Test #2: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins and Nucleic Acids

General
Inorganic vs. Organic compounds:

Inorganic Organic
● Does not contain carbon and hydrogen ● Contains carbon and hydrogen
● Exs. CO₂ CO SiC₂ ● Exs. CH₄ C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁

Monomer vs. Polymers (paper clip analogy)

Monomer Polymer

● 1 unit ● Multiple units

● Monomer + monomer = dimer (2) ● Made up of several monomers
● more than 2 monomers = polymer

Dehydration Synthesis: Hydrolysis:

A reaction used to build macromolecules by A reaction used to break down
removing water. macromolecules by adding water back.

Carbs: glucose + glucose → maltose + water Carbs: maltose + water →2 glucose

Proteins: amino acid + amino acid → Proteins: polypeptide + water → amino acids
dipeptide + water

Lipids: glycerol + 3 fatty acid chains → a Lipids: triglyceride + water→ 3 fatty acid
triglyceride + 3 water molecules chains + glycerol

★ Carbon can make 4 bonds because it has 4 valence electrons.

Carbohydrates
FUNCTION: energy (short term) for cellular respiration
(contains 4 calories/gram)
Cellular Respiration formula: C₆H₁₂O₆ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + ATP
Empirical Formula: (CH₂O)n

Monosaccharides: a) Galactose
b) Glucose
c) Fructose

ALL C₆H₁₂O₆ - (structural isomers)

Disaccharides: a) Maltose (Glu + Glu)

b) Sucrose (Glu + Fru)
c) Lactose (Glu + Gal)
* glycosidic linkage

Polysaccharides: a) Starch - storage of glucose in plants

b) Glycogen - storage of glucose in
animals
c) Cellulose - structural support in plants
d) Chitin - exs. Exoskeleton & fungi cell
walls

Structural Isomers - a molecule with the same molecular formula, but a different structural
formula
** Element Ratio in monosaccharide: 1C : 2H : 1O
Lipids
Properties of lipids: nonpolar, hydrophobic, insoluble in water, no monomers = not form
polymers
Triglyceride: Glycerol backbone, carboxylic acid & fatty acid chain
FUNCTION: long term energy storage, insulation, “padding” for protection
9 calories/gram
 Saturated vs. Unsaturated

● NO kink
● Saturated w/ hydrogens ● YES kink
● Linear (stack like bricks) ● (double bond between 2 Carbons)
● Exs. Butter, Bacon/Cow Fat ● NOT saturated w/ hydrogens
● Unhealthy ● Exs. Plant Oils (vegetable,
canola)
● HEALTHY

Phospholipids: FUNCTION: makes up cell membrane (compartmentalize)

Cholesterol (Steroids) -
Structure: 3 six-membered rings & 1 five-membered ring
Hydrophilic head (HO) & Hydrophobic Tail
Amphiphilic: loves water & fat
FUNCTION: Is inserted into membranes (bilayer) to maintain fluidity
* Steroid Hormone Synthesis - synthesizing of hormones (usually sex hormones)(cholesterol
builds these hormones)

Proteins
4 calories per gram
Contains C & H (organic), N (some have S, P)
Diverse Functions: growth/repair, structural proteins, enzymes, hormones, antibodies
★★ SEQUENCE determines STRUCTURE determines FUNCTION ★★
Sulfide bonds between…

Primary Structure (1°) ➔ Sequence of amino acids

➔ Attached by peptide bonds

Secondary Structure (2°) Alpha Helix:

➔ Spiral of chain of amino acids that
hydrogen bond to itself
➔ Hydrogen bonds stabilize

Beta Pleated Sheet:

➔ 2 or more linear sheets of amino acids
(parallel to each other)
➔ Hydrogen bonds stabilize

Tertiary Structure (3°) MOST IMPORTANT LEVEL of folding

➔ All bond types involved (Hydrogen,
Ionic and Covalent)
➔ Hydrophobic interactions - non-
polar side chains get away from water

Quaternary Structure (4°) ★ Not all proteins reach this structure

ex. Hemoglobin ➔ Multiple polypeptide chains

➔ Held together by many things

* Very sensitive to environmental changes

like pH and temperature. This causes the
 structure to denature

Amino acids - building block; 20 different

Dipeptides - two amino acids joined together by dehydration synthesis
Polypeptides - multiple amino acids joined together
Exs of Amino Acids: glycine, valine, cysteine

Nucleic Acids
DNA is the “instructions manual for life”. DNA is found in the nucleus of cells.

There are 8 different Nucleotides

Sugar in DNA: deoxyribose RNA: ribose

Nitrogen Bases in

DNA: Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine and RNA: Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine and Uracil
Thymine

dinucleotide - two nucleotides with phosphodiester bonds between them

5’ 3’ Rule (Antiparallel Complementary Strand):

Chain ENDS with a 5 phosphate sugar, so called 5’
Chain BEGINS with a phosphate attached to the 3rd carbon, so called 3’

Complementary Base Pairing (Chargaff’s Rule):

- A always pairs with T (1:1 ratio) (2 hydrogen bonds)
- C always pairs with G (1:1 ratio) (3 hydrogen bonds)

3 Types of RNA:
1) mRNA - carries the copies of “instructions” from the DNA to other parts of the cell
2) rRNA - Proteins assembled on ribosomes
3) tRNA - transfers each amino acid to the ribosomes according to mRNA

Protein Synthesis
Part 1: Transcription
A copy of the necessary DNA is made so mRNA can be made to send outside
Part 2: Translation
The protein grows until a certain point.