Journal of Materials Processing Technology 164–165 (2005) 1294–1300

Design and optimisation of conformal cooling channels in

injection moulding tools
D.E. Dimla a, ∗ , M. Camilotto b , F. Miani b
a School of Design, Engineering and Computing, Bournemouth University, 12 Christchurch Road, Bournemouth, Dorset BH13NA, UK
b DIEGM, Università Degli Studi di Udine, via delle Scienze 208, 33100 Udine, Italy

Abstract

With increasingly short life span on consumer electronic products such as mobile phones becoming more fashionable, injection moulding
remains the most popular method for producing the associated plastic parts. The process requires a molten polymer being injected into a
cavity inside a mould, which is cooed and the part ejected. The main phases in an injection moulding process therefore involve filling, cooling
and ejection. The cost-efficiency of the process is dependent on the time spent in the moulding cycle. Correspondingly, the cooling phase is
the most significant step amongst the three, it determines the rate at which the parts are produced. The main objective of this study was to
determine an optimum and efficient design for conformal cooling/heating channels in the configuration of an injection moulding tool using
FEA and thermal heat transfer analysis. An optimum shape of a 3D CAD model of a typical component suitable for injection moulding was
designed and the core and cavity tooling required to mould the part then generated. These halves were used in the FEA and thermal analyses,
first determining the best location for the gate and later the cooling channels. These two factors contribute the most in the cycle time and
if there is to be a significant reduction in the cycle time, then these factors have to be optimised and minimised. Analysis of virtual models
showed that those with conformal cooling channels predicted a significantly reduced cycle time as well as marked improvement in the general
quality of the surface finish when compared to a conventionally cooled mould.
© 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Tool design optimisation; Injection moulding

1. Introduction
Injection moulding is one of the most exploited industrial
processes in the production of plastic parts. Its success re-
lies on the high capability to produce 3D shapes at higher
rates than, for example, blow moulding. The basic principle
of injection moulding is that a solid polymer is molten and
injected into a cavity inside a mould; which is then cooled
and the part ejected from the machine. The main phases in an
injection moulding process therefore involve filling, cooling
and ejection. The cost-efficiency of the process is dependent
on the time spent in the moulding cycle. Correspondingly,
the cooling phase is the most significant step amongst the
three, it determines the rate at which the parts are produced.
As in most modern industries, time and costs are strongly
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dimla@bournemouth.ac.uk (D.E. Dimla).
linked. The longer is the time to produce parts the more are
the costs. A reduction in the time spent on cooling the part
before its is ejected would drastically increase the production
rate, hence reduce costs. It is therefore important to under-
stand and thereby optimise the heat transfer processes within
a typical moulding process efficiently. Historically, this has
been achieved by creating several straight holes inside the
mould (core and cavity) and forcing a cooler liquid to circu-
late and conduct the excess heat away so the part can be easily
ejected. The methods used for producing these holes rely on
the conventional machining process such as drilling. However
this simple technology can only create straight holes and so
the main problem is the incapability of producing compli-
cated contour-like channels or anything vaguely in 3D space.
An alternative method that provides a cooling system that
‘conforms’ to the shape of the part in the core, cavity or
both has been proposed. This method utilises a contour-like
channel, constructed as close as possible to the surface of the

0924-0136/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.02.162
 D.E. Dimla et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 164–165 (2005) 1294–1300 1295

