listens for students into the path of participant is adopted
current conception, discovery. ABL and in ICSE
ides, thinking is not ALM method
followed by any followed in State
board except partially boards (at the
by ICSE primary level in
Tamil Nadu)
Role of students Active participants in Co-operate and Co-construct,
the learning process discover (active collaborate in
(active thinker, thinker, explainer, learning process,
explainer, interpreter interpreter etc.) is active thinker,
etc.) is found mostly also seen in ICSE explainer, interpreter,
in CBSE and ICSE and certain extent questioner, etc. seen
boards CBSE boards in ICSE boards
knowledge Changing body of It is innate and Built on what
knowledge intellectual participants
individually development move contribute construct
constructed in social from enactive together.
world. Based on (activity) to symbolic ISCE board mostly.
learners exposure and (language).
interest. This is seen (Followed in some

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 in Govt. Matric, state boards e.g.
ISCE and CBSE Tamil nadu), matric,
CBSE & ICSE board
Law of readiness Only when the child Opposed law of Children are ready to
is ready, learning readiness: learn if they are
takes place Child can be appropriately
effectively. Based on prepared to learn by exposed to social
the age group adopting effective learning situations.
learning concept has strategies. Hence age He supports Piaget’s
to be arranged. is not a factor for views. Followed in
Followed in State, learning. Followed State, Matric and
Matric and CBSE in ICSE board CBSE board
board
Concept formation through assimilation Learning through Social cultural
and accommodation experience (enactive- influence
and complex action based{0-1 (scaffolding, zone
cognitive yrs}, iconic-image proximal
development occurs based {1-6 yrs} and development, cultural
through equilibrium symbolic-language clues)
based{7 yrs and
above}) and concept
formation is natural
and over the age it
develops. Supports
vygotsky view of
mature person
influence immature
person in concept
formation
Interaction Self talk is good at Interpersonal and Self talk is given
lower level but as the intra personal more importance as it
child grows it reflects relations are acts in cognition and
his/her poor mental emphasised. also outlet for stress.
health. Learning is through Self talk leads to
cooperation. ICSE development of
follows this method. interpersonal
relations
Language Language Language Takes place when
development development takes development is a students are learning
place. Mother tongue cause not a in groups. Mother
is a priority only state consequence of tongue is a priority
boards follow. cognitive only state boards
CBSE gives hindi development. Mother follow.
and English medium tongue is a priority
while ICSE offers only state boards
English medium follow.
only.
Cultural effect Culture influences Culture influence Culture influence
learning hence state learning CBSE gives learning CBSE gives
board and matric mild preference but mild preference but

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 boards bring in ICSE doesn’t give ICSE doesn’t give
culturally sensitive preference preference
topics in syllabus.
Level of difficulty Easy to difficult No formats. To a Easy to difficult
followed in state certain extent followed in state
board, matric and followed by ICSE board, matric and
CBSSE boards CBSSE
Learning objective All round All round All round
development of the development of the development of the
individual – individual – Able to individual – Able to
interaction and self invent new things solve problems
sufficient personality. and solve problems is keeping socio-
State board and followed in ICSE cultural aspects in
matriculation focuses board mind. ICSE and
on this CBSE focus on this.
India being a big country is not able to cater to all the principles discussed by educationist
and psychologist. But our system of education has progressed remarkably within the broad
boundaries and has contributed to the growth and development of science and technology.
For a diverse country like India providing equal opportunity to all its learners is a challenging
task. But education sector gets prime allocation of funds to improve the quality of teaching
and learning and in the due course of time the views of Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner etc. will
be addressed effectively by incorporating them into the education system to a greater extent
possible. As teaching and learning is an evolving process, things will improve for the better
in the future.

FORMS OF LEARNER’S ENGAGEMENT IN THE PROCESS OF KNOWLEDGE

CONSTRUCTION:

Constructivist theory avers that the learning method leads the construction of personal
knowledge and cognitive skills. For decades, the promotion of students’ cognition has been
the focus of educational studies and programs (Boddy, Watson, & Aubusson, 2003; de Bono,
1976; Ennis, 1996; Watts, Jofili, & Bezerra, 1997). Many students may not be interested in
the curriculum, but everybody is interested in the parts of the world that they believe relate to
their own existence. This basic self interest, if it is allowed to flourish intellectually, can lead
to a wide variety of discoveries motivated by curiosity based on internal needs.

If we want to allow students to pursue their own interests, we need to provide them with a
way to get their questions answered. Many of the teaching architectures are, in fact,
specifically designed to bring students to the point that they want to know something. How
are we to help them?
Teacher cannot possibly know the answers to all questions a student might develop. The idea
that any one teacher knows all there is to know is ludicrous. The one-on-thirty model of
learning should be exactly the other way around--thirty teachers to one student. Students
should have access to experts, technology and a variety of experiences. They should be able
to access various resources easily and quickly, and should have the opportunity to compare
and contrast the different opinions of their learning experiences. Hence learners have to be
exposed to different means of learning. Experience makes a man perfect and cognition is
strengthened by providing different experiences to the learner. The following are some of the
forms of learners’ engagement in the process of knowledge construction.

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OBSERVATION
Observational learning, or modeling, is a type of learning most associated with the work
and social learning theory of psychologist Albert Bandura. Observational learning is
thought to be particularly important during childhood.
The action or process of closely observing or monitoring something or someone.

Learning that occurs as a function of seeing, retaining, and, in the case of imitation learning,
replicating novel behavior executed by other people.
Albert Bandura- A psychologist and learning theorist who first proposed social learning
theory and can be credited for first noting observational learning.

Observational or social learning is based primarily on the work of Albert Bandura (1977). He
and his colleagues were able to demonstrate through a variety of experiments that the
application of consequences was not necessary for learning to take place. Rather learning
could occur through the simple processes of observing someone else's activity. This work
provided the foundation for Bandura's (986) later work in social cognition.

Bandura formulated his findings in a four-step pattern which combines a cognitive view and
an operant view of learning.
1. Attention -- the individual notices something in the environment. 
2. Retention -- the individual remembers what was noticed. 
3. Reproduction -- the individual produces an action that is a copy of what was
noticed. 
4. Motivation -- the environment delivers a consequence that changes the probability
the behavior will be emitted again (reinforcement and punishment)

Bandura's work draws from both behavioral and cognitive views of learning. He believes that

mind, behavior and the environment all play an important role in the learning process.
e.g. observing experienced teachers by student-teachers.

Types of Observation
1. Casual and Scientific observation
2. Natural Observation 
3. Subjective and Objective observation
4. Direct and Indirect observation
5. Participant and Non Participant observation
6. Structured and Unstructured observation
7. Controlled and Non Controlled observation

Advantages
 Understands the process of the event or activity with better clarity.
 Makes learning more informative and interesting
 Lively experience
 Active participation
 Develops cognition

Disadvantage
 Not everything can be observed
 Time consuming

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  Sometimes self-motivation is needed to stay focussed.

Demonstration
An act of showing that something exists or is true by giving proof or evidence.
"his demonstration of the need for computer corpora in language study is convincing"
eg. Students demonstrate presentation....

