Ha V-Notes

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

AR6502 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE - V
AR6502
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND

CULTURE - V
OBJECTIVES:
• To introduce the condition of modernity and bring out its impact in the realm of architecture
• To study modern architecture as evolving from specific aspects of modernityindustrialisation,
urbanisation, material development, modern art as well as society’s reaction
to them.
• To study the further trajectories of modern architecture in the post WWII period.
• To create an overall understanding of the architectural developments in India influenced
by colonial rule.
REQUIRED READING:
1. Kenneth Frampton, “Modern Architecture: A Critical History”, Thames & Hudson, London,
1994.
2. Manfredo Tafuri., “Modern Architecture”, Harry N. Abrams Inc, 1980.
3. Leonardo Benevolo, “History of Modern Architecture”, 2 Vols., reprint, MIT Press, 1977.
4. Miki Desai et. al., “Architecture and independence”, Oxford University Press, 2000.
5. William J. Curtis, “Modern Architecture since 1900”, Phaidon Press, 1982.
REFERENCES:
1. Thomas Metcalf, “An imperial Vision”, Faber & Faber/ Electa, 1980.
2. Christian Norburg-Schulz., “Meaning in Western Architecture”, Rizzoli, Revised edition, 1993.
OUTCOMES:
The condition of modernity and its impact on architecture has been introduced. The evolution of
modern architecture from specific aspects of modernity like Industrialisation, Urbanisation etc and
its post-world was II trajectories were studied. An overall understanding of the architectural
developments of colonial India was obtained.
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Complied By : Ar.Vidhya M.S.
UNIT I- LEADING TO A NEW ARCHITECTURE

Beginnings of modernity –Origin and development of Neo Classicism- Structural Neo classicists:
Laugier, Soufflot, Schinkel, Labrouste - Romantic Neo classicists: Ledoux, Boulle, Durand,
Jefferson- Industrialization and its impact- Urbanization in Europe and America- split of design
education into architecture and engineering streams- Emergent new building / space types-
Growing need for mass housing- Development of Industrial material and construction
technologies- concrete, glass and steel- structural engineering, standardization-Industrial
exhibitions- Chicago School and skyscraper development.
QUESTION BANK
PART A
1. What do you understand by the term “ The Enlightenment”?
2. Sketch any two works of Ledoux
3. Sketch one example of a building/ structure that used iron as a building material
4. Define Neo Classicism
5. List the features of Labrouste’s Bibliotheque
6. What were the contributions made by Sullivan towards the development of Chicago School
of Architecture?
7. Name any two Exhibitions structures that manifested iron as a material
8. What are the factors that lead to the birth of modern architecture
9. Why were the “Great Exhibitions” held during the industrial development in the world?
10. Discuss about the impact of industrial revolution on architecture
11. Outline the use of glass immediately after industrial revolution
PART B
1. Explain in detail the origin and ideologies of Neo Classicism with appropriate examples
2. Explain any two industrial exhibitions as an outcome of industrial revolution with suitable
sketches
3. Discuss the impact of industrial revolution in development of new materials and techniques.
State its influence in the development of subsequent architecture
4. Discuss the characteristics of any four Landmark buildings as an outcome of Industrial
Exhibitions
5. Write notes on a. Chicago School of Architecture b. Concrete- the vision of New
Architecture
6. Define Enlightenment Architecture. What were the factors that led to the development of
the same? Discuss their characteristics through the works of Boulle
7. Explain how new materials and methods of construction revolutionised the architecture of
the 19th century
8. How did the invention of Glass as a new building material influence modern architecture?
9. How did the invention of Iron and Steel influence architecture since industrial revolution?
10. Bring out the contributions of Boulle & Ledoux to architecture
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UNIT-I - LEADING TO A NEW ARCHITECTURE
1. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
2. ORIGINS OF NEO-CLASSICISM
3. ENLIGHTENMENT ARCHITECTS: - BOULLE AND LEDOUX.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF ARCHITECTURE:-

