Chapter II.

Use of Metals In the Petroleum

Industry

Economical Selection of Sucker Rods

By BLAINE B. WESCOTT* AND C. NORMAN BOWER~*

(New York Meeting, February, 1935)

MARKED improvement in the serviceability of sucker rods has been

effected in the last two years, partly because of the insistent necessity for
greater economy in the operating costs of crude oil production growing
out of the general industrial depression and partly because many of the
recently developed fields have imposed more severe operating conditions
upon both surface and underground equipment. The latter is particu-
larly true of Kansas, where practically all of the oil produced is associated
with damaging amounts of hydrogen sulfide brine and where the method
of establishing potential production demands equipment capable of being
operated at maximum capacity without interruptions. The decline of
flush production in the Oklahoma City field created new problems in
deep-well pumping on a scale heretofore unequaled and the increased
proportion of water it has been necessary to produce in the fields of the
Greater Seminole area presented conditions that were acutely in need of
betterment. The problem in the latter fields was complicated by the shift
towards sulfide characteristics, which accompanied water encroachment,
and it is probably true that nowhere, at the present time, are pump-
ing conditions generally as severe as in this territory. The Mid-Conti-
nent district, therefore, has become the proving ground for the numerous
materials that have been proposed for sucker-rod fabrication. The
information that ultimately will be obtained from an unprecedented
amount of field experimentation will pay ample dividends when the
decline of East Texas increases the demand for the vast reserves of sour
crude in West Texas.
It is a rare occurrence in industry that the use of such a simple piece
of equipment as a sucker rod presents so complicated a problem for
solution. As proof of this, it is only necessary to consider the numerous
types of sucker rods on the market at the present time and contrast this
condition with that of less than four years ago, when it was the common
aim of manufacturers to develop a single sucker rod for all conditions of
Manuscript received at the office of the Institute Feb. 8, 1935.
* Gulf Research & Development Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa.
177
178 ECONOMICAL SELECTION OF SUCKER RODS

service. It is now recognized that this cannot be done economically,

consequently manufacturers are offering from two to eight separate and
distinct grades of sucker rods, in addition to which nearly all of these
grades are made in both double pin and box and pin types in both
25 and 30-ft. lengths. Obviously, such a wide variety is not conducive
to low manufacturing costs, nor does it simplify the problem of the user in
selecting the most suitable grade of sucker rods for any particular kind
of service.
CLASSIFICATION OF WELLS

The present is a period of experimentation that will terminate, in all

probability, in less than two years, with, at most, four grades of sucker
rods, which will be sufficient to satisfy the requirements of all classes of
pumping service. The two most important factors to be considered
when selecting sucker rods are the weight of the well and the degree of
corrosivity of the fluid produced. The first of these factors is fixed
by the depth to the fluid, size of pump, length and speed of stroke and
the gravity of the fluid produced. The weight of a well, or, perhaps more
accurately, the stresses imposed on sucker rods may be varied almost
at will by adjustments of the three pumping conditions subject to control
of the operator; namely, the size of pump and the length and speed of
stroke. Sucker-rod failures can literally be controlled at will by regu-
lation of pumping conditions, and it becomes the problem of each operator
to decide when the proper economic balance is obtained between value of
extra oil produced and cost of the eonsequent increased well trouble.
The degree of corrosivity of the fluid produced is determined generally
by the presence or absence of hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide, which
is usually associated with production from lime and seldom from sand,
always is responsible for increased trouble from underground equipment
if water is being produced with the oil; in the absence of water it presents
no problem. While there are certain nonsulfide fields that produce
corrosive brine with the oil, the problems they present are neither as
numerous nor as serious as those encountered in the sulfide fields.
The kinds of service, therefore, for which sucker rods should be
designed are: (1) noncorrosive fields; (2) corrosive, nonsulfide fields; (3)
corrosive, sulfide fields. There are no sharp dividing lines between these
three classes of service nor does it necessarily follow that all wells within a
single field belong in the same class. Occasionally it may be found advan-
tageous to subdivide one or more of the classes into light and heavy
pumping wells. In the final analysis, it is advisable to make the classifica-
tion in accordance with the grouping suggested, or by any other method
that may be preferred, after consideration has been given to each well
individually. It is essential that adequate individual well records be
available if the greatest economy in production operations is to be assured.
 BLAINE B. WESCOTT AND C. NORMAN BOWERS 179
Sucker-rod failure~ are Hot exceHl'ive ill the nOllcolTosive well~ or
fields (class 1 above) and satisfactory sucker rods for these conditions
have long been procurable. This is not true, however, of the corrosive
conditions (classes 2 and 3 above) and a sizable degree of effort is being
applied to the development of suitable rods for these purposes at the
present time. In common with nearly all other corrosion problems, the
real difficulty in solution is introduced by the necessity for providing a
comparatively inexpensive material or materials for the purpose. Also
in common with numerous other similar problems, the greatest ultimate
economy is frequently not obtained if the selection of sucker rods is made
only on the basis of original cost.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