Steps / stages
Steps
1. Introduction: In this step objectives of the lesson are stated. The teacher may be
called demonstrator. He demonstrates the activity before the student that is to be
developed.
2. Development. Students try to initiate the demonstrated activity. If there is any
query the teacher tries to satisfy them by further demonstration and illustrations.
3. Integration. At this step, the teacher integrates all the activities and then these
activities are rehearsed revised and evaluated.
This teaching strategy is based on the following principles
1. Learning by doing maxim is followed
2. Skills can be developed by limitation
3. The perception helps in imitation

Advantages
 It helps in involving various sense to make learning permanent
 It invites the cooperation of pupils in teaching learning process.
 It develops interest in the learners and motivates them for their active participation
 It helps in achieving psychomotor objectives
 Simple and complex concepts, still becomes easy to understand.
 Experiment presented through demonstration strengthens abilities like observation
and indicates this inference.
 It makes the pupils familiar with the nature and use of apparatus.
 Psychologically children learn from role modelling of teacher in terms of values,
behaviour, personality etc. Which shape as well as model cognition.

Disadvantages of Demonstration Method

1. It can be used only for skills subjects
2. Only the attention of the learners is invited towards the activity demonstrated. They are
not free to discuss about it
3. Due to poor economic conditions of the government schools, there is scarcity of audio-
visual aids and equipment and the teachers are not so creative to produce handmade
models for demonstration
4. There is a general lack of sincerity and diligence among teachers who wish to complete
the syllabus or syllabi at the earliest without putting sincere efforts

EXPLORING
Learning by Exploring simply means enabling students to pursue their own interests.

Definition
To investigate, study, or analyze :  look into explore the relationship between social
class and learning ability —sometimes used with indirect questions

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 We often talk about the five senses, these are:
Taste – the stimulation that comes when our taste receptors react to chemicals in our mouth.
Touch – the stimulation that comes from touch receptors in our skin that react to pressure,
heat/cold, or vibration.
Smell – the stimulation of chemical receptors in the upper airways (nose).
Sight – the stimulation of light receptors in our eyes, which our brains then interpret into
visual images.
Hearing – the reception of sound, via mechanics in our inner ear.

Exploring helps to know about the content, its level, its relevance, its impact and its relations
with the surrounding. This knowledge is useful for better understanding and hence enhances
cognition. It brings in the skills of searching, persistence, goal directed behaviour,
independent analysis, creative articulation of analysis, etc. E.g. exploring about a particular
topic from the books available in the library and prepares assignment.
Eg. Students work on case studies, book reviews, field visits, etc.
Steps For Exploring
Below are some steps for exploring and declaring majors. 
Reflect:  Piece together important information about yourself – your interests, values,
abilities – before you begin exploration so you can really focus your attention on areas that
will complement you.  It does not help you to pursue a major that does not suit your skills or
interests, so please be honest with yourself throughout this process. 
Collect: Gather information about the majors and opportunities available relevant to the task.
Narrow:  It’s impossible to do thorough research on every major on campus, so try to narrow
it down to 5 or 6 options. 
Investigate:  Carry out the research in terms of finding the core objective of exploration
based on scientific methods and procedures.
Document: This is an important process of exploration. It is not just exploring which
matters, but the ability to document the investigation is equally important. Documentation
can be in the form of photographs, videos, printed materials, documents, objects, fossils,
specimens, history, data’s etc. Some of these majors include: art, business, computer science,
construction management, engineering, political science, hospitality industry, and technical
journalism.
Evaluation: Make sure you’re satisfied with your decision and you are successful in the
major. 
o How does your major feel to you?
o Do you enjoy what you are doing in college?
o Do you enjoy your courses and professors?
o Are you earning the grades you expect or desire?
o Are you looking forward to pursuing internships?
o If you are not satisfied then ask yourself with what in particular you feel uncomfortable. If
you do not like what you are doing or your major courses, or if you are not motivated, talk
to your advisor about your misgivings.

Advantages of learning through exploring

 Active learning, develops curiosity, interest, enhances levels of aspiration etc.
 Independent analysis – self phased, individualised, and need based.
 Creative and problem solving ability develops
 Goal oriented learning

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  Sense of achievement
 Group learning and learning through cooperation
 Meta-cognitive skills develop
 Development of Independence and confidence.

DISCOVERING
Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in
problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and
existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned.
Discovering something can also have a myriad of meanings. Firstly it can be used to refer to
the first to learn something. Here are some examples.
Penicillium was discovered by the Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming. Radium was
discovered by Marie Curie.
Discover can also be used when we want to refer to something that we have learnt or
become aware of. This does not have to be a first form of discovery but can even refer to our
day to day activities.

DISCOVERY LEARNING:
1961 - Jerome Bruner, an American psychologist, introduces the Discovery Learning Model.

What is Discovery Learning?

Discovery Learning was introduced by Jerome Bruner, and is a method of Inquiry-Based
Instruction. This popular theory encourages learners to build on past experiences and
knowledge, use their intuition, imagination and creativity, and search for new information to
discover facts, correlations and new truths. Learning does not equal absorbing what was said
or read, but actively seeking for answers and solutions.
Discovery learning is a kind of teaching that is based on the student finding things out for
themselves, looking into problems, and asking questions. Essentially, it's all about students
coming to their own conclusions and asking about things in their course that might not make
particular sense. Obviously, as soon as enquiries are made, they can learn new things and
hence will have become part of an innovative, thought-provoking and interesting educational
journey. Top psychologists in the country have promoted this kind of learning.
Discovery learning is used in the classroom during problem solving exercises and educational
programs. Students will undergo discovery learning when they are looking at their own
experiences and knowledge in their studies, and enquiring about further information to
improve their understanding. Discovery learning will also be used in terms of answering
controversial and tricky questions, asking other people what they think, and generally
discussing things. Experiments are also key to discovery learning, for instance in sciences,
where students will be able to experience science right in front of them - and discover things
that may occur, which hence prompts them to ask the question 'why?'
In a regular classroom, a teacher who is trying to enforce new innovative methods of teaching
might give students different problems, and try and get them to work together to come up
with a solution to this problem. This can be implemented in nearly any kind of class and
consistently proves to be an effective way of teaching. It provides numerous benefits, and of
course is a great way of integrating special needs students with other students in conventional
educational facilities.
The 5 Principles of Discovery Learning Model
The Discovery Learning Model integrates the following 5 principles:
 Principle 1: Problem Solving.
Instructors should guide and motivate learners to seek for solutions by combining existing

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 and newly acquired information and simplifying knowledge. This way, learners are the
driving force behind learning, take an active role and establish broader applications for
skills through activities that encourage risks, problem-solving and probing.
 Principle 2: Learner Management.
Instructors should allow participants to work either alone or with others, and learn at their
own pace. This flexibility makes learning the exact opposite of a static sequencing of
lessons and activities, relieves learners from unnecessary stress, and makes them feel they
own learning.
 Principle 3: Integrating and Connecting.
Instructors should teach learners how to combine prior knowledge with new, and
encourage them to connect to the real world. Familiar scenarios become the basis of new
information, encouraging learners to extend what they know and invent something new.
 Principle 4: Information Analysis and Interpretation.
Discovery learning is process-oriented and not content-oriented, and is based on the
assumption that learning is not a mere set of facts. Learners in fact learn to analyze and
interpret the acquired information, rather than memorize the correct answer.
 Principle 5: Failure and Feedback.
Learning doesn’t only occur when we find the right answers. It also occurs through
failure. Discovery learning does not focus on finding the right end result, but the new
things we discover in the process. And it’s the instructor’s responsibility to provide
feedback, since without it learning is incomplete.