-A brief into the various styles of architecture in history
1. ANTIQUITY AND EARLY CHRISTIANITY
2. ISLAM
3. THE ROMANESQUE PERIOD
4. THE GOTHIC PERIOD
5. RENAISSANCE
6. BAROQUE AND ROCCO
7. CLASSICISM
8. NEO-CLASSICISM
NEO CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE AND ENLIGHTENMENT ARCHITECTS
INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICISM
CLASSICISM in architecture developed during the Italian Renaissance, notably in the writings and
designs of LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI and the work of FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI. It places
1. EMPHASIS ON SYMMETRY,
2. PROPORTION,
3. GEOMETRY,
4. ORDERLY ARRANGEMENTS OF COLUMNS,
5. PILASTERS AND
6. LINTELS AND
7. THE REGULARITY OF PARTS as they are demonstrated in the architecture of Classical
antiquity and in particular, the architecture of Ancient Rome.
The use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes, niches and aedicules ("little building") is a
common framing device in both Classical architecture and Gothic architecture. An ædicular frame
treats a window or a niche in a section of wall as if it were a building, sometimes with columns or
pilasters flanking the opening. This style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France,
Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere. Building off of these influences, the seventeenth-century
architects INIGO JONES and CHRISTOPHER WREN firmly established classicism in England.
NEO CLASSICISM
BIRTH OF NEO CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE:-
The neoclassical movement that produced “Neoclassical architecture” began after A.D. 1765, AS A
REACTION AGAINST BOTH THE SURVIVING BAROQUE AND ROCOCO STYLES, and as a desire to
return to the PERCEIVED "PURITY" OF THE ARTS OF ROME.
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Neoclassical architecture was in PART REACTION TO THE EXCESS OF BAROQUE, ROCOCO and was
partly a consequence of new discoveries of Greek, Roman architecture.
Neoclassical Art and Architecture, art produced in Europe and North America from about 1750
through the early 1800s, marked by the emulation of Greco-Roman forms.
Neoclassicism first gained influence in PARIS, through a generation of French art students trained at
the French Academy in Rome.
In Paris, many of the first generation of neoclassical architects received training in the classic French
tradition through a series of exhaustive and practical lectures that was offered for decades by
JACQUES-FRANÇOIS BLONDEL. The finest examples of this style were civic buildings and private
houses.
ORIGINS OF NEO CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE:
• The architecture of Neo Classicism seems to have emerged out of two different but related
developments which radically transformed the relationship between MAN and NATURE.
• The FIRST was a sudden increase in mans capacity to exercise control over nature, which by the
mid 17th century had begun to advance beyond the technical frontiers of the renaissance.
• The SECOND was a fundamental shift in the nature of human consciousness, in response to
major changes taking place in society, which gave birth to a new cultural formation that was
equally appropriate to the lifestyles of the declining aristocracy and the rising bourgeoisie.
• Neoclassical architecture became an INTERNATIONAL STYLE; each country held some distinct
characteristic in their style. It was prevalent in France, Germany and England.
• The architects of the 18thcentury searched for a new style. Their motivation was not simply to
copy the ancients but to obey the principles on which their work had been based.
• In its purest form it is a style principally derived from the “ARCHITECTURE OF CLASSICAL
GREECE”.
FEATURES OF NEO CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE
• Neoclassical, or "new" classical, architecture DESCRIBES BUILDINGS THAT ARE INSPIRED BY THE
CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME.
• A Neoclassical building is likely to have some or all of these features:
1. SYMMETRICAL SHAPE.
2. TALL COLUMNS THAT RISE UP TO THE FULL HEIGHT OF THE BUILDING.
3. TRIANGULAR PEDIMENT.
4. DOMED ROOF.
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NEOCLASSICAL STYLE- ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