There is no single physical property by which the suitability of a steel

or iron for sucker rods may be judged. Furthermore, the common
physical properties as ordinarily provided are of little value in making a
selection of sucker rods, and if the choice is based solely on these properties
it is certain to prove expensive in many instances. Some of the physical
properties that are not ordinarily determined are of much greater impor-
tance and should be given careful consideration.
The typical compositions of the various types of steels and irons used
for sucker rods at this time are given in Table 1, which also includes the
relative costs with respect to the cheapest plain carbon-steel sucker rod.
The regularly reported, representative physical properties of these alloys
TABLE I.-Chemical Compositions and Relative Costs of Sucker-rod
Materials
Constituent, Per Cent \ Relative
.Cost Based
Type on Cheap-
Car- Man- Phos- Sul-
bon ganese phorus fur
Sili-
con
C~rom-
lum
Nickell Molyb- Other Con- est Sucker
denunl :stituents Rod
-- -- -- -- - --- - -
S.A.E. 1035 ..... 0.370 0.830 0.018·0.033 0.110 l.00
S.A.E. 1045 ..... 0.450 0.840 0.027 0.041 0.210 1.00
S.A.E. 1050 ..... 0.510 0.730 0.015 0.047 0.180 1.09
S.A.E. 3130 ..... 0.340 0.650 0.015 0.020 0.190 0.580 0.990 l.25
S.A.E. 4130 ..... 0.310 0.620 0.013 0.020 0.240 0.720 0.210 1.40
S.A.E. 4615 ..... 0.180 0.510 0.012 0.006 0.230 1.570 0.240 1.22
1.25 per cent
manganese ... . 0.360 l.170 0.024 0.021 0.190 1.07
1.75 per cent
manganese ... . 0.380 1.910 0.023 0.016 0.210 l.13
Touca.n iron .. ... 0.050 0.290 0.009 0.006 0.050 0.110 0.510 copper 1.20a
Wrought iron ... 0.030 0.040 0.083 0.012 0.160 4.200 slag 1.30
Nickel wrought
iron ......... . 0.030 0.040 0.077 0.027 0.110 3.000 2.750 slag 1. 79
Nickel iron ...... 0.030 0.010 0.003 0.006 0.030 3.520 1.45
Nickel molyb-
denum iron ... 0.040 0.130 0.002 0.007 0.030 2.900 0.140 1.42

G Estimated.
 BLAINE ~. WESCOTT AND C. NORMAN BOWERS 181

corrosion endurance limit to air endurance limit. The damage is not

constant for all materials and it is considerably less for the alloys of low
carbon content. The lowering of the endurance limits in sulfide brine is
not due solely to the greater corrosivity of the fluid;.it is partly due to the
embrittling action of hydrogen sulfide and it is also influenced by the
susceptibility of the respective materials to stress concentration at
the base of corrosion pits.
TABLE 3.-Endurance Properties of Sucker-rod Materials
Heat Treatment- Endurance Limit Ratios
Deg. F. (Lb. per Sq. In.)

Type Sulfide
Nor- Draw Air, Cor- Oor- OL SL
Quench malize AL rosion, rasion,
OL AL AL
SL
- - --- ----- --- --- --- ---
B.A.E. 1035 ................ 40,600 24,600 10,600 0.61 0.26
B.A.E 1050 ................ W1,550 1,100 66,900 25,600 14,100 0.38 0.21
B.A.E. 3130 ................ 1,600 55,100 31,600 15,900 0.57 0.29
B.A.E. 4130 ................ W 1,550 1,150 70,100 26,900 14,100 0.38 0.20
S.A.E. 4615 ................ 48,600 33,100 19,900 0.68 0.41
1.25 per cent manganese ..... 48,900 19,600 14,600 0.40 0.30
45,800'
1.75 per cent manganese ..... 1,550 56,400 29,400 12,100 0.52 0.21
Toncan iron . ............... 36,400 16,900 11,900 0.46 0.33
WroU'ght iron ............... 30,400 19,600 16,400 0.64 0.54
Nickel wrough t iron ......... 42,600 25,100 18,600 0.59 0.44
39,500'
Nickel iron ................. 39,600 26,900 19,100 0.68 0.48
Nickel molybdenum iron ..... 45,100 25,400 21.900 0.56 0.49

a W indicates water quench.