mould to increase the heat absorption away from the molten

plastic. This ensures that the part is cooled uniformly as well
as more efficiently.
The first part of this investigation concentrates on review-
ing and evaluating the injection moulding process, to set the
knowledge and background on the subject. Then a study of
proposed methods for developing and applying conformal
channels is conducted, identify the most viable method.
Specific software was used to optimise the design and con-
struction of the mould, with attention on refining the tool de-
sign through application of finite element and thermal flow
analyses. Successively, a study on the effectiveness of the
conformal cooling channel based on virtual models was per- Fig. 1. Temperature history during injection moulding [2].
formed using I-DEASTM software for prototyping and simu-
lation. The study is on going and hopefully would culminate 2.2. Pressure control
in the suggestion of the level of proficiency required using
virtual models in deciding moulding specifications for pro- Both the injection unit and the clamping system require
duction parts. pressure with the latter developed to resist the former (Fig. 2).
Three different pressures can be distinguished in the injec-
tion unit: initial, hold and back. All these are obtained by
2. Brief overview of the injection moulding process the action of a screw. In the clamping unit the oil pump of
the hydraulic system controls the pressure needed to move
The injection moulding industry, like all industries, at the mould. Holding pressure is required to finish the filling
present needs to reduce costs to remain competitive. This operation and maintained during solidification to supply the
need has been addressed using various technologies rang- shrinkage.
ing from design software to computer numerical control ma-
chinery. After these technologies are in place and moulding 2.3. Time control
begins the cost is usually based on cycle time. Adjustments
can be made to the moulding machine to help reduce the Time is the most significant parameter in the entire opera-
time to mould but in the final analysis the time is dictated tion. Cost and machine efficiency can be estimated from the
by the ability of the mould to carry the heat away from the cycle time. The principle temporal aspects to be controlled
molten polymer. Liquid is passed through cooling channels include: gate-to-gate time, injection time and cooling time. A
in the mould at the required temperature. This must allow the simple schematic illustration of a typical cycle time is shown
molten polymer to flow into all sections of the cavity while at in Fig. 3.
the same time remove the heat as quickly as possible. Up to
now these channels have been produced by drilling which can 2.4. Thermal proprieties
only produce straight lines. If the channels carrying the water
could be conformed to the shape of the part and their cross- Despite their large diffusion, for all plastic materials tem-
section changed to increase the heat conducting area then a perature range is a limit to their purpose. Both high and low
more efficient means of heat removal could be realised. This temperature can create damage to plastic components. It is
may also help to reduce warpage when the part is ejected, as important to study thermal proprieties to understand and pre-
the plastic would be cooled more uniformly. dict this behaviour. Therefore cooling times in moulding ma-

