S TA G E S O F L A N G U A G E D E V E L O P M E N T C H A RT

There are two main areas of language:

 Receptive language (understanding): Comprehension of language.
 Expressive language (using language): The use of language through speech, sign or alternative forms of communication to
communicate wants, needs, thoughts and ideas.
Note: Each stage of development assumes that the preceding stages have been successfully achieved.
 Age Listening   Vocabulary  Sentences Concepts Possible implications if milestones not
achieved

 6-12  Attends to  Babbling (e.g.  No specific  No specific  May have difficulties socialising with
mont sounds and ma-ma, da-da) milestones milestones parents and joint attention
hs voices  Takes turns  May affect muscle tone in the face as
 Recognises vocalising babbling helps to strengthen the muscles
facial with others
expressions  Recognises
and tones of names of a
voice few objects

 1-2  Responds  Babbling (e.g.  No specific  No Specific  May have difficulties socialising with
years to familiar ma-ma, da-da) milestones milestones parents and joint attention
requests (e.g.  Takes turns  May struggle to copy and learn from
come here) and vocalising others due to poor understanding and
own name with others attention
 Understands  Recognises
 gestures (e.g. names of a
wave for ‘bye’) few objects

2-3  Follows 2 part  Names  Minimum  Position: on; off;  May have difficulties socialising with
years instructions actions (e.g. of 2-3 words in a in; out; up; down; peers and joint attention
(e.g. Go to go, run) sentence (e.g. under; top; open;  May struggle to copy and learn from
your room and  By 2 years Daddy go work shut others due to poor understanding and
get your shoes) vocabulary is  Still talks to  Size: big; attention
 Points to main 250-300 self in long small/little; long  May have difficulties following
body parts, words monologues  Quantity: 1; 2 instructions
clothing items,  By 3 years  Other: stop;  May have difficulties being understood
toys and food uses 1000 go/start; loud; by peers
when asked words quiet; heavy;  May have difficulties being understood
soft; fast; hot; by unfamiliar people
cold  May have difficulties
expressing wants, needs, thoughts and
ideas

3-4  Follows 3 part  By 4 years  Minimum 3 to early 4  May have difficulties socialising with
years instructions uses nearly of 3-4 words years: peers
(e.g. point to 1500 words  Tells you  Position:bottom;  May struggle to copy and learn from
the cat, the dog what they are behind; first; near others due to poor understanding and
and the doing  Size:short attention
monkey  Tells you (length) –  May have difficulties following
 Understands the function or use emerging; short instructions at home, child care,
longer, more of an object (height) kindergarten
complex  Quantity:3;  May have difficulties being understood
sentences every; none by peers
  Other:hard;  May have difficulties being understood
slow; light by unfamiliar people
(weight); many  May have difficulties expressing wants,
colours needs, thoughts and ideas
 May have difficulties responding
appropriately to questions
 Word finding difficulties causing
disfluent speech

4-5  Followsthe  Continuing to  Minimum Mid-late 4  May have difficulties socialising

years meaning of expand of 4-5 word years:  May struggle to copy and learn from
others’  Can generally sentences  Position:middle; others due to poor understanding and
conversations understand around; away attention
colour and from; between;  May have difficulties following
shape words through; next instructions at home, kindergarten
(e.g. red, to/beside; last  May have difficulties being understood
square)  Size: short by peers
 Can sort (length); short  May have difficulties being understood
objects into (height); tall; fat by unfamiliar people
simple  Quantity: 4;  May have difficulties expressing wants,
categories most; few needs, thoughts and ideas
(e.g. animals, Late 4-5 years:  May have difficulties responding
food)  Position: in appropriately to questions
 Word finding difficulties causing
front; in a line;
corner; middle disfluent speech
 Size: thin
 Quantity: 5
(emerging); pair
  Other: same;
different (size);
different
(function)

5-6  Follows the  Vocabulary  Uses more  Time: yesterday,  May have difficulties socialising
years meaning of comprehensio complex sentences tomorrow,  May have poor attention and
others’ n increases  Uses morning, concentration
conversations imaginative afternoon, later  May have difficulties following
 Follows multi- language in play – instructions at home, school
step likes to pretend  May have difficulties retelling events
instructions and act out stories  May have difficulties following routines
 Vocabulary  Tells  May have difficulties being understood
comprehension several attributes by unfamiliar people
increases about an object  May have difficulties expressing
thoughts and ideas verbally and in
written form
 May have difficulties responding
appropriately to questions
 Word finding difficulties
causing disfluent speech

6-7  Ideas are  Can classify  Gives short  Position: left;  May have difficulties socialising
years shared objects oral reports  May have poor attention and
 Follows multi- according to  Uses right concentration
step more specific language  Other: same;  May have difficulties following
instructions traits (e.g. at a higher level to instructions at home, school
form, colour, make jokes, tease, different; season;  May have difficulties retelling events
 use or engage in sarcasm, time of day  May have difficulties being understood
composition- argue point of by unfamiliar people
what it is view,  Can understand  May have difficulties expressing
made of) explain complex the difference thoughts and ideas verbally and in
situations, talk written form
about movies or between reality  May have difficulties responding
past events in and fantasy appropriately to questions
detail  Word finding difficulties causing
 Develops disfluent speech
written language  May have difficulties with
skills and ability to reading fluency and comprehension
write descriptive
paragraphs
and stories

7-8  Can listen for  No specific  Can express  Can problem  May have difficulties socialising
years a sustained milestones their opinion solve  May have poor attention and
period of time  Can retell concentration
(e.g. attend to both imaginary  May have difficulties following
a guest and real events instructions at home, school
speaker at  May have difficulties retelling events
school)  Mayhave difficulties problem solving
 May have difficulties expressing
thoughts and ideas verbally and in
written form
 May have difficulties responding
appropriately to questions
 Word finding difficulties causing
 disfluent speech
 May have difficulties with
reading fluency and comprehension