Discovery learning has many key advantages

 encourages active engagement
 promotes motivation
 promotes autonomy, responsibility, independence
 It can be adjusted to the learner’s pace
 It ensures higher levels of retention
 develops creativity and problem solving skills.
 tailors learning experiences

What is the difference between Explore and Discover?

Definitions of Explore and Discover:
 Explore: Explore something is to travel through an unfamiliar area in order to learn
about it or else to examine something.
 It involves divergent thinking skills
 Discover: Discover is to find something or else to gain knowledge or become aware
of something.
 It involves convergent thinking skills
Characteristics of Explore and Discover:
Individual:
Explore: Explore cannot be used for individual potential.
Discover: Discover can be used to refer to individual potential.
Initial form:
Explore: Explore is not particularly used when referring to the first to learn about something.
Discover: Discover is particularly used when we want to refer to the first to learn something.

ANALYSING

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Analysis skill is the ability to visualize, articulate, conceptualize or solve both complex and
uncomplicated problems by making decisions that are sensible given the available
information.
Analysis skills refer to the ability to collect and analyze information, problem-solve, and
make decisions.
Must be able to identify and define problems, extract key information from data and develop
workable solutions for the problems identified in order to test and verify the cause of the
problem and develop solutions to resolve the problems identified.

Behaviour indicators of analysis

1.Collects information and data. 2. Extracts relevant data in order to identify possible causes
for the problem. 3. Critically examines issues by breaking them down into manageable parts.
4. Analyses information to determine and ascertain the most likely cause of the problem. 5.
Identifies the logical, factual outcomes based on the data, information and analyses
conducted. 6. Identifies action to prevent the problem from occurring partially or totally.

Analytical Thinking – analysis needs analytical thinking

LEVEL I
• Undertakes a process of information and data collection and analysis for integration
purposes.
• Identifies and makes sets of information and determines their relationships.
• Codifies this data to detect trends and issues in the data and information in a logical and
factual manner.
• Makes logical deductions from data.
• Identifies a solution for resolving the problem.
LEVEL II
• Collects all the relevant information and data needed to address the problem.
• Organizes, classifies and synthesizes the data into fundamental issues.
• From the information, identifies the most probable causes of the problem.
• Reduces the information down into manageable components.
• Identifies the logical outcomes from the analyses of the data collected
. • Identifies the options and solutions for addressing the problems analyzed.
LEVEL III
• Collects, integrates and analyses all relevant data and information and reduces that
information down to manageable components and/or charts, diagrams or graphs.
• Identifies a number of solutions to complex problems integrating findings from several
different disciplines, identifies and evaluates the various options developed and selects the
most effective solution.
• Draws logical and objective conclusions from the data and validates them as the prime
cause and contributing causes.
• Identifies a number of solutions to the problem by identifying and evaluating the various
options developed and selects the most effective solution

Advantages of Analysing ability/skill

 Developing communication

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  Creativity
 Problem solving
 Critical thinking
 Research

CONTEXTUALISATION
contextualization is the process of assigning meaning as a means of interpreting the
environment within which a text or action is executed. To place (something, such as a
word or activity) in a context 

The definition of contextualize means to analyze a word or event in terms of the words or

concepts surrounding it. An example of contextualize is to keep feminist perspectives in
mind when reading a novel written during the women's civil rights movement.
Contextual learning is based on a constructivist theory of teaching and learning. Learning
takes place when teachers are able to present information in a way that students are able to
construct meaning based on their own experiences. Contextual learning experiences
include internships, service learning, and study abroad programs, among others.
Contextual learning may be useful for child development if it provides learning experiences
in a context in which children are interested and motivated. Various experiential learning
theorists have contributed to an understanding of contextual learning.
Contextual learning has the following characteristics:

 emphasizing problem solving

 recognizing that teaching and learning need to occur in multiple contexts
 assisting students in learning how to monitor their learning and thereby become self-
regulated learners
 anchoring teaching in the diverse life context of students by encouraging students to learn
from each other
 employing authentic assessment

Benefits of contextualization learning

 Both direct instruction and constructivist activities can be compatible and effective in the
achievement of learning goals
 Increasing one’s efforts results in more ability. This theory opposes the notion that one’s
aptitude is unchangeable. Striving for learning goals motivates an individual to be
engaged in activities with a commitment to learning.
 Children learn the standards values, and knowledge of society by raising questions and
accepting challenges to find solutions that are not immediately apparent. Other learning
processes are explaining concepts, justifying their reasoning and seeking information.
Therefore, learning is a social process which requires social and cultural factors to be
considered during instructional planning. This social nature of learning also drives the
determination of the learning goals.
 Knowledge and learning are situated in particular physical and social context. A range of
settings may be used such as the home, the community, and the workplace, depending on
the purpose of instruction and the intended learning goals.
 Knowledge may be viewed as distributed or stretched over the individual, other persons,
and various artifacts such as physical and symbolic tools  and not solely as a property of

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 individuals. Thus, people, as an integral part of the learning process, must share
knowledge and tasks

COLLABORATION
the action of working with someone to produce something. "he wrote a book in
collaboration with his son".

Collaboration Cognition
Certain problems in real life require collaboration (cooperation, competition, or coordination)
from multiple agents (human or machines) in a social machine to take a decision that
maximizes an overall or public goal or utility. Every agent in such a collaborative setting has
its own private goal or utility. It is often a challenge to maximize the public utility while
balancing each agent's individual private utilities.
We propose a Collaborative Cognition (e.g., Sensing, Learning, and Decision Making)
framework to provide solutions for such real world problems. Collaborative Cognition refers
to an analytic viewpoint that looks beyond an individual’s cognition to include interactions of
individuals with others (including other non-human cognitive agents) in order to develop far
superior collective intelligence through computational modeling/evaluations of strategic
interactions among the agents.

collaborative learning
In a collaborative model, students become teachers, which students team together to explore a
significant question or create a meaningful project, asking questions of each other,
discussing, and drawing conclusions that they may then demonstrate to the class. By the same
token, teachers become students—we learn from our students’ questions and their ways of
thinking, which differ from our own. students from different schools working together over
the Internet on a shared assignment are both examples of collaborative learning.
We also listen to them articulate their ideas to group members and negotiate meaning as we
circulate to answer questions and observe. They learn aloud, and we can hear them creating
knowledge together, rather than hoping they are learning as we stand at the front of the room
and speak. With group work, we know quickly when students are confused or off-task, which
allows us to change course. In a teacher centered classroom, we can only guess or assess after
the fact. And most important, students must take responsibility for their own learning.
In collaborative learning the team has a mandate and the success of the team will reflect on
the them and not so much on the individuals efforts. i.e. collective responsibility is
emphasised whereas in cooperative learning, is a specific kind of collaborative learning, in
which, students work together in small groups. individually accountable is greater for their
work. Collaborative groups work face-to-face and learn to work as a team.

Collaborative learning is an educational approach to teaching and learning that involves

groups of students working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product.

Collaborative learning is an educational approach to teaching and learning that involves

groups of learners working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product.
Collaborative learning is based on the idea that learning is a naturally social act in which the
participants talk among themselves. It is through the talk that learning occurs.