• Neoclassical buildings are characterized by CLEAN, ELEGANT LINES AND UNCLUTTERED
APPEARANCES.
• In Neoclassical ARCHITECTURE ORDERS ARE USED STRUCTURALLY rather than as a form of
decoration.
• Columns ARE FREE-STANDING, SUPPORTING ENTABLATURES.
• ROOF LINES ARE GENERALLY FLAT AND HORIZONTAL, without towers /domes.
• FACADES tend to BE LONG AND FLAT.
• Classical proportion maintained on the exterior of the building.
• MINIMAL DECORATION on the exterior.
•
NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND
In England, where the rococo had never been fully accepted, the impulse to redeem the excess of
baroque found its first expression. Between 1750 and 1765, the major Neo-Classical proponents
could be found in residences.
ARCHITECTS ASSOCIATED WITH NEO CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND:
• JAMES STUART – Employed Greek Doric Order as early as 1758.
• GEORGE DANCE – Designed Newgate Gaol in 1765, a superficially Piranesian structure, followed
Neo–Proportional Palladian theories of Robert Morris.
• THOMAS HOPE – Greek Revival-Household furniture and Interior decoration (1807).
NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE

Neoclassicism first gained influence in Paris, through a generation of French art students trained at
the French Academy in Rome.
ARCHITECTS ASSOCIATED WITH NEO CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE:
• CLAUDE PERRAULT : He gave his concept of “POSITIVE BEAUTY” (role of standardization and
perfection) and “ARBITRARY BEAUTY(expressive function as may be required by a particular
circumstance or character).
• ABBE’DE CORDEMOY- He challenged the Vitruvian principle NAMELY UTILITY, SOLIDITY AND
BEAUTY by his own trinity. First principle was the correct proportioning of classical orders, the
second was their appropriate disposition, and the third introduced the notion of fitness which
warned against the inappropriate application of classical elements to utilitarian or commercial
structures.
• Cordemoy was concerned with geometrical purity and was against baroque devices such as
irregular columniation, broken pediments and twisted columns. He argued that many buildings
did not need ornamentation at all
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• J.-G. SOUFFLOT: Recreated the LIGHTNESS,SPACIOUSNESS AND PROPORTION of Classical

architecture(Gothic).Such a ‘translucent’structure was realized in soufflot’s church of Ste-
Genevieve in Paris.
• J.F. BLONDEL: opened an architecture School in 1743 and was the teacher of the Enlightenment
or Visionary architects that included Etienne Louis Boullee,Jacques gondoin,Pierre Patte,Marie-
Joseph Peyre,Jean-Baptiste Rondelet and Claude Nicolas Ledoux .
BUILDINGS OF NEO CLASSICAL STYLE:

ROBERT ADAM
• The Scottish architect and designer Robert Adam, in the 1750s and ’60s redesigned a number of
stately English houses namely the,
• Sion House, 1762–69, and
• Osterley Park, 1761–80),
• He introduced the neoclassical style to Great Britain. The Adam style, as it became known,
remained however somewhat rococo in its emphasis on surface ornamentation and preciosity of
scale, even as it adopted the motifs of antiquity.
J.-G. SOUFFLOT
• In France, Paris, J.-G. Soufflot attempted the classical building in Panthenon (1757-90).
• The facade, like that of the Roman Pantheon, is formed by a porch of Corinthian columns and
triangular pediment.
• Piercier and Fontaine copied the detail of Arch of Constantine and carved into Arc de Triomphe
du Carrousel Paris (1806-08).
Interiors - J.-G. Soufflot classical building Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel Paris (1806-08)
Arch of Constantine Rome
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ENLIGHTENMENT ARCHITECTS:
• The intellectual movement of the Enlightenment developed with the rigid system of the rule
known as ABSOLUTISM.
• The new movement aimed to liberate not just philosophy but every aspect of life from its
traditional shackles and provide a new strictly reasonable ,ratio based orientation
• J.F.BLONDEL after his opening of the architectural school in 1743,RUE DE LA HARPE became THE
MASTER OF THE SO CALLED “VISIONARY” OR ENLIGHTMENT generation of Architects.
• It included “ETINNE LOUIS BOULLEE, PIERRE PATTE, JACQUES GONDION, AND PROBABLY THE
MOST VISIONARY OF ALL “CLAUDE NICOLAS LEDOUX.
• In France Etinne Louis Boullee and Claude Nicolas Ledoux developed a simple cosmic geometry
for their numerous unbuilt designs.
• Ledoux, in his two main built works, the state chemical works of ‘La Saline and the toll gates
around Paris made good use of Tuscan style.
ÉTIENNE-LOUIS BOULLÉE
EARLY LIFE:
Étienne-Louis Boullée (February 12, 1728 - February 4, 1799) was a visionary French neoclassical
architect whose work greatly influenced contemporary architects and is still influential today.
Born in Paris, he studied under Jacques-François Blondel, Germain Boffrand and Jean-Laurent
Legeay, from whom he learned the mainstream French Classical architecture in the 17th and 18th
century and the Neoclassicism that evolved after the mid century.
He was elected to the Académie Royale d'Architecture in 1762 and became chief architect to
Frederick II of Prussia, a largely honorary title.
He designed a number of private houses from 1762 to 1778, though most of these no longer exist;
notable survivors include THE HOTEL ALEXANDRE AND HOTEL DE BRUNOY, both in Paris. Together
with Claude Nicolas Ledoux he was one of the most influential figures of French neoclassical
architecture.
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
Evoked the SUBLIME EMOTIONS OF TERROR AND TRANQUILITY through the grandeur of his
•
conceptions
• He adopted THE UNADORNED GEOMETRICAL PURITY OF MONUMENTAL FORM and the
immensity of vista to promote more exhilaration and anxiety.
• He used THE CAPACITY OF LIGHT to invoke the presence of divine.
THE CENOTAPH OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON,
• In his design of the cenotaph of Sir Isaac Newton, he adopted a vast masonry sphere.
• He used light to portray divinity.
• A fire was suspended at night to represent the sun and extinguished during day time.
• The illusion of light was produced by the daylight shining through the spheres perforated
walls.
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Boullee, Project for a cenotaph for Isaac Newton, 1785
CLAUDE NICOLAS LEDOUX.

