2.

3 Carbohydrates and lipids

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate Example Function

Monosaccharides Glucose Energy molecule used in aerobic respiration
Galactose Nutritive sweetener in foods
Fructose Fruit sugar

Disaccharides Maltose Malt sugar found in barley, consists of 2 glucose molecules

Lactose Sugar found in milk
Sucrose Transport sugar found in plants because of its solubility

Polysaccharides Starch Storage carbohydrate in plants

Glycogen Storage carbohydrate in animals
Cellulose Main component in plant cell walls

Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation reactions to form disaccharides and
polysaccharide polymers.

• Monosaccharide monomers are linked together to form disaccharides and polysaccharide

polymers.
• when two monosaccharides combine together they form a disaccharide
example: formation of sucrose, lactose and maltose
• when many monosaccharides combine together they form a polysaccharide.
Example: formation of starch, cellulose and glycogen
• by condensation reactions
• water is removed when monosaccharides combine (water is a product)
• energy is required
• enzymes catalyze these reactions

Example (formation of a disaccharide):

+ energy + enzyme
Galactose + Glucose Lactose + Water

Example (formation of a polysaccharide):

Glucose is a monosaccharide that is used to build up large storage molecules (polysaccharides) in plants
and animals.

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 • In plants, many glucose molecules combine through condensation reactions to form the
polysaccharide starch.

• In animals, glucose molecules are combined to form the polysaccharide glycogen through
condensation reactions.

Breaking down of polysaccharides

• When a plant needs to use energy stored in polysaccharide starch, starch is broken down.
• When an animal needs to use energy stored in polysaccharide glycogen, glycogen is broken
down.
• This reaction is called hydrolysis; the breakdown of larger polysaccharides into smaller
monosaccharides
• Water is added
• Starch and glycogen are broken down into glucose (to be used in aerobic respiration)

Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and glycogen in humans.

Starch, cellulose and glycogen are all:

- polysaccharides
- formed by condensation reactions
- made from long chains of glucose held together with glycosidic linkage
- they differ in their structure (# glucose and types of bonds) and the type of glucose, which leads
to different functions.

1-4 glycosidic bond

 straight chain

1-6 glycosidic bond

 branched chain
Cellulose

• Unbranched straight chains of β (beta) glucose molecules, held together with 1-4 glycosidic
bonds.
• It forms a straight unbranched chain because the –OH groups point out in opposite
directions and every other β glucose is flipped 180 degrees.
• The glycosidic bonds alternate up and down between the glucose molecules.

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 • Made of bundles (fibrils) due to the H-bonds forming between the parallel chains of beta
glucose.
• Function: to provide tensile strength for cell walls in plant cells
• Fibers in nutrition: cannot be digested by humans because we lack the enzyme cellulase to
digest it. Anmals have the enzyme.

Starch

• A polysaccharide in plants.
• Consists of 2 types of molecules:
1. amylose which is linear (a straight chain of α-D glucose molecules)
2. amylopectin which is branched (a branched chain of α-D glucose molecules)
• The bonds are α-1-4 glycosidic bonds
• the –OH groups from the glucose molecules are always pointed down, causing starch to
have a curved appearance.
• Even though glucose is hydrophilic, starch is too large to be soluble in water at room
temperature
• Function: store glucose in plants.

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Glycogen

• A polysaccharide in animals
• a multi-branched polysaccharide
• Consists of many α (alpha) glucose molecules linked by 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds
• It is highly branched (due to many 1-6 bonds), making the molecule more compact and a
perfect molecule for energy storage
• Function: stores energy in the liver and some muscles of humans

Lipids

Triglycerides

• A macromolecule in lipids
• Made of a glycerol and 3 fatty acids
• Function: long term energy storage

Hydrolysis of a triglyceride

• The breakdown of a triglyceride into glycerol (C 3H8O3) and 3 fatty acids.