 
Language development: the first six years
Here are just a few of the important things your child might achieve in language development between three months and six years.
3-12 months 
In this period, your baby will most likely coo and laugh, play with sounds and begin to communicate with gestures. Babbling is an
important developmental stage during the first year and, for many children, words are starting to form by around 12 months.
Babbling is often followed by the ‘jargon phase’ where your child will produce unintelligible strings of sounds, often with a
conversation-like tone. This makes his babbling sound meaningful.
First words also begin by around 12 months. Babbling, jargon and new words might appear together as your child’s first words
continue to emerge.
Find out more about language development from 3-12 months.
12-18 months 
During this time, first words usually appear (these one-word utterances are rich with meaning). In the following months, babies
continue to add more words to their vocabulary. Babies can understand more than they say, though, and will be able to follow simple
instructions. In fact your baby can understand you when you say ‘No’ – although she won’t always obey!
If your baby isn’t babbling and isn’t using gestures by 12 months, talk to your GP, child and family health nurse or other health
professional.
18 months to 2 years  
In his second year, your toddler’s vocabulary has grown and he’ll start to put two words together into short ‘sentences’. He’ll
understand much of what’s said to him, and you’ll be able to understand what he says to you (most of the time!).
Language development varies hugely, but if your baby doesn’t have some words by around 18 months, talk to your GP, child and
family health nurse or other health professional.
Find out more about language development from 1-2 years.
2-3 years
Your child will be able to speak in longer, more complex sentences, and use a greater variety of speech sounds more accurately when
she speaks. She might play and talk at the same time. Strangers will probably be able to understand most of what she says by the time
she’s three.
Find out more about language development from 2-3 years.
3-5 years 
Now your child is a preschooler, you can expect longer, more abstract and complex conversations. He’ll probably also want to talk
about a wide range of topics, and his vocabulary will continue to grow. He might well show that he understands the basic rules of
grammar, as he experiments with more complex sentences. And you can look forward to some entertaining stories too.
Find out more about language development from 3-4 years and language development from 4-5 years.
5-6 years 
During the early school years, your child will learn more words and start to understand how the sounds within language work
together. She’ll also become a better storyteller, as she learns to put words together in a variety of ways and build different types of
sentences.

Metalinguistic Awareness
Metalinguistic awareness is a cognitive process that allows a person to monitor and control their use of language. It is a type of
metacognition, which is an awareness and control of one's own knowledge and cognitive processes (being able to think about
thinking). Metalinguistic awareness is the ability to see language as a code and separate it from its symbolic meaning. It is also an
ability to think about language and structure objectively. People vary in their metalinguistic awareness capabilities with high levels
being a strong predictor of language development and ability to acquire new languages.

Metalinguistic awareness refers to the ability to objectify language as a process as well as an artifact. The concept of metalinguistic
awareness is helpful in explaining the execution and transfer of linguistic knowledge across languages (e.g. code switching as well
as translation among bilinguals).
It is the ability to talk about, analyse, and think about language independent of the concrete meaning of each word.
Understanding that words and sentences can have more than one meaning improves comprehension by allowing readers to think
flexibly about what the appropriate meaning may be. In addition, comprehension monitoring benefits from training in recognizing
and reexamining the meaning of ambiguous sentences since students are taught to consider meaning and to reread if necessary. To
evaluate and regulate comprehension of text, it is necessary to know that the words in a text can add up to more than one possible
meaning and that context and alternative explanations need to be considered. This ability to reflect upon and manipulate language is
crucial for reading.

Some meta-linguistic skills that will have an impact on academic performance are:
• the ability to make and understand inferences
• using and understanding multiple meanings words
• using figurative language and humour
• formulating spoken or written sentences that meet cultural expectations for conveying messages or expressing emotions or opinions.

Metalingustic difficulties
1.Planning for production of statements, questions, paragraphs, stories in speaking/writing.
2. Making predictions and forming hypotheses.
3. Problem-solving for strategic language use.
4. Self-monitoring to identify errors and problems.
5. Correcting inefficient approaches and behaviours.
6. Recognising syllable, word, phrase, clause, and sentence boundaries in speech/print.
7. Monitoring, self-correcting, editing speech and writing.
8. Playing with language (riddles, jokes, rhymes).
9. Analysing and talking about language.

Speaking, listenting, reading and writing development critical analysis of the views of piaget, vygotsky, and Chomsky

Piaget believed that cognitive development led to the growth of language whereas Vygotsky

viewed language as developing thought. A child's external speech is the first step in the development of thinking. ... Vygotsky's
theory views the important effect that an adult has on the development of language.

The Language and Thought of the Child

(1926) Jean Piaget

In the same way that Alfred Kinsey spent years collecting specimens of and writing about the gall wasp before he launched
himself on the study of human sexuality, Jean Piaget was a master of natural-world observation before he turned his mind to
human matters. As a child and teenager the wandered the hills, streams and mountains of western Switzerland collecting snails, and
later wrote his Doctor's thesis on the mollusks of the Valais mountains. 

What he learned in these years – to observe first and classify later - set him up well for examining the subject of child thought, which
had attracted plenty of theories but not a great deal solid scientific observation of actual children. Entering the field, his main wish
was that his conclusions be drawn from the facts, however difficult or paradoxical they seemed. Adding to his methodical skills was –
for a scientist – an unusually good grasp of philosophy. Child psychology was a tangle epistemological questions, yet he decided to
focus on very down to earth issues such as 'Why does a child talk, and who is she talking to?' and 'Why does she ask so many
questions?'.

If there were answers, he knew they could benefit teachers greatly, and it was for them mainly that he wrote The Language and
Thought of the Child. As Edouard Claparede notes in his preface, most explorers of the child mind had focused on a quantitative
nature of child psychology – it was thought that children are how they are because they have less of the mental abilities of the adult
and commit more errors. But Piaget believed that it was not a matter of children having less or more of something – they are
fundamentally different in the way they think. Communication problems exist between adults and children not because of gaps in
information, but due to the quite different ways each have of seeing themselves within their worlds.

Why a child talks

In the opening pages, Piaget asks what he admits is a strange question: “What are the needs which a child tends to satisfy when he
talks?” Any sane person would say that the purpose of language is to communicate with others, but if this was the case, he wondered,
why did children talk when there was no one around, and why did even adults talk to themselves, whether internally or muttering
aloud? It was clear that language could not be reduced to the one function of simply communicating thought.

Piaget conducted his research at the Rousseau Institute in Geneva, opened in 1912 for the study of the child and teacher training.
There he observed children of four and six, taking down everything they said while they worked and played, and the book includes
transcripts of their 'conversations'.
What Piaget quickly discovered – and what every parent could confirm – is that when children speak, a lot of the time they are not
talking to anyone in particular. They are thinking aloud. He identified two types of speech, egocentric and socialized. Within the
egocentric type were three patterns:

 Repetition – speech not directed to people, the saying of words for the simple pleasure of it.
 Monologue – whole commentaries which follow the child's actions or play.
 Collective monologue – when children are talking apparently together, yet are not really taking account of what the others are
saying. (A room of ten children seated at different tables may be noisy with talk, but in fact are all really talking to
themselves.)
He noted that until a certain age (seven, he thought), a child has no 'verbal continence', but must say anything that comes into his
head. A kindergarten or nursery, he wrote, “is a society in which, strictly speaking, individual and social life are not differentiated”.
Because the child believes themselves to be the center of the universe, there is no need for the idea of privacy or witholding views in
sensitivity to others. The adult, in contrast, because of his comparative lack of egocentricity, has adapted to a fully socialized speech
pattern in which many things are left unsaid. Only madmen and children, as it were, say whatever they think, because only they really
matter. It was for this reason that a child is able to talk all the time in the presence of his friends, but never be able to see things from
their point of view.  