Characteristics / Principles to collaborative learning:

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 1. Learning is an active process whereby learners assimilate the information and relate
this new knowledge to a framework of prior knowledge.
2. Learning requires a challenge that opens the door for the learner to actively engage
his/her peers, and to process and synthesize information rather than simply memorize
and regurgitate it.
3. Learners benefit when exposed to diverse viewpoints from people with varied
backgrounds.
4. Learning flourishes in a social environment where conversation between learners
takes place. During this intellectual gymnastics, the learner creates a framework and
meaning to the discourse.
5. In the collaborative learning environment, the learners are challenged both socially
and emotionally as they listen to different perspectives, and are required to articulate
and defend their ideas. In so doing, the learners begin to create their own unique
conceptual frameworks and not rely solely on an expert's or a text's framework.

Thus, in a collaborative learning setting, learners have the opportunity to converse with peers,
present and defend ideas, exchange diverse beliefs, question other conceptual frameworks,
and be actively engaged.

Advantages
Collaborative learning small groups provide a place where:
 learners actively participate;
 teachers become learners at times, and learners sometimes teach;
 respect is given to every member;
 projects and questions interest and challenge students;
 diversity is celebrated, and all contributions are valued;
 students learn skills for resolving conflicts when they arise;
 members draw upon their past experience and knowledge;
 goals are clearly identified and used as a guide;
 research tools such as Internet access are made available;
 Students are invested in their own learning.

MULTIPLE INTERPRETATION
An explanation of the meaning of another's artistic or creative work; an elucidation:
an interpretation of a poem. ..a charitable interpretation of his tactlessness.

Characteristics
 It needs diverse thinking (divergent thinking)
 Creative thinking
 Different outlook
 Based on exposure the interpretation varies
 Reflects on how the logics has been recognised
 Logical reasoning and rational thinking
 Governed by cause and effect relationships

CRITICAL REFLECTION  (convergent thinking)

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Critical reflection is a reasoning process to make meaning of an experience. Critical
reflection is descriptive, analytical, and critical, and can be articulated in a number of ways
such as in written form, orally, or as an artistic expression. ... Often, a reflection activity is
guided by a set of written prompts.

The Importance of Critical Reflection

Why Reflect?
According to John Dewey, "truly educative" experiences generate interest, are intrinsically
worthwhile, present problems that awaken new curiosity and create a demand for new
information, and take sufficient time to foster development. Reflection is an essential process
for transforming experiences–gained from the service activities and the course materials–into
genuine learning. It is crucial for integrating the service or experience with the classroom
topics. It fosters learning about larger social issues such as the political, economic, and
sociological characteristics of our communities. It enhances students’ critical understanding
of the course topics and their ability to assess their own values, goals, and progress.
What is Critical Reflection?
Reflection is a process designed to promote the examination and interpretation of experience
and the promotion of cognitive learning. It is "a process by which service-learners think
critically about their experiences." It is the process of looking back on the implications of
actions taken - good and bad - and determining what has been gained, lost, or achieved and
connecting these conclusions to future actions and larger societal contexts. Through reflection
students analyze concepts, evaluate experiences, and postulate theory. Critical reflection
provides students with the opportunity to examine and question their beliefs, opinions, and
values. It involves observation, asking questions, and putting facts, ideas, and experiences
together to derive new meaning.

What Are the Benefits of Reflection?

Reflection improves basic academic skills and promotes a deeper understanding of course
subject matter and its relations to the non-academic world; it improves higher level thinking
and problem solving and students’ ability to learn from experience. Critical reflection
promotes personal development by enhancing students’ self-awareness, their sense of
community, and their sense of their own capacities.

How Can Reflection Be Facilitated in the Classroom?

Effective reflection depends on appropriate contexts and real problems and issues. The
culture of the class community must be one in which students feel included, respected, and
safe. The dialogue between instructor and students must be meaningful to the students.
Students are helped to feel respected and included in the class community through small
groups in which they can exchange concerns, experiences, and expectations about the
service/activity and the class. By involving them in real community problems, service-
learning provides students with a need to know, a desire to enhance their skills and a
commitment to solving problems of importance to them.
Effective Community-Based Learning Reflection Will Be:

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Continuous: Reflection is ongoing, occurring before, during, and after students' service
experiences. Connected: Reflection provides opportunities to integrate learning from service
with academic content or personal development, including ways in which service
experiences illustrate concepts, theories, and social trends.
Challenging: Reflection both supports and challenges student to engage issues by thinking
critically, pushing them to pose stimulating questions and to develop alternative explanations
for their initial perceptions and observations.
Contextualized: Reflection relies for analysis on the context of issues being discussed and
the service setting. It occurs in various forms and settings.

Engaging Students in Critical Synthesis

One of the purposes of service-learning is to bring life and relevance to key course concepts.
Many students do not immediately see the connection between the vivid, complex
experiences in their service and the important ideas in a college course. They need help
making the link through structured critical synthesis. A variety of activities can be used to
facilitate student reflection. Faculty can require students to keep journals, organize
presentations by community leaders, encourage students to publicly discuss their service
experiences and the learning that ensued, and require students to prepare reports to
demonstrate their learning.
The ORID Model
The ORID model provides a progression of question types designed to move students from
reflecting on the concrete experience to analytical and subjective reasoning. It mirrors the
Kolb learning cycle and may be used to create journal or discussion questions and to guide
assignments and activity types.
The progression may be completed within one assignment and/or over the whole semester.
 Objective: Begin with questions related to the concrete experience.
What did students do, observe, read, and hear? Who was involved? What was said? What
happened as a result of their work?
 Reflective: Next introduce questions that address the affective experience.
How did the experience feel? What did it remind them of? How did their apprehension
change or their confidence grow? Did they feel successful, effective, and
knowledgeable?
 Interpretive: Then ask questions that explore their cognitive experience.
What did the experience make them think? How did it change their thinking about…?
What did they learn? What worked?
 Decisional: Finally, students are prepared to incorporate their experience into a new
paradigm. They may have a shift in knowledge, awareness, or understanding that affects
how they see things and, ultimately, how they will act. What will they do differently next
time? What decisions or opinions have they formed? How will the experience affect their
career path, their personal life choices, or their use of new information, skills or
technology?

Motivation

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Motivation is an internal process that makes a person move toward a goal. Motivation, like
intelligence, can't be directly observed. Instead, motivation can only be inferred by noting a
person's behavior. Researchers have proposed theories that try to explain human motivation.
Intrinsic motivation refers to behavior that is driven by internal rewards. In other words,
the motivation to engage in a behavior arises from within the individual because it
is intrinsically rewarding.
Intrinsic motivation is derived from intangible factors. For example, someone who writes
music for his own listening pleasure is relying on intrinsic motivation. A person who writes
music to sell for profit is using extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming from within.
The individual has the desire to perform a specific task, because its results are in accordance
with his belief system or fulfills a desire and therefore importance is attached to it.

Our deep-rooted desires have the highest motivational power. Below are some examples:

 Acceptance: We all need to feel that we, as well as our decisions, are accepted by our co-
workers.
 Curiosity: We all have the desire to be in the know.
 Honor: We all need to respect the rules and to be ethical.
 Independence: We all need to feel we are unique.
 Order: We all need to be organized.
 Power: We all have the desire to be able to have influence.
 Social contact: We all need to have some social interactions.
 Social Status: We all have the desire to feel important.

Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic motivation means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming from
outside. In other words, our desires to perform a task are controlled by an outside source.
Note that even though the stimuli are coming from outside, the result of performing the task
will still be rewarding for the individual performing the task.

Extrinsic motivation is external in nature. The most well-known and the most debated
motivation is money. Below are some other examples:

 Employee of the month award

 Benefit package
 Bonuses
 Organized activities

Extrinsic motivation is when I am motivated by external factors, as opposed to the internal

drivers of intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation drives me to do things for tangible
rewards or pressures, rather than for the fun of it.

Intrinsic motivation is when you do something because you enjoy it or find it interesting.
Compare that to Dani, whose reason for running involves extrinsic motivation, or doing
something for external rewards or to avoid negative consequences.

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Humanistic approach
Humanism is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole
person. Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior not only through the eyes of the
observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving. Sometimes the humanistic
approach is called phenomenological.

The humanistic perspective is an approach to psychology that emphasizes empathy and

stresses the good in human behavior. In politics and social theory, this approach calls for
human rights and equality.
The Humanistic Theory of Motivation
The Humanistic Theory of Motivation is a type of motivational theory that addresses the
meaning of behavior, and the nature of healthy human development. Abraham Maslow, an
American Psychologist, desired to know what motivated humans. He suggested that humans
were driven to fulfill certain needs.

Maslow's Hierarcy of Needs Theory: The Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory proposed

that people have five different sets of needs: physiological needs, safety needs, love and
belonging needs, esteem needs, and needs for self-actualization (Ormrod, 2008). Abraham
Maslow's theory has a central feature of humanism and the basic needs of Maslow's Theory is
the basis for motivation.
 
Achievement-Motivation Theory: Achievement-Motivation Theory was developed by
Atkinson, McClelland, and Veroff and focuses on aspects of personality characteristics and
proposes three forms of motivation or needs in work situations (McEwen, 2007). The three
forms of motivation of the Achievement-Motivation Theory are achievement, power, and
affiliation. The Achievement-Motivation Theory's central idea deals with the managerial
success and motivation of a person.

Herzberg's Theory of Motivation and Hygiene Factor: According to Frederick Herzberg's

two-factor theory, some factors can lead to learning and satisfaction, while others do not in
spite of resulting in dissatisfaction if they are absent altogether (What is Motivation,
n.d.). Herzberg was primarily concerned with the people's well-being at work. Underpinning
his theories and academic teachings, he was basically attempting to bring more humanity and
caring into the workplace (BusinessBalls.com, 2010).
According to BusinessBalls.com (2010), examples of Herzberg's 'hygiene' needs (or
maintenance factors) in the workplace are:
 policy
 relationship with supervisor
 work conditions
 salary
 company car
 status
 security
 relationship with subordinates
 personal life

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Herzberg's research identified that true motivators were other completely different factors,
notably:
 achievement
 recognition
 work itself
 responsibility
 advancement (BusinessBalls.com, 2010).

Herzberg's underlying concept was to increase motivation at work.

ARCS Model of Motivational Design by John Keller: John Keller is the author of this
theory. According to Keller (2010) the ARCS model is a problem solving approach to
designing the motivational aspects of learning environments to stimulate and sustain
students’ motivation to learn. In order for this theory to be effective, motivation has to be
used with instructional goals. 

Humanism is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole

person. Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior not only through the eyes of the
observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving. Sometimes the humanistic
approach is called phenomenological.
The major theorists considered to have prepared the ground for Humanistic Psychology are
Otto Rank, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Rollo May. Maslowwas heavily influenced
by Kurt Goldstein during their years together at Brandeis
University. Psychoanalytic writers also influenced humanistic psychology.
In 1957 and 1958, at the invitation of Abraham Maslow and Clark Moustakas, two
meetings were held in Detroit among psychologists who were interested in founding a
professional association dedicated to a more meaningful, more humanistic vision.
The Humanistic Theory of Motivation is a type of motivational theory that addresses the
meaning of behavior, and the nature of healthy human development. Abraham Maslow, an
American Psychologist, desired to know what motivated humans. He suggested that humans
were driven to fulfill certain needs.

27
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in his
1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" in Psychological
Review. Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans'
innate curiosity.
Maslow's (1943, 1954) hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising
a five tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
Maslow stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs take
precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first
thing that motivates our behaviour. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what
motivates us, and so on.

This five stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four
levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs), and the top level is known as
growth or being needs (B-needs).
The deficiency needs are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the need to
fulfil such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied. For example,
the longer a person goes without food, the more hungry they will become.
One must satisfy lower level deficit needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth
needs. When a deficit need has been satisfied it will go away, and our activities become
habitually directed towards meeting the next set of needs that we have yet to satisfy. These
then become our salient needs. However, growth needs continue to be felt and may even
become stronger once they have been engaged. Once these growth needs have been
reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called self-actualization.
Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-
actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by a failure to meet lower level
needs. Life experiences, including divorce and loss of a job may cause an individual to
fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy. Therefore, not everyone will move through the
hierarchy in a uni-directional manner but may move back and forth between the different
types of needs.
Maslow noted only one in a hundred people become fully self-actualized because our society
rewards motivation primarily based on esteem, love and other social needs

28
1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.
3. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, trust and acceptance, receiving and
giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
4. Esteem needs - achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-
respect, respect from others.
5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal
growth and peak experiences.

Changes to the original five-stage model are highlighted and include a seven-stage model and
a eight-stage model, both developed during the 1960's and 1970s.
5. Cognitive needs - knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for meaning
and predictability.
6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc.
7. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal
growth and peak experiences.
8. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self actualization.

Self-actualization
Instead of focusing on psychopathology and what goes wrong with people, Maslow (1943)
formulated a more positive account of human behavior which focused on what goes right. He
was interested in human potential, and how we fulfill that potential.
Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that human motivation is based on people
seeking fulfillment and change through personal growth. Self-actualized people are those
who were fulfilled and doing all they were capable of.
The growth of self-actualization (Maslow, 1962) refers to the need for personal growth and
discovery that is present throughout a person’s life. For Maslow, a person is always
'becoming' and never remains static in these terms. In self-actualization a person comes to
find a meaning to life that is important to them.
As each individual is unique the motivation for self-actualization leads people in different
directions (Kenrick et al., 2010). For some people self-actualization can be achieved through
creating works of art or literature, for others through sport, in the classroom, or within a
corporate setting.
Maslow (1962) believed self-actualization could be measured through the concept of peak
experiences. This occurs when a person experiences the world totally for what it is, and there
are feelings of euphoria, joy and wonder.
It is important to note that self-actualization is a continual process of becoming rather than a
perfect state one reaches of a 'happy ever after' (Hoffman, 1988).