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 • Water is needed
• An enzyme is needed to catalyze the reaction (Lipase)

Triglyceride + 3 Water molecules Glycerol + 3 fatty acids

Formation of a triglyceride
Ester
• Triglycerides are formed by condensation
bond
• from three fatty acids and one glycerol
• water is produced

Fatty acids

• Main component of triglycerides and phospholipids

• non-polar/hydrophobic
• Chains consist of covalently bonded carbon with hydrogen
• One end is a methyl group (- CH3)/ The other end is a carboxyl (COOH) group
• Fatty acids differ in:
 No. of carbon atoms
 Presence & location of double bonds (only in unsaturated)
• C-C bond holds high amount of Energy

Methyl
Group

Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated

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1. Saturated fatty acids:
• single C-C bonds
• saturated with hydrogen
• No double bonds
• solid at room temperature
• found in animals

2. Unsaturated fatty acids:

• contains one double bond or more
• not saturated with hydrogen (can be hydrogenated)
• liquid at room temperature
• found in plants

a) Mono-unsaturated fatty acids: has one C=C double bond.

b) Polyunsaturated fatty acids: has two or more C=C double bonds.

Unsaturated fatty acids can be cis or trans isomers

I. Cis unsaturated:
 hydrogen atoms on the same side of the C=C double bond.
 has a twist at the double bond. This causes the fatty acid to pack more closely and
lower its melting point.
 Liquid at room temp
 Naturally found.

II. Trans unsaturated:

 hydrogen atoms on the opposite side of the C=C double bond.
 Has no twist at the double bond
 Has a higher melting point
 solid at room temperature.
 Artificially made: hydrogenated oils found in some processed foods like margarine.
 Can cause health risks for humans.

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 Bad – high
harmful effects

Good – lower harmful

effects
Scientific evidence for health risks of trans fats and saturated fatty acids.

There have been many claims about the effects of different types of fat on human health. The main
concern is coronary heart disease (CHD). In this disease the coronary arteries become partially blocked
by fatty deposits, leading to blood clot formation and heart attacks.

Fatty acids Sources Health concerns

Saturated Animal fats  A positive correlation has been found between saturated fatty acid intake and
(butter, rates of CHD in many studies.
milk), palm
oil  Correlation is not a proof of cause. The link between consumption of saturated
fatty acids and CHD is not a simple correlation and genetic factors are also
important. Examples:

- Some populations are are known for their high incidence of CHD, notably in
industrial nations. This could be due to overconsumption of saturated fats from
animal products and processed foods.

- In contrast, Masai people of Kenya have one of the lowest incidences of CHD
ever measured. Yet much of their food comes from cows and goats. In addition,
they are not farmers and do not eat many vegetables. Hypothesis includes a
high active lifestyle, low overall energy intake, medicinal properties of certain
plants they eat, and possibly genetic factors

- Diets rich in olive oil, which contains cis-monounsaturated fatty acids, are
traditionally eaten in countries around the Mediterranean. The populations of
these countries typically have low rates of CHD and it has been claimed that this
is due to the intake of cis-monounsaturated fatty acids.

 Genetic factors in these populations could be responsible.

 Other aspects of the diet could explain the CHD rates. e.g low dietary fibre

Trans Hydrogenat There is a positive correlation between diets with high levels of trans fats and CHD.
unsaturate ed
d vegetable Analysis has shown that other factors cannot explain the correlation, leaving trans-
oils (e.g fat as the only risk factor.
margarine)
In autopsies after deaths from CHD, most of the fat in arterial plaque has been found
to be trans fats.

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 Health issues/CHD

CHD related to cosuming CHD related to cosuming

saturated fatty acids trans unsaturated fatty acids

Support:
- positive correlation with
CHD
- Studies show populations
consuing high sat. f.a. have
higher risk of CHD
- Masai population (Kenya)
Doesn't support:
- Positive correlation/ higher
- Could be due to other
factors such as genetics, LDL (bad) lower HDL (good)
lifestyle (sedentary), diet - Positive correlation diets
lacking fibers high in trans fats and CHD
- Autopsies show CHD related
diet based on sat. f.a. BUT to presence of trans f.a. in
show lowest incidence of coronary arteries
CHD

Evaluation of evidence and the methods used to obtain the evidence for health claims made about
lipids.