Part of the reason for the egocentricity of the child is that a significant part of their language involves gesture, movements and
sounds. As these are not words, they cannot express everything, so the child must remain partly a prisoner of their own minds. We
can understand this when we appreciate that the greater an adult's mastery of language, the more likely he or she will be able to
understand, or at least be aware of, the views of others. Language, in fact, takes a person beyond themselves, which is why human
culture puts such stress on teaching it to children - it enables them to eventually move out of egocentric thinking.

Different thinking, different worlds :

Piaget borrowed a distinction from psychoanalysis about two types of thought:

 Directed or intelligent thought is that which has an aim, adapts that aim to reality, and can communicate it in language. This
thinking is based on experience and logic.
  Undirected or autistic thought involves aims which are not conscious and not adapted to reality, based on satisfaction of
desires rather than establishing truth. The language of this sort of thinking is images, myths and symbols.
For the directed mind, water has certain properties and obeys certain laws. It is conceived of conceptually as well as materially. To
the autistic mind, water is only relevant in relation to desires or needs: it is something that can be drunk or seen or enjoyed

These distinctions helped Piaget appreciate the development of the child's thought up to the age of 11. From 3-7 the child was largely
egocentric and had elements of autistic thought, but from 7 to 11 egocentric logic made way for perceptual intelligence.

Piaget set up experiments in which children were asked to relate a story they had been told or to explain back something, such as the
working of a tap, that had been shown to them. Before they were 7, children did not really care if the people they were relating to
understood the story or the mechanism. They can describe, but not analyze. But from 7-8 onwards, children do not assume that
another person will know what they mean and attempt to give a faithful account of something – to be objective. Until then, a child’s
egocentrism does not allow them to be objective. What they can’t explain or don't know they make up. But at 7-8 the child knows
what it means to give a correct rendering of the truth – that is, the difference between invention and reality.
Piaget noticed that children think in terms of 'schemas', which allow them to focus on the whole of a message without having to make
sense of every detail. When they hear something they do not understand, children do not try to analyze the sentence structure or
words, but try to grasp or create an overall meaning. He noted that the trend in mental development is always from the syncretic to
the analytical – to see the whole first, before gaining the ability to break things down into parts or categorize. Prior to ages 7 or 8, the
child's mind is largely syncretic, but later develops powers of analysis which mark the shift from the juvenile to the adult mind.

Child logic
Piaget wondered: Why do children, particularly those under 7, fantasize and dream and use their imagination so much?
He observed that because they do not engage in deductive or analytical thought, there is no reason to make a firm demarcation
between 'the real' and 'the not real'. As their minds do not work in terms of causality and evidence, everything seems possible.
When a child asks, 'What would happen if I were an angel?', to an adult the question is not worth pursuing because we know it can't
be real. But for a child, anything is not only possible, it is explainable, since no objective logic is required. To satisfy their mind, all
that is required is a motivation e.g. The ball wanted to roll down the hill, so it did. At age 6, a boy might feel that a river flows down a
hill because it wants to. A year later, he will explain it in terms of 'water always flows downhill, so that is why the river is flowing
down this hill here'.
'The world of make believe' as we so superiorly tag it, has to the younger child a feel of cold, hard reality, because within it
everything makes sense according to its own intentions and motivations. In fact, as Piaget wryly observes, the child's world seems to
work so well that, according to its own understanding, logic is not required to support it. 

Why do many young children incessantly ask 'Why?' Because they want to know the intention of everyone and everything, even if it
is inanimate, not realizing that only some things have intentions. Later, when the child can appreciate that most things are caused
rather than intended, her questions become about causality. The time of a child's life before she understands cause and effect –
precausality – coincides with the time of egocentrism. 

Adults often find it difficult to understand children because they have forgotten that the child exists in a completely different mind in
which logic plays no role. You cannot make a child think in the same way as you before they are certain age. At each age, a child
gains a certain equilibrium in relation to their environment. That is, the way they think and perceive at age 5 perfectly explains their
world. But that way does not do when they are 8. Just as humans grow physically and adjust to their environment according to their
bodies, so they adjust intellectually. As Piaget puts it, “need creates consciousness”.

In later writings, Piaget explored the final stage of mental development, beginning at age 11 or 12. The teenager's ability to reason,
think abstractly, make judgments and consider future possibilities made them essentially the same as an adult. From this point on it
was a matter of increases in ability rather qualitative changes.
Final comments
Despite some questions about the precise timings, Piaget's stages of child development have largely stood the test of time, and his
impact on pre-school and school education has been great. 

Yet Piaget never considered himself a child psychologist, and was more accurately a scientist focused on theories of knowledge. His
observation of children led to broader theories on communication and cognition, because what he learned about the child's mind
threw the adult's into clearer view. For instance, it was not only children who used schemas to make sense of the world – we adults
also have to accommodate and assimilate new information by conforming it to what we know already.
Piaget invented the field of 'genetic epistemology', which means how theories of knowledge evolve or change in relation to new
information. Given that the construction of knowledge is such a human, psychological endeavor, it made it all the more important to
be rigorously objective about the admission of new facts. For Piaget, a person's mind is a relatively arbitrary creation, formed in such
a way that reality could be explained according to that person's own model of the world. In education, he believed, you had to take
account of these models rather than simply shoving facts down a person's throat, otherwise information would not be assimilated.
Such a method of education resulted in dull conformists who were uncomfortable with change, and Piaget was ahead of his time in
suggesting that we should educate people to be innovative and inventive thinkers who were both aware of the subjectivity of their
own minds, yet mature enough to accommodate new facts. His initial experiments observing the language and thought of the child,
therefore, led to great insights into how as adults we process knowledge and create new understanding
I believe that both Piaget and Vygotsky provided educators with important views on cognitive development in the child. Piaget
proposed that children progress through the stages of cognitive development through maturation, discovery methods, and some social
transmissions through assimilation and accommodation (Woolfolk, A., 2004). Vygotsky's theory stressed the importance of culture
and language on one's cognitive development.