EARLY LIFE:
1. Claude Ledoux was born in DORMANS, FRANCE IN 1736.
2. He was educated at a private architectural school in Paris.
3. Established by J. F. BLONDEL, the school emphasized native Baroque tradition but exposed
students to English architecture.
4. After completing his studies, Ledoux assumed several government positions as an engineer,
mainly of bridge design.
5. Ledoux' dramatic style owes much to the fact that he never visited Rome.
6. His concepts of Roman architecture were accordingly warped by the engravings of Piranesi
from which he derived his knowledge.
7. He did visit England, where he was influenced by the Palladian tradition with which he was
already familiar.
8. Although much of Ledoux's architecture is quite practical and functional, the "visionary"
aspects of his work are better known. His designs became symbols of the ancient regime and
their exaggerated use of classical elements seems to anticipate post-modern classicism.
PALAIS DE JUSTICE
• The strict cubic block with columns and pilaster function now no more than decorative
arrangement elements.
• The columns, pilaster and timberworks oriented at classical models are just as characteristic of
the direct early classicism.
Palais de Justice
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IDEAL CITY OF CHAUX, 1804
• The scheme of the salt works was built for Louis XVI at Arc-et-Senans.
• He expanded this semicircular form of this complex into the representational core of his ideal
city of Chaux.
• The semicircular salt works integrated productive units with the worker’s housing.
• The salt evaporation sheds on the axis were high-roofed like the agricultural buildings with
rusticated dressings. While the Director’s house in the centre was low roofed, pediment with
classical porticos.
Ledoux,Ideal city of Chaux,1804
JEAN-NICOLAS-LOUIS DURAND –
1. Built very little but influenced a whole generation of architects, namely Schinkel Gartner
Klenze and Sempur.
2. He reduced his extravagant ideas to a normative and economic typology.
3. Durand established a universal building methodology through modular permutation of fixed
plan types and alternative elevations.
4. His ideas that buildings could be planned in repetitive modular units, that their basic
framework could be clad in different styles of architecture according to function or taste and
that rich decoration was not essential to architectural effect, were a perfect formula for
developing large urban settlements quickly effectively and cheaply.
5. He exploited platonic volumes to achieve appropriate character at a reasonable cost.
KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL (1781-1841)
1. Was a native Prussian; most of his works were carried out in and around Berlin.
2. By 1830, he had produced his main works: the Neue Wache guard house (1816), the
Schauspielhaus (1812-21), Humboldt’s country house (1822-18240 and the Altes museum.
3.
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4. His means was severe and neo-classical though the effects he obtained in his interiors with
dramatic lighting, changes in levels and spatial fluidity show an original mind at work.
5. The influence of Durand is most clearly revealed in the Museum.
6. The exteriors of the Altes Museum is restrained and academic Neo-Classicism; interiors is full
of spatial effects.
7. A two- storey entrance space within the portico, incorporating a fine double staircase, a
splendid domed sculptured hall, and pictured galleries with hanging screens placed at right
angles to the windows for the best lighting effects.
8. Schinkel’s pupils and his successors followed the informality of his later works rather than
rigidity of the classical style.
HENRI LABROUSTE (1801-1875)
One of the Post –Durand buildings in paris is the Ste Genevieve library (1843-50) by Henri Labrouste.
It is a long rectilinear building in which an elegant neo-renaissance façade in two tiers conceals the
interiors. A fine example of Iron engineering with a double row of semicircular iron vaults carried on
iron columns.
Labrouste’s design consists of a perimeter wall of books enclosing a rectilinear space and supporting
an iron-framed, barrel-vault roof which is divided into two halves and further supported in the
centre of the space by a line of Iron columns.
Another main work of Labrouste is THE BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE IN PARIS (1862-1868).
This complex consists of a reading room covered by an Iron and glass roof carried on sixteen cast
iron columns and a multi-storey wrought and cast-iron book stack. The roof of the main reading
room is a cluster of nine domes faced with ceramic panels, with circular openings for lighting the
interior. The elegance of the cast- iron roof structure contrasts with masonry walls around the
perimeter.
The middle of the 19th century saw the Neo-classical heritage divided between two closely related
lines of development:
• The structural Classicism of Labrouste,

• The romantic classicism of Schinkel.
The structural Classicists tended to emphasize structure-the line of Cordemoy, Laugier and Soufflot.
The romantic classicists stressed on the form-the line of ledoux, Boullee and Gilly. One school
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concentrated on such types as prisons hospitals and railway stations while the other school focused
on representational structures such as the university museum, library and grandiose monuments.
UNIT-I –INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
1. Industrial revolution and its impact

2. Materials and technologies
3. History of steel, concrete, glass
IMPACT OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:-
Industrial revolution began in Britain in the 18th century. European architecture in the 19thcentury
was profoundly influenced by the industrial revolution. Goods that had traditionally been made in
the home or in small workshops began to be manufactured in the factory.
Tasks which had earlier been carried out slowly were performed more quickly and more cheaply by
machinery.
Large numbers of people moved from rural areas to urban communities in search of work in the
new factories, leading to expansion of cities.
Different types of building were also needed to meet new demands. Among them were houses,
town halls, museums, concerts halls, libraries, hospitals, department stores, shopping arcades,
schools, colleges, banks offices warehouses and factories.
Railways, which affected social life, also influenced architectural practice. With the railways came a
need for new kinds of buildings such as railway stations, railway hotels and goods yards.
CAUSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:-