2.1. Temperature control

Temperatures such as those for the molten polymer, the

mould, the surround temperature and the clamping system
temperature need to be controlled (Fig. 1). When molten plas-
tic is injected in the mould it must be solidified to form the
object. The mould temperature is regulated by circulation of
a liquid cooler, usually water or oil that flows inside channels
inside the mould parts. When the part is sufficiently cooled it
can be ejected. Most (95%) of the shrinkage happens in the
mould and it is compensated by the incoming material; the
remainder of the shrinkage takes place sometime following
the production of the part [1]. Fig. 2. Pressure history during injection moulding [2].
1296 D.E. Dimla et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 164–165 (2005) 1294–1300
Fig. 3. Cycle time in injection moulding [2].
chines must be set carefully to permit, first, plasticization of
the thickness and secondly dissipation of melting heat. Unlike
metals, the thermal capacity of plastics is high with crystalline
plastics having a higher capacity than non-crystalline. Plas-
tics have a large coefficient of thermal expansion if compared,
for example, with metals. A way to modify these values is to
use mineral fillers such as fibre glass.
2.5. Cooling channels
As with most manufacturing fields, production time and
costs (lead and lag) are strongly correlated. The longer it takes
to produce parts the more are the costs, and with injection
moulding production industries cooling time is often taken
as the indicator of cycle time. Improving cooling systems will
reduce production costs. A simple way to control tempera-
ture and heat interchange is to create several channels inside
the mould where a cooler liquid is forced to circulate. Con-
ventional machining like CNC drilling can be used to make
straight channels. Herein, the main problem is the impossi-
bility of producing complicated channels in three-dimension,
especially close to the wall of the mould. This produces an
inefficient cooling system because the heat cannot be taken
away uniformly from the mould and the different shrinkage
causes warpage and cooling time increase (Fig. 4). On the
other hand, if the cooling channels can be made to conform
to the shape of the part as much as possible (Fig. 5), then the
cooling system the cycle time can be significantly reduced
with cooling taking place uniformly in all zones. Further-
Fig. 4. Cavity (A) and core (B) of a drilled channels mould [3].
Fig. 5. Same mould as Fig. 4 with conformal channels [3].
more, if the part is ejected with the same temperature in every
point the subsequent shrinkage outside the mould is also uni-
form and this avoids post-injection warpage of parts. Another
advantage is that a mould equipped with conformal channels
reaches the operation temperature quicker than a normal one
equipped with standard (or drilled) cooling channels [3,4].
In this way one can reduce the time required when the
moulding machine is started. When the polymer is injected,
it solidifies immediately touching the wall of the mould. If
the volume of the part is sufficiently big and its thickness is
too small, polymer solidified can obstruct the flow and hinder
a complete filling of the cavity. In this case the mould must be
heated to a particular temperature in order to permit the poly-
mer to flow. Despite all these advantages it may be noticed
that new technologies involved in the production of moulding
tools with conformal channels can increase initial costs for
the additional complexity of the construction process.
3. Conformal channels—an overview
Results from an investigation of the effectiveness of con-
formal channels by Ring et al. [5] through the construction
of three different moulds with and without conformal cool-
ing, showed that the latter technique led to significant im-
provements and a general reduction of the cycle time while
ameliorating heat transfer.
A contribution to understanding the importance of confor-
mal channels and the employment of new high-conductivity
materials is given by Jacobs [6]. This research showed that
using nickel/copper moulds with conformal channels (cop-
per layered) led to productivity improvements of about 70%
when compared to a similar mould made with conventional
steel with drilled cooling channels. A comparison between
conformal channels and drilled cooling channels has also
been conducted by Sachs et al. [3]. They based their investiga-
tion on modelling the core and cavity coupled with software
using both techniques and proceeded to construct the moulds
to compare theory and experimental data. Subsequent anal-
ysis shows that the conformal channel mould reaches opera-
tional temperature faster than the conventional one, attaining
a more uniform temperature distribution with efficient heat
transfer capacity.
A method of controlling the moulding temperature sug-
gested by Bayer [7] presents a means of finding the right posi-
 D.E. Dimla et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 164–165 (2005) 1294–1300 1297

tion for the cooling channels conformal to the mould surface.