• Evidence for health claims comes from research. Some of this research is more scientifically
valid than others.

• Evaluation = Make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations

Key questions to consider for the strengths are:

• Is there a (negative or positive) correlation between intake of the lipid being investigated and
rate of the disease or the health benefit?
• If instead mean values are being compared how different are they? Has this difference been
assessed statistically?
• How widely spread is the data? This can be assessed by the spread of data points or the relative
size of error bars. The more widely spread the data the smaller the significance can be placed on
the correlation and/or the conclusion.

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 • n.b. it is easiest to consider strengths by looking at effectively drawn graphs.

Key questions to consider for the limitations are:

• Was the measure of the health a valid one? e.g. cholesterol levels in blood are more informative
than body mass index
• How large was the sample size? Larger samples are more reliable.
• Does the sample reflect the population as a whole or just a particular sex, age, state of health,
lifestyle or ethnic background?
• Was the data gathered from human or animal trials? If only done of animals how applicable are
the findings?
• Were all the important control variables, e.g. level of activity, effectively controlled?
• Were the levels and frequency of the lipids (or substance studied) intake realistic?
• How rigorous were the methods used to gather data? e.g. If only a survey was used how truthful
were the respondents?

Guidance:

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 Evaluate
Support
1. Positive correlation between sat.
f.a./LDL/CHD
2. Mean value higher in high sat. f.a.
3. Error bars overlappnig not
overlapping -> there is a significant
difference (accept hypothesis)
4. Error bars small -> lowvariation ->
data close around mean
Lipids are more suitable for long-term energy storage in humans than carbohydrates
Doesn't
support
1. Sample size too small -> not enough data
2. Error bars too large -> high variation -> data
widely spread around mean
3. Error bars overlappnig -> no significant
difference (reject hypothesis)
4. Based on 1 gender only
5. Other factors not considered (genetics, diet,
exercise)
6. Studies on animals, not on humans
7. Age
8. Number of trials done
9. Variables controlled
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 Carbohydrates Lipids
Similarity both can be used as energy storage
 Stored as glycogen (in liver)  Stored as fat (in the adipose tissue)

 Short-term energy storage  Long-term energy storage

 Soluble in water and therefore  Insoluble in water which makes them

easy to transport around the body more difficult to transport. Also,
(from and to the store) lipids do not have an effect on
osmosis which prevents problems
within the cells in the body.

 Contain more energy per gram than

 Contain less energy per gram than carbohydrates:
lipids:
Differences Each gram of carbohydrates each gram of lipid stores about 9
stores about 4 calories of energy calories.

 Slow release of energy (less digested)

 Fast release of energy
(more easily digested than lipids
so the energy stored by them can
be released more rapidly so their
energy is useful if the body
requires energy fast)
 Needs more oxygen to release
 Needs less oxygen to release energy
energy

Q: What are the functions of lipids?

 Lipids (triglycerides) can be used for energy storage in the form of fat in humans and oil in
plants.
 Lipids (triglycerides) can be used as heat insulation as fat under the skin reduces heat loss. 
 Lipids (triglycerides) allow buoyancy as they are less dense than water and so animals can float
in water. 
 Phospholipids make the bilayer of cell membranes.

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Determination of body mass index by calculation or use of a nomogram

Body Mass Index (BMI) is used as a screening tool to identify possible weight problems, however, BMI is
not a diagnostic tool. To determine if excess weight is a health risk further assessments are needed such
as:

• skinfold thickness measurements

• evaluations of diet
• physical activity
• and family history

The unit for BMI is kg/m2

The table below can be used to assess an adult’s status.

BMI Category
Below 18.5 Underweight
18.5 – 24.9 Normal
25.0 – 29.9 Overweight
30.0 and above Obese

Limitations of the BMI using this table:

 Race, gender and age are not considered

 No distinction is made on body fat/water/muscle composition
 Athletes usually have more BMI than others

An alternative to calculating the BMI is using a

nomogram. Simply use a ruler to draw a line from the
body mass (weight) to the height of a person. Where it
intersects the W/H2 line the person’s BMI can be
determined.

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