Maslow offers the following description of self-actualization:

'It refers to the person’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to become
actualized in what he is potentially.
The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to person.
In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may be
expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in painting pictures or in
inventions' (Maslow, 1943, p. 382–383).
Characteristics of self-actualizers:
1. They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty;
2. Accept themselves and others for what they are;

29
3. Spontaneous in thought and action;
4. Problem-centered (not self-centered);
5. Unusual sense of humor;
6. Able to look at life objectively;
7. Highly creative;
8. Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional;
9. Concerned for the welfare of humanity;
10. Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience;
11. Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few people;
12. Peak experiences;
13. Need for privacy;
14. Democratic attitudes;
15. Strong moral/ethical standards.
Behavior leading to self-actualization:
(a) Experiencing life like a child, with full absorption and concentration;
(b) Trying new things instead of sticking to safe paths;
(c) Listening to your own feelings in evaluating experiences instead of the voice of tradition,
authority or the majority;
(d) Avoiding pretense ('game playing') and being honest;
(e) Being prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with those of the majority;
(f) Taking responsibility and working hard;
(g) Trying to identify your defenses and having the courage to give them up.

Educational applications
Maslow's (1968) hierarchy of needs theory has made a major contribution to teaching and
classroom management in schools. Rather than reducing behavior to a response in the
environment, Maslow (1970a) adopts a holistic approach to education and learning. Maslow
looks at the complete physical, emotional, social, and intellectual qualities of an individual
and how they impact on learning.
Applications of Maslow's hierarchy theory to the work of the classroom teacher are obvious.
Before a student's cognitive needs can be met they must first fulfil their basic physiological
needs. For example a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning.
Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within the classroom to
progress and reach their full potential.
Maslow suggests students must be shown that they are valued and respected in the classroom
and the teacher should create a supportive environment. Students with a low self-esteem will
not progress academically at an optimum rate until their self-esteem is strengthened.

Critical evaluation
criticism concerns Maslow's assumption that the lower needs must be satisfied before a
person can achieve their potential and self-actualize. This is not always the case, and
therefore Maslow's hierarchy of needs in some aspects has been falsified.
Also, many creative people, such as authors and artists (e.g. Rembrandt and Van Gogh) lived
in poverty throughout their lifetime, yet it could be argued that they achieved self-
actualization.
Psychologists now conceptualize motivation as a pluralistic behavior, whereby needs can
operate on many levels simultaneously. A person may be motivated by higher growth needs
at the same time as lower level deficiency needs.

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 The results of the study support the view that universal human needs appear to exist
regardless of cultural differences. However, the ordering of the needs within the hierarchy
was not correct.

Cognitive approach to Motivation

Cognitive approaches to motivation focus on how a person's motivation is influenced by
their cognitions or mental processes. Of particular interest is the role of cognitive dissonance
on motivation. ... These contradictory cognitions may be attitudes, beliefs, or awareness of
one's behavior.
The cognitive theories of motivation include the Expectancy Theory and the Goal-Setting
Theory. The Expectancy Theory of Motivation explains why and how an individual chooses
one behavioural option over others. On the other hand, the Goal-Setting Theory states the
importance of creating goals in motivation a person.

I. EXPECTANCY THEORY
Proposed by Victor H. Vroom in 1964, the Expectancy Theory explicates the behavioural
process in which a person selects a behavioural option over another, and how this decision is
made in relation to their aim of achieving their goal. In this theory, three variables were
introduced by Vroom to explain the said behavioural process. These include “V” for valence,
“E” for expectancy, and “I” for instrumentality.
Expectancy
Expectancy is a variable that represents the belief that the effort (E) of an individual is an
outcome of a a need to attain the performance (P) goals that he desires. The theory states that
there are three factors that influence the expectancy perception of a person, which include:
1. Self efficacy – the individual’s belief regarding his own ability to perform a specific
behaviour successfully.
2. Goal difficulty – occurs when the desired performance goals are too high that might result
to low expectancy perceptions.
3. Control – the degree of a person’s perceived control over his performance.
Valence
Valence refers to the value that a person sets on the reinforcements or rewards. Setting values
are usually based on an individual’s values, needs, goals and intrinsic or extrinsic sources of
motivation. Valence include -1, which means the person is trying to avoid the outcome, 0,
which means the person feels indifferent towards the results, and +1, which means that he
welcomes the results.
Instrumentality
Instrumentality refers to the notion that a person will get a reward upon the satisfaction of the
expected performance. The reward may present in various forms – it can be intrinsic or
extrinsic, monetary or non-monetary. If this reward is similar for all the activities that a
person must perform, instrumentality is said to be low. There are three factors influencing
instrumentality: policies, control and trust.
Motivational Force
The product of the three aforementioned variables – expectancy, valence and instrumentality
– is called the motivational force. This is the proper formula for motivational force:
Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
If these three variables are “high” or strong in an individual, then his motivation is also
greater.

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II. GOAL-SETTING THEORY
Another cognitive theory of motivation, the Goal-Setting Theory was proposed by Edwin
Locke in the 1960s. The theory explains that goal setting has an influence on task
performance. Specific and challenging goals are more likely to motivate a person and lead to
a better execution of tasks, whereas vague and easy goals may result to poor task
performance. In application, therefore, the goals should be set must be SMART – Specific,
Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time-Bound.

ATTRIBUTION THEORY OF MOTIVATION (WEINER)

Attribution Theory attempts to explain the world and to determine the cause of an event or
behavior (e.g. why people do what they do). Originator: Bernard Weiner (1935- )

Attribution Theory is a theory about how people explain things. The theory is really quite
simple despite its rather strange sounding name. A synonym for "attribution" is
"explanation". The theory works like this.
When we offer explanations about why things happened, we can give one of two types. One,
we can make an external attribution. Two, we can make internal attribution. An external
attribution assigns causality to an outside agent or force. Or as kids would say, "The devil
made me do it." An external attribution claims that some outside thing motivated the event.
By contrast, an internal attribution assigns causality to factors within the person. Or as the
sinner would say, "I'm guilty, grant me forgiveness." An internal attribution claims that the
person was directly responsible for the event.

Attribution theory Definitions

The literature on attribution theory uses the vocabulary of social and cognitive psychology.
Here are some of the phrases used when attribution theory is discussed. Understanding these
definitions provides a good foundation for learning the basics of attribution theory.
Attribution Theory: Attribution theory is a social cognitive theory of motivation centered
upon the belief that retrospective causal attributions have bearing on present and future
motivation and achievement (Weiner, 1972). The basic assumption of attribution theory is
that man is motivated to understand the causal structure of his environment, to know why an
event has occurred, and to what source the event can be ascribed
Causal attribution: In the study of motivation for achievement, causal attributions refer to
the perceived reasons for success and failure (Weiner, 1974b). For example, a student may
attribute poor grades to such causes as insufficient effort, lack of ability or bad luck.
Attributional Style: The tendency for individuals to consistently make particular kinds of
causal attributions over time is referred to as attributional style (Metalsky & Abramson,
1981). For example, a self-enhancing attributional style is one that habitually gives credit to
hard work for success and attributes failure to a lack of effort. Locus of Control: Subjective
personal beliefs about the extent to which one’s actions determine outcomes are referred to as
locus of control. In attribution theory, these are two different variables and the preferred way
of discussing them is as locus and control rather than locus of control (Weiner, 2000).

Attribution theory is “a theory about how people make causal explanations” (Kelley, 1973, p.
107). It’s a theory of how people perceive and determine the causes of results. Although
attribution theory “was not formulated as a theory of individual motivation….[it] can be
employed in the study of self-perception and in the formulation of a theory of
motivation”[1] (Weiner, 1972, p. 310) Applied to the individual learner, attribution theory is

32
 a theory of how the learner determines the causes of and is affected by their own successes
and failures.