He also analysed the heat interchange with surroundings, es-
sential to calculating a correct cooling system.
Park and Know [8] conducted a thermal analysis of
the moulding process based on modified boundary element
method, joined to a design sensitivity analysis, which was
shown to achieve an optimised design process in moulding.
Through thermal analysis the cooling time and temperature
gradient on the surface could be predicted illustrating that de-
sign sensitive analysis is a natural way to obtain an optimum
mould design, especially on sizing and positioning of cool-
Fig. 6. 3D solid view of the model.
ing channels. With the same instrument, optimal processing
conditions in the cooling operation was found, minimising
with a draft angle of 8◦ . A rib was joined to the part in the in-
functions linked to process quality and productivity.
ternal cavity to increase the mechanical resistance and avoid
The problem of cooling channels disposition in not only to
the possibility of deformation.
find a way to construct them, but also to look for a method to
apply this technology in all kinds of cavity shapes. A solution
4.2. Gate location
to overcome this issue is proposed by Xu et al. [9]. The initial
object is divided in small zones easy to be analysed and for
The best position of the gate is found by trial and error and
each of these a cooling channel system is constructed. Then,
different positions for the gate are suggested and visualise
all the information is used to build the final tool. A simi-
via inspection of the model part in terms of quality, weld line
lar approach for solving cooling problem is proposed by Li
presence, air traps and sink (Fig. 7 shows a typical scenario
[10], who suggests a feature-based method where complex
with weld lines). With the gate placed in the centre of the
moulds are divided into simple shapes through a recognition
bottom surface of either of these two solutions are possible:
algorithm. Then for each shape, a specific cooling system is
internal position and external position. From flow analysis it
constructed and at the end all of these are assembled. The
emerges that the two times for the total cycle are of the same
algorithm is based on the “superquadrics”, a family of para-
order, but with the gate positioned on the external surface the
metrical shapes capable of modelling features, such as those
weld lines are lower than in the internal position, especially
used in computer graphic. The main problem in this method
on the external surface. The criteria that can be adopted for the
is selecting the best superquadric in order to approximate the
choice of the position can opt for the quality surface or the
whole part. Once this is done, the cooling system becomes
production time. The gate in the external position involves
easy to be modelled. This approach is very useful when there
more time spent in cutting the eventual track of polymer,
are complex parts to create.
which forms on the gate part area when this is ejected, and
this can be unacceptable for production purposes. Placing
the runner inside the cavity can lead to problems in creating
4. Mould part adviser (MPA) analysis
the cooling system, as there is not much space so it can be
difficult to place complex shape channels and runners.
The basic idea was to construct a virtual model using
An increase in the number of gates not only does not lead to
Model Master in I-DEASTM and then use its Moldflow anal-
an improvement in both an improvement in cooling time and
ysis option to find the best position for the runner. Then a
quality, but obliges the creation of a complex shape runner.
cooling system was designed for the part. Successively the
So the solution of one gate runner is preferred.
model was ready for further analysis such as finite element
analysis to refine the design, etc. MPA is a tool used ex-
clusively on the virtual solid model of the object, to help the
designer to determine the manufacturability of the parts of the
mould. The only requirement of the software is the choice of
the material from which the object is intended to be made
from.