As part of their cognitive development, children also develop schemes, which are mental representations of people, objects, or
principles. These schemes can be changed or altered through what Piaget called assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is
information we already know. Accommodation involves adapting one's existing knowledge to what is perceived. Disequilibrium
occurs when new knowledge does not fit with one's accumulated knowledge. When one reaches what Piaget called equilibrium,
assimilation and accommodation have occurred to create a new stage of development (Woolfolk, A., 2004). When learning the
concept of conservation, a child must first "struggle" with the idea that the liquid amount in the cylinders has not changed
(disequilibrium). After accommodating the new knowledge, equilibrium occurs, and the child may advance to a new cognitive stage
(concrete operations).

Around this time, another psychologist was offering his views on child cognitive development. Lev Vygotsky offered an alternative
to Piaget's stages of cognitive development. Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Development became a major influence in the field
of psychology and education (Woolfolk, A., 2004). This theory stated that students learn through social interactions and their culture
– much different from Piaget's theory that stated children act on their environment to learn. Through what Vygotsky called
"dialogues," we socially interact and communicate with others to learn the cultural values of our society. Vygotsky also believed that
"human activities take place in cultural settings and cannot be understood apart from these settings" (Woolfolk, A., 45). Therefore,
our culture helps shape our cognition.

Through these social interactions, we move toward more individualized thinking. The co-constructed process involves people
interacting during shared activities, usually to solve a problem (Woolfolk, A., 2004). When the child receives help through this
process, he or she may be able to utilize better strategies in the future, should a similar problem arise. The co-constructed dialogues
lead to internalization, which in turn leads one to independent thinking (Woolfolk, A., 2004).

Scaffolding is another Vygotskian principle for the sociocultural perspective. Scaffolding involves providing the learner with hints or
clues for problem solving in order to allow the student to better approach the problem in the future (Woolfolk, A., 2004). While
Piaget would assume the student does not yet have the mental structures to solve such a problem, Vygotsky would offer
encouragement or strategies, in the form of scaffolding, in order for the student to attempt the problem.

The development of language is considered to be a major principle of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory. The language of a certain
group of people indicates their cultural beliefs and value system. For example, a tribe with many words meaning "hunting" indicates
that hunting is an important aspect of their lives. The text states that children learn language much the same way that children learn
cognitive skills. Vygotsky states that humans may have "built in biases, rules, and constraints about language that restrict the number
of possibilities considered" (Woolfolk, A., 2004). A child's thinking regarding these language constraints is very important in
language development (Woolfolk, A., 2004).

Another aspect of language development involves private speech. Private speech is self-talk children (and adults) may use to guide
actions and aid in thinking. While Piaget may view private speech as egocentric or immature, Vygotsky understood the importance of
self-directed speech. Private speech is considered to be self-directed regulation and communication with the self, and becomes
internalized after about nine years (Woolfolk, A., 2004).

Vygotsky also emphasized the importance of cultural tools in cognition. Cultural tools can be any technological tool or any symbolic
tool which aids in communication (Woolfolk, A., 2004). Language, the media, television, computers, and books are only a handful of
all the cultural tools available for problem solving or learning. Higher-level processing is "mediated by psychological tools, such as
language, signs, and symbols" (Woolfolk, A., 2004). After receiving co-constructed help, children internalize the use of the cultural
tools, and are better able to utilize the tools in the future on their own (Woolfolk, A., 2004).

Another Vygotskian principle for teaching involves the zone of proximal development. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that there
were some problems out of a child's range of understanding. However, in contrast, Vygotsky believed that given proper help and
assistance, children could perform a problem that Piaget would consider to be out of the child's mental capabilities. The zone is the
area at which a child can perform a challenging task, given appropriate help (Woolfolk, A., 2004).
Piaget and Vygotsky also differ in how they approach discovery learning. Piaget advocated for discovery learning with little teacher
intervention, while Vygotsky promoted guided discovery in the classroom. Guided discovery involves the teacher offering intriguing
questions to students and having them discover the answers through testing hypotheses (Woolfolk, A., 2004). The students are
engaged in the discovery process; however, they are still receiving assistance from a more knowledgeable source.

A teacher utilizing Vygotskian methods for teaching would be a very active member in her student's education. The teacher would
apply the technique of scaffolding by providing assistance and offering feedback when relating new information (Woolfolk, A.,
2004). Teachers should also make sure that students are provided adequate tools for learning. Students should be taught how to use
tools such as the computer, resource books, and graphs in order to better utilize these tools in the future (Woolfolk, A., 2004).
Teaching in the Vygotskian method would also incorporate group or peer learning (Woolfolk, A., 2004). By having students tutor
each other through dialogues and scaffolding, the students can begin to internalize the new information and come to a better
understanding of the material.

I believe that both Piaget and Vygotsky provided educators with important views on cognitive development in the child. Piaget
proposed that children progress through the stages of cognitive development through maturation, discovery methods, and some social
transmissions through assimilation and accommodation (Woolfolk, A., 2004). Vygotsky's theory stressed the importance of culture
and language on one's cognitive development.

Regarding the two cognitive theories, I would be more apt to apply Vygotskian principles to my classroom. I believe that principles
such as scaffolding, co-constructed knowledge, dialogue, and cultural tools are all important components of a student's knowledge
acquisition. By helping students within their zone of proximal development, we offer them useful learning strategies which they
internalize and utilize later. Piaget proposed many applicable educational strategies, such as discovery learning with an emphasis on
activity and play. However, Vygotsky incorporated the importance of social interactions and a co-constructed knowledge base to the
theory of cognitive development.