The basic assumption of attribution theory is that man is motivated to understand the causal
structure of his environment, to know why an event has occurred, and to what source the
event can be ascribed. Although there are multiple theories that fall under this label (Kelley &
Michela, 1980, p. 458), the one which seems to have been most commonly adopted and
appears to be most widely known in education is Weiner’s attribution-based theory of
motivation (as evidenced by coverage of attribution theory in texts such as: Bohlin et al.,
2009, pp. 281-282; Eggen & Kauchak, 1999, pp. 412-413; O’Donnell et al., 2007, pp. 150-
151; Ormrod, 2003, pp. 409-412; Sternberg & Williams, 2010, pp. 376-377; Woolfolk, 2010,
pp. 388-390).

Attribution Theory (Weiner)

Weiner developed a theoretical framework that has become very influential in social
psychology today. Attribution theory assumes that people try to determine why people do
what they do, that is, interpret causes to an event or behavior [1]. A three-stage process
underlies an attribution:

1. behavior must be observed/perceived

2. behavior must be determined to be intentional
3. behavior attributed to internal or external causes
Weiner’s attribution theory is mainly about achievement. According to him, the most
important factors affecting attributions are ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck.
Attributions are classified along three causal dimensions:

1. locus of control (two poles: internal vs. external)

2. stability (do causes change over time or not?)
3. controllability (causes one can control such as skills vs. causes one cannot control such as
luck, others’ actions, etc.)
When one succeeds, one attributes successes internally (“my own skill”). When a rival
succeeds, one tends to credit external (e.g. luck). When one fails or makes mistakes, we will
more likely use external attribution, attributing causes to situational factors rather than
blaming ourselves. When others fail or make mistakes, internal attribution is often used,
saying it is due to their internal personality factors.

1. Attribution is a three stage process: (1) behavior is observed, (2) behavior is determined to be
deliberate, and (3) behavior is attributed to internal or external causes.
2. Achievement can be attributed to (1) effort, (2) ability, (3) level of task difficulty, or (4) luck.
3. Causal dimensions of behavior are (1) locus of control, (2) stability, and (3) controllability.

Application

Weiner's theory has been widely applied in education, law, clinical psychology, and the
mental health domain. There is a strong relationship between self-concept and achievement.
Weiner (1980) states: "Causal attributions determine affective reactions to success and
failure. For example, one is not likely to experience pride in success, or feelings of
competence, when receiving an ‘A’ from a teacher who gives only that grade, or when
defeating a tennis player who always loses...On the other hand, an ‘A’ from a teacher who

33
gives few high grades or a victory over a highly rated tennis player following a great deal of
practice generates great positive affect." (p.362). Students with higher ratings of self-esteem
and with higher school achievement tend to attribute success to internal, stable,
uncontrollable factors such as ability, while they contribute failure to either internal, unstable,
controllable factors such as effort, or external, uncontrollable factors such as task difficulty.
For example, students who experience repeated failures in reading are likely to see
themselves as being less competent in reading.  This self-perception of reading ability reflects
itself in children's expectations of success on reading tasks and reasoning of success or failure
of reading.  Similarly, students with learning disabilities seem less likely than non-disabled
peers to attribute failure to effort, an unstable, controllable factor, and more likely to attribute
failure to ability, a stable, uncontrollable factor.

Example

Attribution theory has been used to explain the difference in motivation between high and
low achievers. According to attribution theory, high achievers will approach rather than avoid
tasks related to succeeding because they believe success is due to high ability and effort
which they are confident of. Failure is thought to be caused by bad luck or a poor exam, i.e.
not their fault. Thus, failure doesn't affect their self-esteem but success builds pride and
confidence. On the other hand, low achievers avoid success-related chores because they tend
to (a) doubt their ability and/or (b) assume success is related to luck or to "who you know" or
to other factors beyond their control. Thus, even when successful, it isn't as rewarding to the
low achiever because he/she doesn't feel responsible, i.e., it doesn't increase his/her pride and
confidence.

34
MULTIPLE WAYS OF ORGANISING LEARNING IN DIFFERENT SUBJECT
AREAS INDIVIDUALISED
Self-learning:
Self-learning allows each student to tackle problems based on their own capabilities. In that
sense, students own their knowledge as opposed to relying on external devices such as
calculators or tutors.
Definition
Learning done by oneself, without a teacher or instructor
How to Do It – self learning

 Get interested
 Set realistic goals
 Find what works for you
 Review materials the same day you learn it
 Study in short, frequent sessions
 Expect problems and you won’t be disappointed.
 Anytime is learning time
 Prepare and maintain your study environment
Self directed learning:
“In its broadest meaning, ’self-directed learning’ describes a process by which individuals
take the initiative, with our without the assistance of others, in diagnosing their learning
needs, formulating learning goals, identify human and material resources for learning,
choosing and implement appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes.”
(Knowles, 1975, p. 18)
Group learning
DEFINITION OF A LEARNING GROUP
A collection of persons who are emotionally, intellectually, and aesthetically engaged in
solving problems, creating products, and making meaning—an assemblage in which each
person learns autonomously and through the ways of learning of others.
A collection of persons who are emotionally, intellectually, and aesthetically engaged in
solving problems, creating products, and making meaning—an assemblage in which each
person learns autonomously and through the ways of learning of others. By group, we refer
both to the learning of individuals that is fostered by being in a group and to a more
distributed kind of learning that does not reside inside the head of any one individual. Rather
than focusing only on what the individual knows, the goal is to build a collective body of
knowledge; learning groups strive to create publicly shared understandings. By learning, we
refer to the learning processes and outcomes involved in solving problems and creating
products that are considered meaningful in a culture (Gardner, 1983). Rather than focusing on
discrete bits of information that can be produced via simple-answer questions, this type of
learning is situated in real-world problem solving and engages students cognitively,
emotionally, and aesthetically.

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FOUR FEATURES OF GROUP LEARNING
1. The members of learning groups include adults as well as children.
2. Documenting children’s learning processes helps to make learning visible and shapes the
learning that takes place.
3. Members of learning groups are engaged in the emotional and aesthetic as well as the
intellectual dimensions of learning.
4. The focus of learning in learning groups extends beyond the learning of individuals to
create a collective body of knowledge.
OTHER ASPECTS OF LEARNING GROUPS
• The make-up of the group (size, age, competencies, interests, friendships, the children’s
own suggestions, etc.) is an important consideration in how the group functions and learns.
• Learning groups also share a focus on learning how to learn in a group and understanding
the understanding of others.
• What a learning group learns is often connected to how the group learns.
• Learning in groups is central to how individual learning is constructed.
Group learning theory - Lev Vygotsky and Social Learning Theories
Social learning theories help us to understand how people learn in social contexts (learn from
each other) and informs us on how we, as teachers, construct active learning communities. 
Lev Vygotsky (1962), a Russian teacher and psychologist, first stated that we learn through
our interactions and communications with others.  Vygotsky (1962) examined how our social
environments influence the learning process.  He suggested that learning takes place through
the interactions students have with their peers, teachers, and other experts.  Consequently,
teachers can create a learning environment that maximizes the learner's ability to interact with
each other through discussion, collaboration, and feedback.  Moreover, Vygotsky (1962)
argues that culture is the primary determining factor for knowledge construction.  We learn
through this cultural lens by interacting with others and following the rules, skills, and
abilities shaped by our culture. 

