B R E A K A G E OF F I S S U R E D ROCK BY B L A S T I N G

D. F. P a n c h e n k o , A. V. K a r p i n s k i i , UDC 622.235 : 622.831.6

Y u . L. B l a g o d a r e n k o , A. T. Galimullin, and N. U. T u r u t a

In theories of rock blasting, it is usually implied that the broken m e d i u m is a continuous body. As a rule,
however, the rocks are divided into pieces by fissures: this alters their elastic characteristics, reducing the v e l o c -
ity of propagation of longitudinal waves, the Young's modulus, and other parameters, and is a factor in reducing
the rocks' strength. Rock divided by fissures cannot sustain tensile loads. Each of the pieces composing the rock
as a whole, which is to be broken up by blasting, in turn has its own m e c h a n i c a l properties which reflect its m i n -
e r a l o g i c a l composition and microstructure.
These features of the solid rock largely govern the process of fragmentation by blasting and exert a marked
influence on the quality of fragmentation.
The laws of blasting fragmentation of fissured rock (the shape and size of the broken volume, the character
of the wave processes within the solid rock, and the speeds of movement and flight of the fragments) can be studied
with the aid of models, provided that we observe the following conditions: the principal e l e m e n t s of the bench and
the charge arrangement must be g e o m e t r i c a l l y similar; and the prototype and m o d e l charges must be e n e r g e t i c a l -
ly similar [1].
If g e o m e t r i c a l similarity and constancy of the relative explosives consumption are preserved, the volumes of
the zones of fragmentation, vf, will be proportional to the model scale factor n, i.e., vf. m/Vf. p -_ (Rf. 2
m / R f2. p)n.
The relative radii of fragmentation R will be proportional to the charge radii r0: Rf. m / Rf. p = to. m / Ro. p.
Experiments on fragmentation of models of fissured m e d i a by blasting [2, 3] have generally established a cor-
relation between the degrees of fissuring and of fragmentation; but the physical pattern and general laws of the
process of'blasting a fissured medium have not been investigated.
The aims of our present work were as follows: to study the laws of fragmentation of segments variously post-
tioned relative to the charge and to determine the shapes and sizes of the fragmented volumes for various degrees
of fissuration; to study the wave pattern inside the rock and at its surface during the explosion; and to study the
movements and flight of the fragments.

We blasted model benches composed of concrete blocks of three standard sizes (260 x 200 x 160, 130 x 100
x 80, and 80 x 60 x 50 mm) with the following m e c h a n i c a l and elastic properties: density of concrete, 2.15 to
2.20 tons/m3; average compressive strength Ocom p = 200 k g / c m ~ (Kva r = 27%); mean v e l o c i t y of longitudinal
waves in the blocks, Cp = 3280 m / s e c ( K v a r = 4.6~ and acoustic impedance 7.0-7.5 g / c m 3 9 cm/sect0. The sizes
and side ratios of the blocks simulated natural pieces, and the gaps between the blocks characterized the sizes of
the fissures. We carried out nine blasts in aI1. In the experiments we took the following constants: n = 10, r e l a -
tive explosives consumption q = 0.3 k g / m 3, density of model 7 m = 2300 kg/m3; we kept the m o d e l diameters
(20 mm) and the charge arrangement parameters constant; the LRFS* was 0.7 m; and the variable factors were the
degree of fissuring of the rock and, in two cases, the angle of inclination of the charges (70").

To simplify the problem we assumed that the fissures were uniformly distributed in the rock: each m o d e l
bench was composed of a single standard size of blocks, except for one model which was made up of blocks of a l l
the standard sizes laid in successive layers.
The dimensions of the models were as follows: height 0.8 m, width (at front) 1.3 m, length (along line of
resistance) 1.2 m; volume of model bench 1.25 m3; fragmented volume 1.0 m 3 (by "fragmented v o l u m e " we m e a n

* LRFS = line of resistance at foot of slope.

State Scientific-Research and Planning Institute of Coal, Ore, Petroleum, and Gas Industries of the Ukrainian
SSR (UkrNIIProekt), Kiev. Translated from Fiziko-Tekhnicheskte Problemy Razrabotki Poleznykh Iskopaemykh,
No. 3, pp. 39-45, May-June, 1969. Original article submitted April 4, 196"/.