In conclusion, a teacher's focus should be to provide assistance to students in need, and provide cultural tools as educational
resources. Teachers should provide for group and peer learning, in order for students to support each other through the discovery
process. Especially in today's diverse classroom, the teacher needs to be sensitive to her student's cultural background and language,
and be an active participant in his knowledge construction.
Of course, other theories, although they have lurked somewhat in the shadows of empiricism and nativism, have added to the
language acquisition debate. These include Vygotsky Zone of Proximal Development, Piaget’s Language Acquisition Theory and the
Cognitive Theory. I shall now briefly discuss these 3 theories and their relevance and significance to the current debate in Language
Acquisition.
Vygotsky was a psychologist but his studies on conscious human behaviour led him to investigate the role that language plays in
human behaviour. Vygotsky’s point of view is simply that social interaction plays an important role in the learning process. He places
an emphasis on the role of “shared language” in the development of thought and language. The term “shared language” refers to
social interaction and can be best elucidated through the notion of “zone of proximal development". (Vygotsky, 1965). According to
Vygotsky two developmental levels determine the learning process: egocentricity and interaction. Vygotsky contends that language is
the key to all development and words play a central part not only in the development of thought but also in the growth of cognition as
a whole. Within this framework, child language development, thus acquisition, can be viewed as the result of social interaction
(Vygotsky, 1965).
Piaget’s ideas have been quite influential in the field of first and second language acquisition studies. His theory of development in
children has major implications as regards language acquisition. Piaget views language acquisition as a case of general human
learning (Piaget, 1959). He has not suggested, however, that the development is not innate, but only that there is no specific language
module. Piaget’s view was then that language acquisition results mainly from external factors or social interactions. Piaget observes,
for instance, that the pre-linguistic stage (birth to one year) is a determining period in the development of sensory-motor intelligence,
when children are forming a sense of their identity in relation to their environment. Piaget, unlike Vygotsky, believes that egocentric
speech on its own serves no function in language development. (Piaget ,1959).
Cognitive theory is based on the work of psychologists. Piaget’s work, which dwells on the idea that students can learn things when
they are developmentally ready to do so since learning follows development, can be regarded as a starting point of cognitive theory
ideas. Cognitive psychologists emphasise the importance of meaning, knowing and understanding. According to them, 'meaning'
plays an important role in human learning. ‘Learning’ is a meaningful process of “relating new events or items to already existing
cognitive concepts.” (Brown, 1987, page 47): and it is thought to involve internal representations that guide performance. In short, the
cognitivists claim that language acquisition can be automatically attained. However it is not clear how it will be automated.
I my opinion Chomsky made huge ground in 1956 when he provided much evidence for his innate account of language acquisition,
but other theories should not be disregarded. In believe that Chomskian views were accepted too readily, without full investigation.
The full extent of accepting that language is innate has major ramifications as to how humans develop, personality differences etc.,
and leads into the nature / nurture debate as well as the ‘free will debate’.
On the other hand, innateness in language alone, I think is quite acceptable, and I am in agreement with Chomsky when he postulates
language acquisition as innate based on his theoretical arguments and premises. However, I am cautious in doing so and in accepting
innate arguments in general and would therefore be open to other arguments. However, at this stage, no argument posed has quite the
conviction and is quite as believable as Chomsky’s one.

VYGOSTKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

Vygostky’s socio-cultural theory states that children learn through social interactions and their culture, it is the culture which shapes
the cognitive development (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p.78), Vygostky believed that many of our human activities are shaped by the cultural
settings, human can’t do anything without social interactions, Vygostky also believed that our mental approach and processes in
human mind are can be traced through social interactions (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 79). These simple interactions shape the cognitive
structures which regulate cognitive structure and thinking processes (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 79). Vygostky is of the opinion that the
individuals mental functions can’t be derived from social interactions but particular processes and functions of the individuals can be
traced to their interaction with others (Daniels , H.(2005) An introduction to Vygotsky (2nd Ed.), p. 290 ) Vygostky suggested: “The
social dimensions of consciousness is primary in time and in fact. The individual dimensions of consciousness are derivative and
secondary” (Vygostky 1978, Daniels , H. (2005) An introduction to Vygotsky (2nd Ed.), p. 290) According to Vygostky that the
source of learning and cognitive development is triggered by the social interactions of the human rather than solely in the mind of the
learners, the individual can’t be properly understood or studied in isolation but as man is social animal so an individual can properly
be studied in social contexts and interactions, in a culture and in a society. (Swain, M. et al. (2011), Socio-cultural Theory in Second
Language Education: An Introduction Through Narratives)
Socio-Cultural Theory stresses individual’s role in development of co-operative dialogues between the children and educated persons
of the society which may be helping hand for effective input among the children by the individuals from the their own culture and
society, in this way children also learn the culture of their own community, they would learn their own language, way of living,
thinking and behaving through the interactions (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 79). Vygostky believed the language of certain tribe, group or
community have clear signs and indications of its cultural beliefs and values, similarly the individual can show its cultural affiliation
of a certain lifestyles of a particular tribe or community.
According to Vygostky, the most important part is to be played by the language in the cognitive development, Vygostky believes in
the centrality of language as a tool for thought or a powerful means of mediation (Mitchell, R. & Myles, F. 2004, Second Language
Learning Theories, 2nd Ed. London: Hodder Arnold, p. 194, 195) Vygostky further elaborated his socio-cultural theory by explaining
the importance of Cultural Tools through mediation and language, Co-constructed process, self-regulation, scaffolding and Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD).
Cultural Tools: Vygostky gave the importance to cultural tools which also play a very effective role in cognitive development;
according to Vygostky, the cultural tools may be technological or symbolical which supports in communication (Woolfolk, A. 2004
p. 80), these tools, according to Woolfolk (2004) can be real tools from day to day life which includes printing presses, rulers, abacus,
(keeping in view the modern era computers, internet, and PDAs etc cab be the technological tools) and symbolic tools which are
numbers and mathematical signs, maps, works of arts, codes and signs (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 80). Vygostky emphasizes cultural tools
has a tremendous role to play in cognitive development, he stresses that these cultural tools supports thinking, he also believes that all
higher mental processes such as thinking and reasoning are supported by these cultural tools which are mediated by the psychological
tools (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 80) which promotes learning and learning It is mediated process, from the socio-cultural point of view, it
mediates through control of mental tools (Mitchell, R. & Myles, F. 2004, Second Language Learning Theories, 2nd Ed. London:
Hodder Arnold, p. 194, 195). These tools help students to improve their learning advancement which allow them to be better peer
when they have interacted with their adults by exchanging their ideas and opinions. Children’s cognitive development progresses as
they have taken the ideas by themselves according to their own culture or by interacting with more capable individuals of their own
community or group (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 80).
Co-constructed process: According to Vygostky (1978), “Co-constructed process is a social process in which people interact or
negotiate to create an understanding or to solve a problem” (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 80). Vygostky (1978) believed that every function
in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first it is observed at social level and then at later stage at individuals, its first
implication is among the people (Inter psychological) and then inside the child (Intra psychological). It means that high level mental
process first functions among the people as they are co-constructed during shared activities (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 79), after receiving
co-constructed help, children internalize the use of cultural tools and can easily and properly use the tools in the future on their
own(Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 79).
Private Speech: According to Vygostky (1978), Private Speech is a self talk, which guides the thinking and action of the children.
“Private Speech is considered to be self directed regulation and communication with the self, and becomes internalized after about
nine years” (Woolfolk, A. 2004) Vygostky (1978) suggested that private talk or speech of the children enable them to plan their
activities, monitor them and self-regulate them, it does not need the direction or guidance at the time of private muttering but that
private talk or speech enable them to guide their own thinking and actions (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 82). Similarly children self-regulate
them when they are first guided by the parents and they imitate this guidance in isolation and stop them doing the same thing which
was prohibited by the parents once, they use their silent inner speech. Usually children use this private speech up to the age of 5 to 7
years of age and it goes and replaces just thinking and guiding speech in whispering at the age of 9 (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 82).
According to Vygostky (1978), this private speech when transforms into inner silent speech, is the important and fundamental process
in cognitive development (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 82). Vygostky (1978) believes that this private speech becomes or changes into inner
speech, which is the use of language which regulates internal thoughts without any external verbalization (Mitchell, R. & Myles, F.
2004, Second Language Learning Theories, 2nd Ed. London: Hodder Arnold, p. 198).
Scaffolding: Scaffolding is considered one of the most important principles of Vygostky’s Socio-Cultural Theory. According to
Vygostky (1978), Scaffolding is a kind of support or help which is rendered in problem solving; it provides the help, hints or clues for
problem solving, it gives a better approach to the students to solve the problems in future (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 82). Vygostky (1978)
believes that the learning can be seen when there is an interaction with adult or more capable members of the culture which provides
the insight to the children, these more capable persons play the role of guides or teachers providing necessary guidance or support for
the solution of problems (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 84). Children get sufficient information in order to discover the outer world through
the support or guidance of socially interacted individuals, these individuals may be from the family of child or a teacher or peer. This
support may be called as assisted scaffolding which enables children to build of concept or understanding in order to solve a
particular problem in future (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 84). Vygostky (1978) also believes that a child can be taught any subject
effectively just by giving scaffolding in his zone of proximal development (ZPD), the use of scaffolding in the ZPD helps children to
build and construct a new knowledge (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 84).
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is another important principal in the Vygostky’s
Socio-Cultural Theory. Vygostky (1978) believes that there are some problems which are out of reach of children which a child
cannot solve by himself without effective scaffolding in a shape of proper direction and help, the children could solve a problem in
the zone of proximal development and can perform better a challenging task if the scaffolding is given rightly. The Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) is an area where a child can’t solve a problem by himself alone but it needs adult guidance which leads him to
success, or the child can reach to its destination by the help of more advancer peer (Woolfolk, A. 2004 p. 86). Vygostky (1978)
further defines the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the difference at the mental process that what a person can achieve alone
and how the same person after getting efficient scaffolding from the cultural setting or social interaction or a guide/teacher who is at
the advance level of learning can accomplish the same task with greater proficiency or accuracy (Lantolf, J. 2000 p.17). Vygostky’s
ZPD is not any physical place in the mind but it’s a metaphor for understanding and observing that how mediated ways and means are
internalized (Lantolf, J. 2000 p. 17). The ZPD is a domain where learning can take place and where learner can function
independently and is not capable of producing effective results but can achieve the desired goal or outcome if relevant scaffolding is
given (Mitchell, R. & Myles, F. 2004, Second Language Learning Theories, 2nd Ed. London: Hodder Arnold, p. 195). Vygotsky
(1978) proposes “that an essential feature of learning is that it creates the zone of proximal development; that is, learning awakens a
variety of internal developmental processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment
and in cooperation with his peers. Once these processes are internalized, they become part of the child’s independent developmental
achievement” (Vygotsky 1978 p. 90). According to Vygostky (1978) that students must be taught within their ZPD so that they can
develop a relationship with the knowledge taught with proper scaffolding, then the scaffolding must be taken out fully but gradually
to form an independent understanding of learning