At the dawn of the eighteenth century, farming was the primary livelihood in England, with at least
75% of the population making its living off the land.
THE COTTAGE INDUSTRY was developed to take advantage of the farmers' free time and use it to
produce quality textiles for a reasonable price.
THE COTTAGE INDUSTRY helped to prepare the country for the Industrial Revolution by boosting the
English economy.
Thus, when industrialization and the Agricultural Revolution reduced the need for farm workers,
many were forced to leave their homes and move to the city.
The URBANIZATION OF THE ENGLISH POPULATION was largely fueled by farmers who moved to the
city in the hopes of finding new work. This change, which occurred between 1750 and 1830,
happened because conditions were perfect in Britain for the Industrial Revolution.
THREE UNIQUE SOCIAL ELEMENTS which led to the EARLY MECHANIZATION of Britain were:
• EDUCATION,
• MODERN WORK ATTITUDES, AND
• A "MODERN" GOVERNMENT.
The elements needed or preferred for the Industrial Revolution are:

• MODERN WORK ATTITUDES
• EDUCATION
• A PRODUCT
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• TRANSPORTATION FOR THE PRODUCT

• LARGE MARKET
• MODERN GOVERNMENT
• MONEY
KEY INNOVATIONS AND INVENTORS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION:-
The Agricultural Revolution is the name given to the drastic changes in the farming process that
occurred in the 1600's onwards. The spread-out, shared farms, common under the "open-field
system" of cultivation, turned into more compact farms.
Farmers had discovered a crop rotation system. The other innovations which changed the farming
process include:
Jethro Tull’s major contribution to the Agricultural Revolution, were his two inventions: THE SEED
DRILL and HORSE HOE. During the Agricultural Revolution, the agricultural output of England
increased about three and a half times. With more productive farms and a smaller work load, more
people were able to leave the farms and go to the city.
INVENTIONS IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

In 1733 - Flying shuttle invented by John Kay - an improvement to looms that enabled weavers to
weave faster.
In 1742 - Cotton mills were first opened in England.
In 1764 - Spinning jenny invented by James Hargreaves - the first machine to improve upon the
spinning wheel.
In 1764 - Water frame invented by Richard Arkwright - the first powered textile machine.
In 1790 - Arkwright built the first steam powered textile factory in Nottingham, England.
In 1779- Samuel Crompton combined both the spinning jenny and the water frame to create a
machine known as "Crompton's mule," which produced large amounts of fine, strong yarn.
EFFECT ON TRANSPORTATION
Improvements to bridges and roads were made early in the 1700's. Roads and rivers carried the
factory made products to the world markets. Canal building came next, and a network of canals soon
joined important cities. Railroads were made when George Stephenson made a steam engine that
could transport on rails. During the mid 19th century wooden steam powered ships took over sailing
ships.
KEY INVENTIONS - TRANSPORT

In 1800- John McAdam made a roadbed of large crushed stones with smooth layer of crushed
stones. The "macadam" road is still the basis for most of our modern highways.
In 1807- Robert Fulton used steam power to create the first steamboat, an invention that would
change the way and the speed in which materials could be moved between the colonies of Britain.
In 1829- Stephenson used the steam engine to create a steam powered train.
In 1886- The German scientist, Gottlieb Daimler, built the first internal combustion engine.
In 1904- Wilbur and Orville Wright successfully flew their flying machine (Wright Flyer) at Kitty Hawk,
North Carolina.
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These first innovations have greatly affected the basic elements of the era: agriculture, power,
transportation, textiles, and communication.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES DUE TO INDUSTRIALIZATION :-
• The Industrial Revolution brought a shift from the agricultural societies created during the
Neolithic Revolution to modern industrial societies.
• Large portions of the population relocated from the countryside to the towns and cities
where manufacturing centers were found.
• Economic changes caused far-reaching social changes, including the movement of people to
cities, the availability of a greater variety of material goods, and new ways of doing
business.
• In the long run the Industrial Revolution has brought economic improvement in
industrialized societies.
• Many enjoy greater prosperity and improved health, especially those in the middle and the
upper classes of society.
• Drastic population growth following industrialization has contributed to the decline of
natural habitats and resources. These factors, in turn, have caused many species to become
extinct or endangered.
IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ON ARCHITECTURE