266
 TABLE 1
Explosion number 1 2 3 4 5 6 _ 7 8

Block size, mm 260x200x160 130XlOOX80 80x60•

260•
X2OOx [
I.~,3o~. Jko•215
2klu~J/x I X50
x160 I XS0 I
Number before blasl 120
Number crushed 33
120
29
120
28
000190010040014100
245 236 258 974 1040
4~
12
~
128
14~4
104

the volume of the model with the exception of that part which was not fragmented in the explosions and remained
in position). The depth of the blast hole was equal to the bench height; the length of the stemming was 0.3 m.

The rear of the model abutted on solid granite. T o create lateral thrust, the sides of the model were bedded
with granite blocks and sealed with cement solution. The blocks were laid without bonding material, but the gaps
between them were minimal.

The linear dimensions of the models were 3-4 times greater, and the volume 15 times greater, than the cot o
responding quantities in previous experiments [3]; to some extent, this enabled us to make the experimental con-
ditions nearer to industrial conditions.

The absence of cohesion between the pieces did not cause appreciable distortion in the structural pattern of
the rock. In the real rocks, tn the zone near the bench slope the cohesion between the pieces is largely destroyed
by preceding blasts.

All the blocks in the bench were numbered. After the blast, we established data on the shape and volume of
the fragmentation from the layers of the bench. The sites of descent of the blocks were measured, yielding data on
the flight of the blocks from the uncrushed part of the rock. Data on the wave pattern were obtained using VBP-IV
vibrographs [4] set in the rock at half the bench height at a distance of 40 charge radii from the axis along the LRFS
and at the rear of the massif, and also by means of SPIED seismographs [5] fixed on the top surface of the bench.

The speeds of motion were recorded at the beginning of the explosion (0-100 psec) by means of high-speed
motion picture photography.

When benches made of large blocks (260 x 200 X 100 ram) are blasted, the fragmented volume has a cruci-
form shape in plan. Maximum crushing is observed in the directions perpendicular to the sides of the blocks in
which the charge is placed. The pieces adjacent to the sides of this block are always crushed. The next blocks
(i.e., the second blocks from the one with the charge) are broken by one or two fissures or a crack. The blocks
having an edgewise contact with the one containing the charge are not crushed by the explosion; the corners are
chipped, or a few local fissures develop without breaking the continuity of the block. It ls possible that this type
of fragmentation is due to collisions between the pieces.

In blasting of benches made of 130 x 100 x 80 mm blocks, the fragmentation maxima are similarly orient-
ated, but the nearest blocks to the charge block with edgewise contact are also broken. The broken volume is in-
termediate in plan between a cruciform and square shape. When 80 x 60 X 50 mm blocks are blasted, the crushed
volume is nearly circular in plan. Blocks are also broken in flight, which is not the case in the former two cases.

The variation in the shape of the crushed volume with the degree of fissuring is explained as follows. At the
moment of the explosion, the momentum from the block containing the charge, as it is broken up, is transmitted to
the surrounding medium. It is known [6] that when a brief-duration impulse load is applied, the stresses are local-
ized in the weakest part of the surrounding medium (in this case, in the line of least resistance of the block with
the charge); this also promotes disruption of the block by cracks perpendicular to the side faces. If enough energy
is communicated to the neighboring blocks to crush them, the next ones are usually broken only by a single crack.
In a fissured rock mass, the distribution of explosion energy depends largely on the shapes and sizes of pieces into
which the charge is separated. Therefore, pieces located on the diagonal to the block with the charge receive less
energy and the latter is more rapidly dissipated, so that these blocks are preserved next to the explosion site.

Table 1 lists quantitative results of explosions in model benches with various degrees of fissuring.

The crushed volume scarcely varies with the degree of fissuring of the medium; the degree of crushing was
higher for the s m a l l e s t b l o c k s - w h i c h agreeswith the results of other investigators [3].