• Values determined for complete reversal of axial stress by Haigh axial testing machine at the
Research Laboratories of the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing 00.

Instances of extreme brittleness of sucker rods are of quite frequent

occurrence and this is caused by the action of hydrogen sulfide upon the
steel. Relatively short exposure to the gas in the presence of water will
embrittle steel seriously without any visible manifestation of the action
either to the eye or at high magnification. The yield point and tensile
strength are not affected, but there is a marked decrease in toughness, the
extent of which can best be determined from measurements of elongation
and reduction of area as given by ordinary tensile tests. Not all irons
and steels are embrittled to the same extent and this factor should be con-
sidered in selecting sucker rods for use in sulfide fields. The extent to
which some of the sucker-rod steels are embrittled is given in Table 4.
Of the six materials tested the 1.75 per cent manganese steel was embrit-
tIed to the greatest extent and the nickel iron was least affected. The
manner in which the action of hydrogen sulfide is manifested is illustrated
by Fig. 1. The tensile-test specimen at the left is nickel iron in the hot-
rolled condition, second from the left is a specimen of the SaIIIJ} material
182 ECONOMICAL SELECTION OF SUCKEH HODS

after exposure to moist hydrogen sulfide. The two specimens on the

right are 1.25 per cent manganese steel before and after exposure, respec-
tively. In addition to loss of ductility the action of the gas entirely
changes the nature of the fracture from the ordinary cup and cone
appearance to one largely resembling failure by shear. From this fact

FIG. 1.-EMBRITTLEMENT OF STEEL BY HYDROGEN SULFIDE.

Left to right; nickel iron before exposure, nickel iron after exposure, 1.25 per cent
manganese steel before exposure, 1.25 per cent manganese steel after exposure.

and because of the short exposure required for embrittlement and the lack
of visible evidence, it seems probable that the action is intercrystalline.
Interaction between hydrogen sulfide and iron results in the formation
of nascent hydrogen, which is adsorbed at the intercrystalline boundaries
of the steel. The change of the adsorbed atomic hydrogen to molecular
hydrogen is accomplished with increase in volume and consequent
development of enormous internal pressure in the steel, which causes the
loss in toughness and decreases the resistance to shock. It has been
 BLAINE B. WESCOTT AND C. NORMAN BOWERS 183
:,;hown" that if the met.al is already under high internal stress, i.e., in a
cold-drawn condition, exposure t.o hydrogen sulfide for a very short time
only may cause spontaneous rupture of the steel. It is, therefore, reason-
able t.o suppose that a given steel would suffer more severely from this
action in the heat-treated condition than in the annealed or even hot-
rolled condition. Upon mild heating, or rather extended standing at
atmospheric temperatures, steel recovers practically all of the ductility
lost as a result of exposure to hydrogen sulfide.
TABLE.4.-Embrittlement of Sucker-rod Steels by Hydrogen Sulfide
Before Exposure to After Exposure to Per Cent DecreBse
Hydrogen Sulfide Hydrogen Sulfide (Embrittlement)

Material and Condition Elon- Elon-

gation, Reduction gation, Reduction Elon- Reduction
Per Cent in Area, Per Cent in Area, gation
Per Cent Per Cent in Area
in 2 In. in 2 In.

1.25 per cent manganese,

as rolled ............. 29.0 64.2 21.5 37.6 25.9 41.5
1.25 per cent manganese,
normalized ........... 27.5 64.5 17.8 34.3 35.3 46.8
1.75 per cent manganese,
normalized ........... 28.5 66.0 17.0 23.8 40.4 63.9
S.A.E. 4615, as rolled .... 29.0 66.0 18.7 30.8 35.5 53.3
Nickel wrought iron, as
rolled ................ 31.0 50,2 22.5 29.0 27.4 42.1
Nickel iron ............. 40.8 72.3 32.0 45.5 21.6 37.1