 Theory of Learning: What is learning? How are skills and knowledge acquired?

According to Chomsky, language defines what it means to be human and the study of language is a way in to the study of the human
mind.  "Although having a language is not a prerequisite for having a mind, language is overwhelmingly our best evidence for the
nature of mind" (Smith, 1999). With regard to learning language, Chomsky purports that some aspects of language are explicitly
taught in school such the spelling conventions of the written representation of language and forms of technical vocabulary; however,
the most fundamental aspects of language are universal.  We all know the same unique human language.  This notion of universal
grammar is the set of linguistic principles that we are endowed with at birth in virtue of being human (Smith, 1999). Chomsky also
asserts that there is a genetically determined "window of opportunity" for language acquisition.   If the child does not learn its first
language during this period, then it will never attain full "native-like mastery" of any language (Smith, 1999). Chomsky has at many
times presented many different kinds of evidence in favor of the claim that language is in large part genetically determined including
the speed and age-dependence of acquisition.   For example, it can be said that we do not need to "learn" that our language contains
nouns and verbs; all language contains nouns and verbs (Smith, 1999).  We do however; need to learn the noises within the language
that are associated with nouns and verbs.

Chomsky also maintains that there is a biological entity, a finite mental organ that develops in children along one of a number of
paths, which are determined in advance of any childhood experience. The language organ that emerges, the grammar, is represented
in the brain and plays a central role in the person's use of language.  Human language describes the distinctive qualities of the mind
that are unique to man. The normal use of language can also be thought of as a creative activity. Chomsky notes that we do not
understand and may never come to understand what makes it possible for normal human intelligence to use language as an instrument
to convey thought and feeling (McGilvray, 2005). 

With regard to learning, it can be summarized that knowledge grows and matures within us.  Acquisition of knowledge is not
something that we actively do, but yet something that happens to us.  The course of development is largely due to the nature of our
internal foundations (McGilvray, 2005).

Theory of Transmission: Who is to teach? By what methods? What will the curriculum be?
According to Chomsky, the goal in teaching is to help cultivate growth and to help the students become interested in learning. He
states that students, "typically they come in interested, and the process of education is a way of driving that defect out of their minds.
But if children's normal interest is maintained or even aroused, they can do all kinds of things in ways we don't understand…hellip;"
(Chomsky, 1992). In other words, the teacher's role in the transmission of learning is to keep the children engaged in the learning
process and interested in exploration and independence. The focus is on the students learning rather than the teachers teaching. 