267
 TABLE 2
Positive- phase Max i m u m
duration, m / s e c velocity, m / s e c
Type of channel
X Z X Z

VBP-IV-- M001.2 14,7

VBP-IV - - M001.2 25,0
VB P - IV - - M002 13,0 13,0
|

VBP-IV-- M001.2 3 12,0

54O01 4~
S P~D -- 2,1
M0(l1.2
S PE D - - 8,0 0.5

VBP-IV - - M001.2 5,0 26,6

VBP-IV-- M001.2 3,3 -- 19,0

VBP-IV-- MOrn.2 5,0 32.0
SP~D --M001 9,0 1~..0 4,1 2,1

VBP-tV-- M001.2 4.0 9,0

S PgD - - M001.2 5,0
SPED - - NO01.2 4.1
SPt~D - - C001.1 8,0 4,6

The degree of crushing of the blocks is expressed in terms of the relative distance to the charge by the e x -
pression:

100
c= %.
1/ 1 +5. lo - S r 6's

It was established that at distances up to 10 R0 the explosion crushes about 90% of the blocks; the degree of
crushing then falls sharply, and at 25 R 0 is only 1 0 ~

To measure the velocities we used gauges of types VBP-IV and SP~D [4, 5] with M001.1 and M001.2 galva-
nometers [4, 7]. These were set up at r = 20 R 0 at the following points: 1, 2) at the middle on the sloping side;
3, 4) on the top of the model, on the sloping and rear sides, respectively; and, 5, 6) on the top at the lateral sup-
ported sides.

The results of measurements of the velocity maxima and positive-phase durations are listed in Table 2.

Table 2 shows that the velocities inside the bench blocks varied from 12 to 26.6 m / s e c (along the line of
least resistance) and from 25 to 32 m / s e c (at the rear of the mass). The positive-phase duration was 3-5 msec.
On the sloping surface the velocities were 2-9 m / s e c , while the positive-phase durations were 15 msec. The v e l -
ocity values in the bench were close to those found by high-speed motion picture photographs.

The results of high-speed photography enabled us to find the nature of the v e l o c i t y distribution and the di-
rections (vector) of the velocities on the bench slope during the development of the explosion. Gases were seen to
burst out through the fissures after 1-2 msec. At about this time, independent of the sizes of the blocks, we ob-
served the onset of m o v e m e n t of the vertical row of blocks situated opposite the charge column. These blocks at-
tained their m a x i m u m speed (10-15 m / s e c ) after 10-20 msec, and the speed then remained constant. We also
trace a difference between the velocities of the blocks along horizontal layers in the direction from the projection
of the charge to the side surface of the model. The end blocks nearest the side surface did not, in general, move
or moved into the zone of crushing. After 80-100 msec, the moving volume took the shape of a cone or pyramid,
the base of which was the original position of the bench slope, and its vertex one or two blocks situated opposite
the center of the charge, which at this time had moved by 0.7-0.9 m.

The m ax i m u m velocities were characteristic of the largest standard-size blocks (14-15 m / sec) . Decrease in
the size of the blocks delays the development of the explosion owing to reduction in the velocities. In blasting of
m e d i u m - s i z e d blocks, the m a x i m u m velocity of the blocks in the central row was 10.6 m / s e c .

268
 --[ 2

1
o,7 m o Jo 0 200 400 600 800
Velocity, m/sec Relative distance, Re
Fig. 1. Distributions of velocities and flight distances of blocks of face of
model (explosion No. 2h a) in cross section; b) in plan. t = 80 m/sec;
Q = 300 g. 1) Whole blocks; 2) split in halves; 3) fragmented.

TABLE 3

Including, %
Expt. No.
io7%2~
blocks
in place
on bench
at distance, in meters, of
0-2 2--4 4 6 ,6--8 8--10 10--12

91 55,0 27,5 8,8 5,5 3,2 m

92 60,0 20,6 10,6 2,2 2,2 2,2

702 55,5 28,7 13,5 1,6 0,7
715 70,0 17,5 4,0 3,7 2,,7 0,5

Note: Sizes of blocks in expts. 1 and 2, 260 x 200 x 160 ram; in expts. 3
and 4, 130 x 100 • 80 mm. In all experiments, charge was of 300 g. Angle
of inclination of blast hole: expts. 1 and 3, 90~ expts. 2 and 4, 70 ~

The vector velocity of the blocks in the central vertical row is inclined to the normal to the surface of the
bench, with some raising of the rear part of the blocks. The displacement vector of the vertical rows on both sides
of the central row is at an angle to the bench surface, which may be due to the direction of action of the blasting
energy and the presence of friction on the side surfaces of the blocks. The angle of turn of the blocks increases in
the direction of the side surface of the model.