Corrosion of iron or steel in the presence of hydrogen sulfide generally

causes pit.ting of the surface, and surface pits in turn cause stress concen-
tration because the continuity of the surface is disrupted. The base of a
corrosion pit in a sucker rod, therefore, is a point of highly localized stress,
and if the operating stresses are high it is possible for the unit stress at
these points to exceed the endurance limit of the material. If this
happens, and the stress does not at the same time exceed the yield point,
an incipient crack will be developed, which ultimately will cause a fatigue
failure. If, however, both the endurance limit and the yield point are
exceeded at a point, the material will yield in a plastic manner and effect
a redistribution of stress without the formation of the incipient crack.
In order to classify sucker-rod materials with regard to their respective
abilities to withstand highly localized stresses, a series of tests was made
to determine the endurance limits of notched specimens. In the absence
of corrosion, the stress-concentration factors so found indicate the relative
degrees of sensitivity of the materials to surface discontinuities. The
3 L. W. Vollmer and B. B. Wescott: Effect of Hydrogen Sulfide on Wire Rope.
Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs. National Petroleum Meeting, Tulsa, Okla., Oct. 6 to 8,
1930.
184 ECONOMICAL SELECTION OF SUCKER RODS

results are given in Table 5. It is apparent that the ratio of the depth
of the notch (pit) to the section of the specimen has a marked effect on the
stress-concentration factor. The exact shape of the notch also influences
the results, the concentration of stress being greater as the sharpness
of the notch at its root increases. The low-carbon nickel alloys have
greater resistance to stress concentration than the medium-carbon
1.25 per cent manganese steel. Practically the same results were
obtained from transverse and longitudinal methods of stressing.

TABLE 5.-Stress-concentration Factors of Sucker-rod Steels

(60° groove having a radius of 0.0065 in. at its extremity.)

Endurance Limit, Ratio of

Lb. per Sq. In. Depth of Stress-
Material and Condition Groove to concentration
Diameter of Factor
Unnotched Notched Specimen

Armco ingot iron (hot-rolled) ......... 32,100 21,100 0.013 1.52

Wrought iron (double refined) ........ 30,400 19,600 0.013 1.55
Nickel wrought iron (normalized
1600° F.) ........................ 41,100 29,900 0.013 1.37
Nickel iron (normalized 1600° F.) ..... 42,400 29,600 0.013 1.43
Nickel wrought iron (hot-rolled) ...... 42,600 16,900 0.100 2.52
39,500- 16,800- 0.100 2.35
1.25 per cent manganese steel (hot-
rolled) ........................... 48,900 27,100 0.050 1.80
16,900 0.100 2.90

a Results obtained from tests on Haigh axial testing machine at the Research
Laboratories of the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company.

TABLE 6.-Tensile Impact Properties of Sucker-rod Materials

Heat Treatment,a Impact
Deg. F. Resista.nce Elon- Reduc-
gation, tion of
Type Per Ares,
Nor- Ft-lb. Cent in Per
Quench malize Draw Ft-lb. per 2 In. Cent
Sq. In.
~--
--- --- --- --- ---
S.A.E. 1045 .................... 1,600 124.2 4,880 26.7 53.8
S.A.E. 1050 .................... W 1,550 1,100 109.2 4,310 18.5 61.7
S.A.E. 3130 ................•... 1,600 110.0 4,320 22.7 72.1
S.A.E. 4130 .................... W 1,550 1,150 82.8 3,260 14.0 68.3
S.A.E. 4615 .................... 116.2 4,570 29.3 66.2
1.25 per cent manganese ......... 120.0 4,700 24.5 65.5
1.75 per cent manganese ......... 1,550 112.8 4,440 19.0 65.0
Toncan iron . .................. 106.5 4,190 37.0 71.5
Wrought iron .................. 65.7 2,590 22.0 30.8
Nickel wrought iron ............ 83.7 3,300 29,0 36,6
Nickel iron, ............... " .. 114.8 4,520 41.2 75,7
Nickel molybdenum iron, ...... , 118.7 4,670 39,5 74.3

• W indicates water quench.