In an interview with Lillian R. Putnam in the Fall of 1987, Chomsky was asked "…hellip;If teachers from primary grades were
familiar with your work, what kinds of changes or emphases might they make in reading instruction? What general suggestions
would help them?" To this Chomsky replied, "I'm hesitant even to suggest an answer to this question. Practitioners have to decide for
themselves what is useful in the sciences, and what is not. As a linguist, I have no particular qualifications or knowledge that enables
or entitles me to prescribe methods of language instruction. As a person, I have my own ideas on the topic, based on my own
experience (in part, as a teacher of language to children), introspection, and personal judgment, but these should not be confused with
some kind of professional expertise, presented from on high. My own feeling, for what it is worth, is that at any level, from nursery to
graduate school, teaching is largely a matter of encouraging natural development. The best "method" of teaching is to make it clear
that the subject is worth learning, and to allow the child's -- or adult's -- natural curiosity and interest in truth and understanding to
mature and develop. That is about 90% of the problem, if not more. Methods of instruction may influence the residue."  Accordingly
in an interview with Gary Olson and Lester Faigley, Chomsky states that teaching is mostly "common sense".  It does not matter what
is covered; but how much you develop the capacity to discover (2007).

Theory of Society:  What is society today?  What institutions are involved in the educational process?

Chomsky describes society today as a "modern industrial civilization" and "the driving force in this modern industrial civilization" as
"material gain" (Chomsky, 2007).  A civilization based on this principle economic and "material gain" is in danger.  

If modern industrial society were to aspire to change , "the condition of survival, let alone justice, would require rational social
planning in the interest of the community as a whole and by now that means the global community"  (Chomsky, 2007).  This means a
society would need to first consider the "mutual interest" of the community rather than their own "self-interest" in social planning
(Chomsky, 2008).                             
According to Cohen and Roger (1991), Chomsky believes there is hope for society and it is "set against the background of his
conception of human nature" and "the conception of an instinct for freedom that lies at its heart" (p. 14).  He hypothesizes that the
"constraints on human freedom that are not 'required for survival in the particular state of history' will tend to be sloughed off, as a
result of the moral nature of human beings, the 'instinct for freedom', and the 'continual efforts to overcome authoritarian structures
and to expand the domain of freedom' that results from that instinct" (Cohen, 1991).  In other words, an encroachment on human
rights in society goes against our instinctual human nature and subsequently the denial of these freedoms will be investigated. 
Slavery and women's rights (Arnove, 2005) are examples of these infringements.

  According to Chomsky, a true society is not governed by a dominating hierarchy seeking to retain power    He states that "a truly
democratic community is one in which the general public has the opportunity for meaningful and constructive participation in the
formation of social policy:  in their own immediate community, in the workplace, the society at large" (Arnove, 2005). 
Chomsky favors the erosion of coercecive power over society.  As an anarchist, he (McGilvray, 2005) would want to switch
"authoritarian structures", with "democratic institutions based on fully participatory worker organizations (his syndicalism)."   He also
requires (McGilvray, 2005) from "powerful institutions" a structure which gives workers more autonomy at all levels of the
institution.  "He knows that the sole form of control of authority that most people can exercise consist of voting for representatives in
local, municipal, regional, and national forms of government.  Thus, in current circumstances, Chomsky the anarchist paradoxically
supports efforts to increase the power of the state, at least where it can serve to regulate and check otherwise largely unconstrained
and otherwise unaccountable corporate authority' (McGilvray, 2005).                                                            In Chomsky's view of
society, "it would be 'very liberating' for the wealthy, as well as for the poor, for the privileged as well as the underprivileged, to be
able to live in a society where the human essence is not defined in terms of maximizing production, and producing "on demand"
(McGilvray, 2005).  Chomsky has hopes for a society which has freed itself from material gain and coerces powers and exerts
instinctually what is in their human nature to seek change for the sake of human rights and mutual interest of the whole society.

Chomsky makes a similar connection with respect to educational institutions in today's society. According to Chomsky, schools,
college and universities in today's educational institutions are similar to factories. Students are indoctrinated by "liberal elites" or
"intellectuals" to increase their obedience and conformity.  The "liberal elites" or "intellectuals are the ones who write history" used in
schools and "we should be cautious about the alleged "lessons of history" in this regard; it would be surprising to discover that the
version of history presented is self-serving and indeed it is" (Arnove, 2005). 
Currently, Chomsky's considers educational institutions today to be where "human beings have no intrinsic, moral and intellectual
nature, that they are simply objects to be shaped and private managers and ideologues-who, of course perceive what is good and
right" (Arnove, 2005).  Instead, educational institutions should be interested in "what the student discovers for themselves when their
natural curiosity and creative impulse are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and
inquiry and perhaps significant intellectual contribution" (Arnove, 2005). 

Theory of Opportunity: Who is to be educated? Who is to be schooled?

If one is to examine Chomsky and his writings, they would be able to find an underlying concept that illustrates one of his biggest
claims to human rights.  It is this.  People are to be free and should have the freedom to express themselves in cooperation with
others, and this freedom should not be oppressed by a governing body.  According to Edgley (2005) Chomsky argued: "If humans are
essentially creative with an "instinct for freedom" to pursue cooperative ventures, then states and capitalism must work against human
nature, because both concentrate power into the hands of a few, thereby denying the many necessary conditions for cooperative,
creative humanistic productive activity." This is enough to support that Chomsky would support education for all who want
education, that no one should be exempt from the opportunity, while at the same time, no one should be forced into it either.  The key
to his idea is that it should be up to those who want, and not those who are forced. 

Chomsky's idea of who is to be schooled follows the same pattern as who is to be educated; those who want to be.  What Chomsky
would suggest, is that the school follow a very democratic way of instruction without the use of indoctrination.  As Chomsky (2000)
comments on his own style of teaching: "I don't try to persuade people, at least not consciously. Maybe I do. If so, it's a mistake. The
right way to do things is not to try to persuade people you're right but to challenge them to think it through for themselves."

Theory of Consensus: What is consensus? Why do people disagree?  How is consensus achieved?  Whose opinion takes
precedence?

Chomsky's believes, in very broad terms, that consensus is the mutual agreement of mankind when they assume the responsibility of
managing and governing themselves in communities, workplaces and society.   A given society reaches agreement or consensus
through a cohesive collaboration that aspires to find mutual agreement among members of the community.  The goal is to represent
the ideals and concerns of the society versus the self-interest of any one dominating person, group or organization.  Obviously, this is
an extremely broad and idealized treatment of the phenomenon.  Chomsky seems to think in very broad terms, though, even as he
approaches specific societies.

A true society considers the ideals, concerns and freedom of society as an entitlement.  These entitlements if challenged by an
authoritative governing body in a society will lead unnecessary constraints and disagreement.  Society will disagree when their ability
to cooperatively manage its own ideals, concerns, and financial viability is infringed by an outside authority. "He speculates that
constraints on human freedom that are not required for survival in the particular state of history will tend to be sloughed off." as a
result of the moral nature of human beings, the 'instinct for freedom', and the 'control effort to overcome authoritarian structures and
to expand the domain of freedom 'that results from that instinct" (Cohen and Rogers, 1991).