The velocity distribution during development of the explosion reflects the energy distribution for fracture of
the bench, which is confirmed by the analogy between the shape of the zone of fragmentation (see Fig. la), the
velocities (Fig. lb), and the flight distances of the individual blocks (Fig. lc). T i e results show that, in the direc-
tion of the m a x i m u m zone of fragmentation, we observe m a x i m u m velocity and flight distance.

In a fissured rock mass, the energy distribution is not uniform in the plane of the bench. The greatest amounts
of energy and the m a x i m u m probability of fragmentation are associated with the blocks adjoining the piece in which
the charge is placed, and near the center of the charge. This blast energy distribution also determines the shape of
the zone of fragmentation. This may explain the wave-shaped form of the bench crushed by the explosion, observed
in large-scale industrial blasting.

To study the flight of the blocks from the noncrushed part of the bench, we determined the distance from the
point of falling to the bench and compared it with the position of the block in the rock before the explosion, aswell
as with its position relative to the crushed volume. We established that after the blast 50-70% of the uncrushed
blocks stayed in place, were thrown out or shifted, and 20-30% of the blocks were thrown to distances of up t o 2 0 0 r 0
(Table 3). The m a x i m u m distance of throw did not exceed 800 r 0 for explosion of vertical charges, but increased
to 1200 R 0 for inclined charges (see Table 3). The m a x i m u m distances of throw were associated with blocks (either
whole or broken) adjacent to the crushed volume on the LRFS. These are not always on the outside layer of the
bench. They are most often blocks from the top surface situated opposite the charge center. As a result of c o l l i -
sions in the air, some of the blocks a d j a c e n t to the crushed v o l u m e fall near the bench. As a rule, these blocks are
markedly damaged and sometimes have fissures.

In plan, the shape of the rubble is similar to the diagram of velocity distribution in each row of the bench
(see Fig. lb, c).

269
 Similar experiments were performed on blocks made of limestones from the Neginskii deposit (y = 1.8 tons/m3).
The tests revealed a c o m p l e t e analogy between the patterns of fragmentation in the concrete and rock blocks.

CONCLUSIONS
When charges are exploded in a fissured rock mass, the fragmentation is mainly l o c a l i z e d in the directions of
m a x i m u m contact of the medium with the piece which is broken first. The directions of m a x i m u m fragmentation
correspond to the m a x i m u m velocities and distances of flight.
According to the linear dimensions of the blocks, the crushed volume varies from cruciform to circular shape,
being e l l i p t i c a l in vertical section. The degree of crushing and the relative formation of new surface decrease from
block to block with increasing distance from the charge. These experiments indicate that the e l e m e n t s of the fis-
suring are some of the principal criteria in the choice of rational charge parameters and blasting systems.

LITERATURE CITED
1. N . F . Zamesov, "Use of the theory of similarity and dimensions in making models of rock crushing by blast-
ing, ~ in: Problems of Mechanization of Mining Operations [in Russian], Pub1. by IGD ira. A. A. Skochinskogo,
Moscow (1963).
2. B.N. Kutuzov and Lin T~-Y~J, "The action of an explosion of a charge in a fissured m e d i u m , " Gorn. Zh.,
No. 9 (1962).
3. L . I . Baron and G. P. Licheli, Fissuring of Rocks in Breaking Down by Blasting [in Russian], Nedra, Moscow
(1966).
4. B.G. Rulev and D. A. Kharin, "Seismographs for registering large displacements," Trudy IFZ AN SSSR,
16/183, Izd-vo AN SSSR, Moscow (1961).
5. I . I . Gurvich, Seismic Prospecting [in Russian], Gostoptekhizdat, Moscow (1960).
6. J. Rinehart and I. Pearson, Behavior of Metals under Impulsive Loads, Dover (1954).
7. T . A . Gevondyan and L. T. Kiselev, Devices for Measuring and Recording Vibrations [in Russian], Mashgiz,
Moscow (1962).

270