 BLAINE B. WESCOTT AND C. NORMAN BOWERS 185
Some speculation has been connected heretofore with the effect of
instantaneous shock loads of high magnitude on the different steels,
giving rise to uncertainty as to which types are best able to resist this
action. Tensile impact tests furnish some information in answer to this
question. Results of such tests on sucker-rod materials, given in Table 6,
bring out several interesting facts. There is an exceedingly close
agreement between the values for elongation and reduction of area
as determined in regular tensile tests (Table 2) and in the tensile impact
tests. The unit tensile impact resistance is more closely related to
ductility as determined by reduction in area from tensile tests than to
any other of the regularly determined physical properties. There is
no apparent relationship between tensile impact strength and either
tensile strength or yield point, since, for example, S.A.E. 4130 steel, heat-
treated to a tensile strength of 128,500 lb. per sq. in., had practically
the same tensile impact resistance as the nickel wrought iron with a
tensile strength of only 63,900 lb. per sq. in. Apparently internal stress
such as results from full heat treatment (quench and draw) or structural
heterogeneity such as is characteristic of wrought iron tends to have a
deleterious effect on tensile impact resistance.
EVALUATION OF MATERIALS

The value of data on the properties of materials is dependent, of

course, upon the extent to which it can be translated into the purchase
of equipment that will be most economical for a given purpose. In
attempting to apply these data to sucker rods, it is important to consider
what operating stresses they will be subjected to. There is ample
information available to conclude that stresses of 30,000 lb. per sq. in.
are not uncommon in Mid-Continent wells even when graduated strings
of 3i-in. and %-in. sucker rods are used. In corrosive fields where
pitting occurs, this stress may be increased by a factor of from 1.3 to
2.5 because of stress concentration at the bottoms of pits, with the result
that the stress at such points considerably exceeds the endurance limit.
The average stress-concentration factor is probably between 1.5 and
2.0, so that the localized stresses may occasionally be as high as 60,000 lb.
per sq. in.' The desirability of having the yield point low enough to
be exceeded and thus permit redistribution of stresses has been alluded
to. It has been concluded, therefore, that for this type of service-in
sulfide fields-the sucker-rod material should have a yield point between
50,000 and 60,000 lb. per sq. in. At the same time, maximum ductility
and toughness should be provided by keeping the carbon content less
than 0.10 per cent. The alloying elements used to obtain the yield point
specified above should preferably belong to the class that forms solid
solutions with the ferrite; carbide-forming elements are less desirable.
High endurance and corrosion-endurance limits are of great importance,
188 ECONOMICAL SELECTION OF SUCKER RODS

than under a similar degree of overstressing in noncorrosive conditions.

Therefore, the selection of a material must take into account the ratio of
stresses imposed by the given operating conditions to the respective
endurance limit as well as the index value. For example, it would be
unwise to select wrought iron for service in a well where the stresses exceed
30,000 lb. per sq. in., even though its index value is comparatively high;
much more economical service would be obtained from one of the mate-
rials with higher sulfide endurance limit even at a greater cost. Experi-
ence indicates that greatest freedom from failures will be obtained when
the ratio of operating stresses to endurance limit is less than 1.5.
A similar method for classification of materials could, if time
permitted, be described for nonsulfide corrosive service, but in this
connection it should be noted that, since the corresponding endurance
limits are higher, the optimum yield point is higher. It is in this type of
service, therefore, that the less expensive materials of higher strength
can be used with economy.

TABLE 8.-Classification of Sucker-rod Materials According to

Service Conditions
Type of Service

Corrosive
~ oncorrosive

Nonsulfide Sulfide

I . I
Light -> Heavy Light JI Heavy. Light -> Heavy
I I

S.A.E.1035 S.A.E. 1050, S.A.E. 1035 11.25 per cent 1.25 per cent Nickel wrought
heat-treated manganese manganese iron
S.A.E.1045 S.A.E.3130 S.A.E.1045 1.75 per cent Wrought iron Nickel iron
manganese
S.A.E. 4130, Toncan iron S.A.E.3130 S.A.E.4615 Nickel molyb-
heat-treated denum iron
1.25 per cent Wrought iron 1.25 per cent manganese
manganese
1.75 per cent Wrought iron S.A.E. 4615
manganese
1.25 per cent manganese Wrought iron
I 1 I

SELECTION OF MATERIALS

The opinion was expressed earlier that not more than four different
types of sucker rods were needed to successfully satisfy all demands
of current operating conditions. At least three times this number' are
available. It will require one or two years of operating experience to
indicate definitely from an economic standpoint which four materials are
most worthy of retention. The uncertainty at present is almost entirely
concerned with materials for heavy pumping service in sulfide fields and
 DISCUSSION 189
it is doubtful whether the material of greatest ultimate economy has even
yet advanced to the stage of field tests. Four materials, all alloys of
nickel, are now giving improved service under these conditions, but
entirely too little attention has been given to alloying materials other
than the comparatively expensive nickel.
A classification of the 13 materials now being used, according to
conditions of service, is given in Table 8. This classification, which
expresses the opinions only of the authors, takes into account the physical
properties of the materials that have been discussed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to express appreciation to Dr. P. D. Foote, Execu-

tive Vice President of the Gulf Research & Development Corporation,
for permission to publish this article, and to Dr. M. Muskat and Mr.
L. W. Vollmer, of the same organization, for suggestions in the prepara-
tion of the manuscript.