In terms of consensus, Chomsky's view is that people of power within the United States have traditionally used the media as a form of
propaganda to leverage consensus through the masking of facts to their own benefit.  This was the case in many instances when the
United States government and various European governments have exhorted their power to leverage economic control whether it was
a hungry for land, oil, or any other commodity of value as a means for an end (Chomsky and Herman, 1988)  

"Quite typically, intellectuals have been ideological and social managers, serving power or seeking to assume power themselves by
taking control of popular movements of which they declare themselves to be the leaders.  For people committed to control and
manipulation it is quite useful to believe that human beings have no intrinsic moral and intellectual nature, that they are simply
objects to be shaped by state and private managers and ideologues-who, of course perceive what is good and right" (Arnove, 2005).

Somewhat ironically, Chomsky's admonition of the intellectual comes in the face of the fact that he is himself viewed by many as a
prime example of the term.  For reasons related to his outspoken criticism of the policies of the United States' government and the
media that he views as supporting those policies, Chomsky is seen by some as anti-American and he is often used as an example of
"liberal intellectualism".  His theories on consensus are indeed rather collectivist and represent an idealized democracy, where each
member of a society has equal (or nearly equal) say in how that society moves forward.  It would seem to be this view that has fueled
much of his criticism of United States government policy, both foreign and domestic, over the years.

Piaget's Theory
 Piaget focused on cognitive
development in children and
adolescents
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development described and explained the changes in logical thinking of children and adolescents.
Piaget proposed that children proceed through four stages based on maturation and experience.
Piaget's theory is guided by assumptions of how learners interact with their environment and how they integrate new knowledge and
information into existing knowledge. Briefly, he proposed that:

1. children are active learners who construct knowledge from their environments
2. they learn through assimilation and accommodation, and complex cognitive development occurs through equilibration
3. the interaction with physical and social environments is key for cognitive development
4. development occurs in stages
These assumptions are covered in more detail in another lesson.

ygotsky's Theory
Lev Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development, referred to as his cultural-historical theory, focused on the role of culture
and social interactions. Vygotsky maintained that speech is a major psychological tool in the child's development of thinking. As
children age and develop, their basic speech becomes more complex.
Vygotksy's theory is guided by six major assumptions:
 1. children develop through informal and formal conversations with adults
2. the first few years of life are critical for development, as this is where thought and language become increasingly independent
3. complex mental activities begin as basic social activities
4. children can perform more difficult tasks with the help of a more advanced individual
5. tasks that are challenging promote cognitive development growth
6. play is important and allows children to stretch themselves cognitively

Similarities
Vygotsky and Piaget have similarities between their two theories of cognitive development. There are also several differences. Let's
see how these two psychologists differed and agreed on the cognitive development of children and adolescents.
Piaget: 'I think the development occurs because the child is an active learner. The child must actively organize new information with
existing information to obtain a state of equilibrium.'
Vygotsky: 'I agree! Children are actively involved in the learning and development process because they provide feedback to the adult
or teacher about their level of understanding.'
Piaget: 'I also believe that development declines with age.'
Vygotsky: 'Yes, agreed. There is a steady increase of development in childhood; then cognitive development declines.'
Piaget: 'I propose that development may be initiated by cognitive conflict. For example, when a child realizes a new idea does not
align with his current thinking or prior knowledge, he will seek out the correct answers in order to align his thinking.'
Vygotsky: 'I definitely agree with that idea.'
Piaget: 'Ah, how do you feel about egocentric speech? You know, the speech from a child that is not addressed to other people but
helps the child move through an activity or problem. I feel that egocentric speech is important to the cognitive development of a
child.'
Vygotsky: 'I agree with you that egocentric speech is important, but i think we may have differing views on why.'
Differences
Piaget: I feel that development precedes learning
Vygotsky : No i disagree, learning occurs before development

Comparison of Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Theories

Vygotsky Piaget
Socio-cultural Context Strong emphasis  Little emphasis

Constructivism Social constructivist  Cognitive constructivist

Stages N o   g e n e r a l   Have 4 stages(sensori-

s t a g e s   o f   de motor, preoperational,
velopment proposed concrete, formal)
Key process Zone of proximal Schema, assimilation, ac
development, language, commodation,
dialogue, tools of the culture operations, conservation,
classification,
hypothetical- deductive,
reasoning
Role of Language A major role: language plays Language has a minimal
a role; cognition primarily
p o w e r f u l   r o l e   i directs language
n   s h a p i n g thought
View of education Education plays a central E du c a ti on   me re l y   re
role,helping children learn f in e s   t he   c hi ld ’s c o
the toolsof the culture gnitive skills t
hat have alread
y emerged
Teaching Implications Es ta bl is h   ma ny   op po rt u Provide support for
ni ti e s f o r   c h i l d r e n   t o   l children to explore
e a r n   w i t h   t h e teacher and their world and discover
more skilled peers knowledge
Guided Learning An adult or older child Children learn throug
assists the child in the learning h their individual
process interactions with the
 environment
Both theories support discovery learning

Noam Chomsky Language Development

• Argued that humans are biologically prewired to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way.
• C h i l d r e n   a r e   b o r n   w i t h   a language acquisition device (LAD) ,
A biological endowment that enables the child to detect the features and roles of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics.
• Children are prepared by nature – ability to detect sound of language, and to detect rules such as how to form plurals and ask questions

Vygotsky and Chomsky on learning

Similarities
Language influenced in childs development
Vygotsky and Chomsky believe that language plays an important role in child’s development
Differences
Vygotsky Area Chomsky
Interactionist Theory : Influenced by a)
Argue that language  The nativist
development is both biological perspective:
and social-"children are born with Argues that humans are
a powerful brain that matures biologically
slowly and predisposes them to programmed to gain
acquire new understandings that knowledge.
they are motivated to share with
others".
 

b) ZPD and Scaffolding Theory used b)

 All humans have a
language acquisition
 device (LAD).

c) Language is central in Social / science a) Argued that

social interaction transmission
of culture and internal
regulation of thinking.
d) Learn by doing,
by becoming involved in
meaningful activities with a
more knowledgeable person
humans are
biologically prewired
to learn language
Nurture / Nature . d)  
Language is in born;
language is a specific
skill that develops
according to its own
laws.

Reference
Barnett R (1997) Higher Education: A Critical Business. OUP, Buckingham.
Brunel University (2001) Widening Participation Strategy.
Kelly G A (2000a) The Psychology of Personal Construct. Volume One: Theory of Personality
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