4.1. The model

The geometry of the model used in this exercise was cho-

sen according to specifications and characteristics required
in the object such as the inclusion of a draft angle to permit
the part to be ejected easily once cooled. To create this model
(Fig. 6) a rectangular surface was created and than extruded, Fig. 7. Weld lines on the model surface.
1298 D.E. Dimla et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 164–165 (2005) 1294–1300
Fig. 8. Reduced weld lines on the external surface.
Fig. 9. Single gate position: quality prediction.
The following observations were made from the optimised
solution of the part through computer prediction:
• Significantly reduced weld lines on both the external and
internal surfaces (Fig. 8) compared to Fig. 7.
• Improved quality prediction (Fig. 9).
• Further check on quality, cooling and sink marks was con-
ducted. Results indicated that the position of the gate was
optimum as no visible marks were evidenced and the in-
jection time reasonable at about 1 s (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10. Results form from Moldflow window analysis.
Fig. 11. Surface temperature.
Fig. 12. Freezing time.
• Similarly, good prediction rates were achieved for both the
surface temperature and freezing time (Figs. 11 and 12).
Fig. 10 essentially shows that the condition chosen from
the optimisation lead to a better product as the process falls
within the zone that indicates a good possibility of creating
the object without problems (green area). In the same form
the injection time is estimated to be 1.18 s.
5. Cooling channel positioning
5.1. General considerations
The final aspect of the object and the precision of its shape
are determined not only by the process condition, but also by
the temperature of the wall of the cavity [11]. An accurate
positioning of the cooling channel system is thus needed to
satisfy quality standards of the production, as the tempera-
ture of the mould must be kept high in order to permit the
crystallisation of the material. The problem on positioning
channels is to assure a uniform and equal temperature in both
core and cavity. If there is a strong gradient in the cavity be-
 D.E. Dimla et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 164–165 (2005) 1294–1300
Fig. 13. Effect of the temperature gradient of the wall surface on the non-
reinforced plastics [11].
tween the two halves the part may warp and distort its shape
(Fig. 13).
So the targets that a correct cooling system has to fol-
low are the uniformity of the wall temperature and a gradual
reduction of the polymer temperature, in order to find a com-
promise between the necessity of reducing cycle time and
allowing for the crystallisation.
5.2. Temperature behaviour
During the production cycle the temperature of the mould
follows a periodic fluctuation (Fig. 14), due to several fac-
tors such as the properties of the material of the mould and
the polymer. The cooling system is not able to control the
amplitude of these fluctuation, but what is important is the
maximum pick of temperature, reached when the flow of hot
polymer arrives and touches the inside of the cavity [11]. To
keep the temperature uniform some physical effects must be
Fig. 14. Fluctuation of temperature of the wall inside the cavity during the
moulding cycle [11].
1299
monitored. Convex areas need high cooling because in these
parts there is a concentration of heat. On the contrary concave
areas need less cooling because the presence of more mate-
rial helps the diffusion of heat in the mould. Thus, attention
must be paid to designing corners and the cooling system in
these areas.
On the issue of dimensional criteria in designing cooling
channels, three dimensions have to be considered: the diame-
ter of the cross-section (or the cross-section area if not circu-
lar), the distance between channels and the distance between
channel and wall of the mould. The main problems that arise
when choosing these dimensions concerns the pressure losses
derived from the choice of the diameter and the design of the
channel. A heating/cooling relationship reported in Zollner
[11] gives a guideline on the channels positioning. This states
that the value resulting from the solution of the relationship
should stay between 2.5 and 5% for semi-crystalline thermo-
plastics and between 5 and 10% for amorphous thermoplas-
tics.
5.3. Cavity channels positioning
Different solutions for the core and the cavity cooling sys-
tem were suggested for this analysis, consisting of a confor-
mal cooling system (Fig. 15) and a straight drilled cooling
system (Fig. 16) for comparison. Because these parts had to
be analysed after with a FEM package, only a quarter of each
insert was analysed. A system of four channels was created
following the surface of the object, with three channels placed
to cool the lateral surface and one to cool the bottom one.
5.4. Core channels positioning
The conformal channels system for the core consisted
of two channels that followed the geometry of the shape
(Fig. 17) with one channel cooling the upper and the short
side surfaces and the second one cooling the big side surface.
All corners of the channels were filleted to decrease fluid-
dynamic losses of the liquid cooler. In the straight channel
solution one cooling line was created (Fig. 18) requiring three
Fig. 15. Conformal channel proposition for the cavity.
1300 D.E. Dimla et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 164–165 (2005) 1294–1300
Fig. 16. Straight channel solution for the cavity.
Fig. 17. Conformal cooling channel solution for the core.
drilling operations. In this case, it was impossible to fillet the
corners, so losses of the liquid cooler are greater than in the
previous case. The next step is the finite element analysis to
check if parts can resist against injection pressure.
Fig. 18. Straight channels solution for the core.
This work is currently ongoing and the analysis will con-
centrate on the mechanical resistance of the bottom surface,
where there is the maximum amount of pressure during the
injection operation.
6. Conclusion
A design and optimisation of conformal channels in cool-
ing an injection-moulded component has been conducted us-
ing virtual prototypes. The method pursued involved con-
structing a 3D CAD model of the object, from which the core
and cavity of the tool was created. The ensuing simulations
showed that it was possible to optimise and predict the best
location for such channels to reduce the cooling times when
compared to straight-drilled channels. The study is on-going
and hopefully would culminate in the suggestion of a level of
proficiency required using virtual models in deciding mould-
ing specifications for production parts.
Further work is required to test core and cavity samples
using FEA to check the mechanical resistance to the injection
pressure and eventually modify the thickness of the mould.
Some meshing of the object, reducing it to a surface model to
use planar elements is required and this should lead to a bet-
ter understanding of the cooling times between conformally
cooled tools and conventional ones.
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