DISCUSSION
(P. E. McKinney presiding)

H. H. POWER, * Tulsa, Okla.-What is the authors' opinion regarding the endur-

ance limit of the 1.25 per cent manganese steel in the normalized as compared with
the unnormalized condition?

C. N. BOWERs.-Our tests have shown practically no difference in endurance

limits of this grade of steel in the normalized and unnormalized conditions under
either corrosive or noncorrosive conditions. We have made some embrittlement
tests on tensile specimens of this material in both conditions and while the normalizing
seemed to have increased the susceptibility to embrittlement, the tests were too few
to be conclusive. We expect to supplement this work in the future with a more
extensive program, and I am sure that some definite information will be obtained
a little later on.

D. R. Dale, t Toledo, Ohio.-The sucker-rod problem is not only fascinating; it is

baffling. This paper has given much information that no doubt would reduce the
number of failures in service if followed in the field.
It was noticeable in the endurance limits given for the various materials under
different conditions of corrosion-fatigue that the endurance limit under sulfide-
corrosion limits with the best steel, that is, the one that showed the highest endurance
limit, was roughly of the order of 22,000 lb. per sq. in. It has been stated that
some of these peak loads run on the order of about 30,000 lb. per sq. in. Therefore,
the materials that have been tried up to date fall about 25 per cent short of a desirable
endurance limit for good service; that is, they do not have adequate sulfide endurance
limits to begin with. This brings up the point that sucker-rod strings should be
designed (I do not mean the designing of the rod itself) from the beginning of pumping
* Petroleum Engineer, Production Dept., Gypsy Oil Co.
t Chemical Engineer, The S. M. Jones Co.
190 ECONOMICAL SELECTION OF SUCKER RODS

operations. Consideration and thought should be given to the selection of material,

and the string should be designed, by the use of proper plunger diameter and speed
and stroke, to keep the maximum stress within the endurance limits of the material.
Failure to do this is one of the reasons, I think, for so many sucker-rod failures.
Another point that was not mentioned is the relation of impact values to field
results. So far materials that have given good service have had comparatively low
impact values. Materials that have not given such good service have had sometimes
high and sometimes low impact values, and, as Dr. Wescott and Mr. Bowers have
stated, there does not seem to be anyone way by which the impact value of a sucker
rod can be correlated with service. At present, I think it is not known whether a
good sucker rod should have certain chemical reactions or certain physical properties.
I think that within the next year these points should be cleared up.
I was sorry to see that a formula for evaluating sucker-rod service was injected
into the paper. The question of a formula for evaluating sucker rods has come up
before a section of the A.P.I. for years, and I do not believe that we can ever arrive
at a formula that will evaluate the service of sucker rods. The variables are too
numerous and ponderous to be calculated. This formula, however, could be used
as a criterion of service expected, say in a new field. If the fluid, operating conditions
and required production are known, such a formula might be used as a means of
selecting the right material, but I believe that danger lies in the use of such a formula,
in that if results are not as expected blame may be laid upon the material rather than
upon the formula. In this formula the expressions seem to me to be entirely too
empirical, in that numerous unknown quantities, such as instantaneous peak loads
and stress concentration due to notch affects, cannot be exactly calculated, but never-
theless have an important influence on the results. I hope that operators in general
will not try to use this formula as a means of evaluating sucker-rod service.
B. B. WESCOTT.-The formula is purely arbitrary and represents what might be
called a first approximation in an attempt to evaluate steel by consideration of the
more important physical properties that seem to have a bearing on sucker-rod service.
I agree with Mr. Dale that it is of general and not specific nature and is intended
primarily to assist in making an economical selection of materials for service in new
fields under conditions that are not entirely known, and to provide a method by which
the suitability of new steels for this kind of service may be judged approximately.
K. H. READ, * Bethlehem, Pa.-I believe Mr. Bowers mentioned four materials
that have been found satisfactory for sucker rods. I understood him to say that
they all contained nickel, but I do not recall the other alloys.
B. B. WESCOTT.-I think Mr. Bowers said that it was predicted that four materials
would eventually be found to be a sufficient variety to satisfy all operating conditions,
and that these materials would be designed for noncorrosive service, corrosive non-
sulfide service, and corrosive sulfide service. There was no prediction of just what
these materials would be. Some 13 types of steel are being manufactured into sucker
rods at the present time. This large number is confusing to the purchaser and is
uneconomical for the sucker-rod manufacturers because of the large stocks that must
be carried. It is predicted that four types will be sufficient to meet all demands of
the different operating conditions.
E. G. OPPENHEIM, t Trenton, N. J.-What proportion of wells are considered
moderately corrosive and very corrosive, including the hydrogen sulfide wells that
are pumped?
* Bethlehem Steel Co.
t Research Engineer, John A. Roebling Sons Co.
 DISCUSSION 191