Developing Learning Communities

1. Community of Learners Classroom

2. Collaborative Learning and Group Work
3. Discussion-based Learning (Socratic Questioning Methods)

Instruction that supports social learning:

 Students work together on a task
 Students develop across the curriculum
 Instructors choose meaningful and challenging tasks for the students to work
 Instructors manage socratic dialogue that promote deeper learning. 

Vygotsky argued, "that language is the main tool that promotes thinking, develops reasoning,
and supports cultural activities like reading and writing" (Vygotsky 1978). As a result,
instructional strategies that promote literacy across the curriculum play a significant role in
36
knowledge construction as well as the combination of whole class leadership, individual and
group coaching, and independent learning.  Moreover, teachers need to provide the
opportunity to students for a managed discussion about their learning.  Discussion that has a
purpose with substantive comments that build off each other and there is a meaningful
exchange between students that results in questions that promote deeper understanding. 
Discussion-based classroom using socratic dialogue where the instructor manages the
discourse can lead each student to feel like their contributions are valued resulting in
increased student motivation.  

The teacher, or local topic expert, plays the important role of facilitator, creating the
environment where directed and guided interactions can occur.  Many other educational
theorists adopted Vygotsky's social process ideas and proposed strategies that foster deeper
knowledge construction, facilitate socratic student discussions, and build active learning
communities through small group based instruction.

In essence, Vygotsky recognizes that learning always occurs and cannot be separated from a
social context. Consequently, instructional strategies that promote the distribution of expert
knowledge where students collaboratively work together to conduct research, share their
results, and perform or produce a final project, help to create a collaborative community of
learners. Knowledge construction occurs within Vygotsky's (1962) social context that
involves student-student and expert-student collaboration on real world problems or tasks that
build on each person's language, skills, and experience shaped by each individual's culture"
(Vygotsky, 1978, p. 102).

COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with
students of different ability levels, use a variety of learning activities to improve their
understanding of a subject. By using this method, each of your students will feel that he or
she is an important member of the class.
cooperative learning is an educational approach which aims to organize classroom
activities into academic and social learning experiences. There is much more to cooperative
learning than merely arranging students into groups, and it has been described as "structuring
positive interdependence."
Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with
students of different ability levels, use a variety of learning activities to improve their
understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible, not only for learning what
is taught, but also for helping his or her teammates learn—thus creating an atmosphere of
achievement.
Characteristics of cooperative learning
In cooperative learning small groups provide a place where:
 learners actively participate;
 teachers become learners at times, and learners sometimes teach;
 respect is given to every member;
 projects and questions interest and challenge students;
 diversity is celebrated, and all contributions are valued;
 students learn skills for resolving conflicts when they arise;
 members draw upon their past experience and knowledge;
 goals are clearly identified and used as a guide;

37
  research tools such as Internet access are made available;
 students are invested in their own learning.

Elements of Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning researchers David and Roger Johnson have identified five elements that
define cooperative learning:
 Face-to-Face Interaction
 Positive Interdependence
 Individual Accountability
 Group Processing
 Collaborative Skills
The success of cooperative learning is based on three interrelated factors:
 Group goals. Cooperative learning teams work to earn recognition for the
improvement of each member of a group.
 Individual accountability. Each member of a team is assessed individually.
Teammates work together, but the learning gains of individuals form the basis of a
team score.
 Equal opportunities for success. Individual improvement over prior performance is
more important than reaching a pre-established score (90 percent on a test, for
example). A student who moves from 60 percent on a test one week to 68 percent (8
percent improvement) the next week contributes just as much to a group as a student
who moves from 82 percent to 90 percent (also 8 percent improvement).
However, the ultimate success of cooperative learning is based on a single and very important
principle: students must be taught how to participate in a group situation. Teachers cannot
assume that students know how to behave in a group setting.
Benefits of cooperative learning:
 Students achievement
 Students retention
 Improved relations
 Critical thinking
 Oral communication
 Social skills
 Heightened self-esteem

Cooperative vs Collaborative learning

Collaborative learning is a method of teaching and learning in which students team together
to explore a significant question or create a meaningful project. A group of students
discussing a lecture or students from different schools working together over the Internet on a
shared assignment are both examples of collaborative learning.

Cooperative learning, which will be the primary focus of this workshop, is a specific kind of
collaborative learning. In cooperative learning, students work together in small groups on a
structured activity. They are individually accountable for their work, and the work of the
group as a whole is also assessed. Cooperative groups work face-to-face and learn to work as
a team.

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Differences from cooperative learning
There has been a split regarding to the differences between collaborative and cooperative
learning. Some believe that collaborative learning is similar, yet distinct from cooperative
learning. While both models use a division of labour, collaborative learning requires the
mutual engagement of all participants and a coordinated effort to solve the problem whereas
cooperative learning requires individuals to take responsibility for a specific section and then
coordinate their respective parts together. Another proposed differentiation is that cooperative
learning is typically used for children because it is used to understand the foundations of
knowledge while collaborative learning applies to college and university students because it
is used to teach non-foundations of learning. Another believed difference is that cooperative
learning is a philosophy of interaction where collaborative learning is a structure of
interaction.
However, many psychologists have defined cooperative learning and collaborative learning
similarly. Both are group learning mechanisms for learners to obtain a set of skills or
knowledge.

Three-step Interview

Three-step interviews can be used as an ice breaker for team members to get to know one
another or can be used to get to know concepts in depth, by assigning roles to students.

 Faculty assigns roles or students can "play" themselves. Faculty may also give
interview questions or information that should be "found."
 A interviews B for the specified number of minutes, listening attentively and asking
probing questions.
 At a signal, students reverse roles and B interviews A for the same number of
minutes.
 At another signal, each pair turns to another pair, forming a group of four. Each
member of the group introduces his or her partner, highlighting the most interesting
points.
Roundtable

Roundtable structures can be used to brainstorm ideas and to generate a large number of
responses to a single question or a group of questions.

 Faculty poses question.

 One piece of paper and pen per group.
 First student writes one response, and says it out loud.
 First student passes paper to the left, second student writes response, etc.
 Continues around group until time elapses.
 Students may say "pass" at any time.
 Group stops when time is called.

The key here is the question or the problem you've asked the students to consider. It has to be
one that has the potential for a number of different "right" answers. Relate the question to the
course unit, but keep it simple so every student can have some input. 

Once time is called, determine what you want to have the students do with the lists...they may

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want to discuss the multitude of answers or solutions or they may want to share the lists with
the entire class.
Focused Listing

Focused listing can be used as a brainstorming technique or as a technique to generate

descriptions and definitions for concepts. Focused listing asks the students to generate words
to define or describe something. Once students have completed this activity, you can use
these lists to facilitate group and class discussion.

Example: Ask students to list 5-7 words or phrases that describe or define what a motivated
student does. From there, you might ask students to get together in small groups to discuss
the lists, or to select the one that they can all agree on. Combine this technique with a number
of the other techniques and you can have a powerful cooperative learning structure.

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