B. B. WEscOTT.-In general, any well that is of a sulfide nature and producing

water at the same time gives more or less trouble from corrosion. If such a well is
not making water, there will be no extensive corrosion difficulties.
E. G. OPPENHEIM.-May I modify that a bit? I should like to learn about what
percentage of wells would be considered moderately corrosive as compared with all
the wells.
B. B. WEscoTT.-That is difficult to answer. In general, all of the wells in Kansas,
most of the wells in West Texas, and probably 10 to 15 per cent of the wells in the
Gulf Coast district, might be considered severely corrosive. Practically all Kansas
and West Texas production is sulfide. However, many of the West Texas wells are
not troublesome at present, because of proration.

R. L. DUFF, * Elizabeth, N. J.-What proof is there that hydrogen sulfide attack

is intercrystalline? .•

B. B. WEscoTT.-The main evidence is that failures occur suddenly: the length

of time of exposure of steel to hydrogen sulfide required to embrittle it is so short
that it is hard to believe that the action could be anything else.

R. L. DUFF.-If it is intercrystalline, carbon is eliminated as methane; and

another thing, this matilrial can be recon-
ditioned by temperature. If it cannot be
reconditioned, it is a chemical reaction and
not a mechanical absorption.
B. B. WEscoTT.-The embrittlement
action is physical if intercrystalline, but
if it is intracrystalline it must be chemical.
R. L. DUFF.-I do not agree with you
there.
B. B. WESCoTT.-Nascent hydrogen is
readily adsorbed by steel. If the embrittle-
ment were chemical in nature it is hard to
understand how it could take place so
rapidly at ordinary temperatures or how the
steel could recover nearly all its ductility
on standing or by moderate baking.
R. L. DUFF.-Most attack by hydrogen
is corrected by temperature as, for instance, FIG. 3.-INTERCRYSTALLINE CRACK
IN STEEL RESULTING FROM EMBRITTLE-
caustic embrittlement can be reconditioned MENT BY HYDROGEN SULFIDE. X250.
by possibly 400 0 or 500 0 F. Also, some of the
higher alloys being attacked by hydrogen through adsorption can also -be recondi-
tioned by temperature. Possibly sunlight in itself will recondition your sucker rods
in time. I still cannot see that it is a chemical attack.

B. B. WESCOTT.-I do not believe embrittlement is a chemical reaction, although

the nascent hydrogen responsible for the embrittlement is generated by a
chemical reaction.

* Metallurgical Technologist, Standard Oil Development Co.

192 ECONOMICAL SELECTION OF SUCKER RODS

R. L. DUFF.-If it is intercrystalline I cannot see that it can be anything else but

chemical. You have decreased your carbon content. A chemical analysis would
show a loss of carbon content, if the attack were chemical. The microscope also
would show a chemical attack. Also, in going into this subject of hydrogen attack
of steels, I think I have learned that it takes temperature to cause chemical attack
of plain carbon steel.
B. B. WESCOTT.-No evidence was included in the paper to indicate whether
embrittlement was inter crystalline or intracrystalline in nature since, it did not occur
to the authors that anyone familiar with hydrogen sulfide embrittlement of steel
would doubt that it was intercrystalline. Fig. 3 was prepared to dissipate
any doubt that might remain. It is a photomicrograph of a crack resulting
from hydrogen sulfide embrittlement and it clearly shows that the fracture is
completely intercrystalline.