• Large numbers of people moved from rural areas to urban communities in search of work
in the new factories, leading to expansion of cities.
• In pre-industrial England, more than three-quarters of the population lived in small villages.
• By the mid-19th century, however, the country had made history by becoming the first
nation with half its population in cities.
• The accommodation of such volatile growth led to the transformations of old
neighborhoods into slums.
• These settlements were congested developments and had inadequate standards of light,
ventilation and open space with poor sanitary facilities.
• These conditions naturally provoked a high incidence of disease and eventually the Public
health act was enacted.
• This act in addition to others, made local authorities legally responsible for sewerage, refuse
collection water supply, roads and the burial of the dead.
• Edwin Chadwick inspired the society for improving the conditions of the laboring classes and
he sponsored the erection of the first working class flats in London in 1844.
• Throughout the 19th century integrated industrial settlements emerged, where the
industries provided all the amenities to their workers.
TOWNSHIPS: - GROWTH OF CITIES
• SIR TITUS SALT’S SALTAIRE, near Bradford in Yorkshire (1850), was a paternalistic mill town,
complete with traditional urban institutions such as a church, school, public baths, houses
and park.
• THE FAMILISTERE WAS BUILT BY J.P.GODIN in 1859-70.This complex comprised of three
residential blocks, a crèche, a kindergarten, a theatre, schools, public baths and laundry.
• THE ENGLISH PARK MOVEMENT FOUNDED BY HUMPREY REPTON attempted to project the
“landscaped country estate into the city.
• Repton demonstrated this, in collaboration with the architect John Nash, in their layout of
regent’s park in London (1812-27).
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• The proposed development enclosing the park by a continuous display facade penetrating
into the existing urban area and extending as a terraced accommodation from the
aristocratic vistas of regent’s park in the north to the urbanity of St James Park and Carlton
House terrace in the south. The Royal palace of the Carlton House was lined with elegant
Neo-Classical buildings with broad Processional avenues.
• IN 1853 HAUSSMANN regularized Paris into a regional metropolis. The city of Paris built
some 137kms of boulevards which were considerably wider, more thickly lined with trees.
• With all this came standard residential plan types, regularized facades and standard system
of street furniture’s. This entire was well ventilated with large open spaces. There was
adequate sewer system and fresh water piped into the city from the Dhuis valley.
• By 1891, inventions like railways, electric tram, passenger lifts, steel frames which gave rise
to multi-storey buildings, emerged as the natural unit for future expansion.
• Two alternative models for the European garden city were proposed by:
- Axial structure of Spanish linear Garden city by Arturo Soria y Mata in early 1880’s.
- The English concentric Garden city by Ebenezer Howard.
• THE ENGLISH GARDEN CITY BY HOWARD’S was widely adopted than the linear model
sponsored by Soria y Mata. The linear city model was considered to be theoretical rather
than practical and hence it failed.
• In addition to this the growth of heavy industry brought a flood of new building materials.
• Cast iron, steel, and glass—with which architects and engineers devised structures hitherto
undreamt of in function, size, and form.
• THE CRYSTAL PALACE (1850-1851; RECONSTRUCTED 1852-1854) IN LONDON, a vast
exhibition hall, designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, used the new materials.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE BUILDINGS – 19th CENTURY
• There IS NO SINGLE STYLE WHICH IS CHARACTERISTIC OF THE 19THCENTURY.Architects

drew their inspiration from and copied virtually every historical style know to them: Greek,
Roman, Gothic, Renaissance as well as Chinese, Indian and Egyptian.
• Buildings are often more easily recognized as belonging to the 19thcentury by the function
they perform than by the style in which they were built.
• Some buildings were designed in a single historical style, with the fundamental rules of that
style strictly observed. Few others were a blend of different styles.
• A mixture of various styles within the same building is one of the characteristic features of
the 19thcentury.
• Some styles were considered suitable for certain buildings ( Neo-Gothic for churches,
Neoclassical for civic buildings).
• Another recognizable feature is mass produced decorative detail using the same mould.
• Other features include stained glass windows, patterned brickwork and ceramic tiling.
• Exteriors of many houses were notable for wrought iron balconies and contrasting colors of
bricks.
• Most extraordinary feature of the 19th century architecture was combination of modern
technology and historic styles.
NEW MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES
HISTORY OF METALS AND THEIR USAGE:

In architecture before 1800, metals played an auxiliary role. They were used for bonding masonry
(dowels and clamps), for tension members (chains strengthening domes, tie rods across arches to
reinforce the vaults) and for roofing, doors, windows, and decoration.
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Small items made of iron, dating from around 4000 B.C., were made in Egypt and Sumer.
The iron used for these probably came from meteorites, which made the metal significant to ancient
people. During the 3rd B.C., smelted iron came into use, mostly for weaponry, across Egypt,
Mesopotamia, and the Mediterranean, and around 1200 B.C. This was wrought iron, a low-carbon,
malleable metal that was painstaking to obtain, by burning iron and charcoal to form bloom, a
spongy mixture from which ash and impurities had to be removed by beating and folding.
Developments in iron-working continued around the globe during the last few centuries B.C. and
into the Middle Ages.
In China, cast and wrought iron were combined to make steel.
In India, crucible steel was already being made, by heating wrought iron, charcoal, and glass to melt
the iron, causing it to absorb carbon.
The Middle East also produced high-quality weapons from steel. After the Baroque faded slowly
away, eighteenth-century architecture consisted primarily of revivals of previous periods.
Previously, building materials had been restricted to a few manmade materials along with those
available in nature: timber, stone, timber, lime mortar, and concrete. Metals were not available in
sufficient quantity or consistent quality to be used as anything more than ornamentation. The
Industrial Revolution changed this situation dramatically. The availability of new building materials
such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the
Industrial Revolution. But for a very long time architects did not really use them.
IRON AND STEEL

The development of construction methods in iron and steel was the most important innovation in
architecture since ancient times. Iron was available in three forms.
THE LEAST PROCESSED FORM, CAST IRON, was brittle due to a high percentage of impurities. It still
displayed impressive compressive strength, however.
WROUGHT IRON was a more refined form of iron, malleable, though with low tensile strength. Steel
was the strongest, most versatile form of iron. Through a conversion process, all of the impurities
were burned out of the iron ore, and then precise amounts of carbon were added for hardness.
STEEL had tensile and compressive strength greater than any material previously available, and its
capabilities revolutionized architecture.
The explosion in the development of iron and steel structures was driven initially by the advance of
the railroads. Bridges which were required to span gorges and rivers were of three types:
• The BRIDGE WITH A TRADITIONAL ARCH made of iron instead of stone.
• Later, THE TRUSS BECAME THE PRIMARY ELEMENT OF BRIDGE BUILDING. Trusses were used to
build bridges of unprecedented strength throughout the nineteenth century, including cantilever
bridges consisting of truss complexes balanced on supporting piers.
• A third, more attractive TYPE OF STEEL BRIDGE WAS THE SUSPENSION BRIDGE, in which the
roadway is hung from steel cables strung from supporting towers.
Availability of Iron and Steel in large quantities enabled architects to build on a new and massive
scale. The evolution of steel frame construction in the 20th century entirely changed the concept of
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the wall and the support. These methods provided for stronger and taller structures, greater
unsupported spans over openings and interior or exterior spaces.
USE OF CAST IRON:

• The RAIL WAS THE FIRST UNIT OF CONSTRUCTION. Iron was avoided for dwelling houses and
used for arcades, exhibition halls and railway stations. But the social conditions for its increase
utilization as a building material came into being a hundred years.
• Cast iron, was used in bridge building as early as 1779. WILKINSON assisted DARBY and his
architect, T.F.PRITCHARD in designing and erecting the first cast-iron bridge, a 30.5-metre span
built over the severn near coalbrookdale in 1779.
• In 1796 THOMAS TELFORD made his debut as a bridge builder39.5 –metre span bridge erected
over the severn.
• William strut’s six-storey cotton mill,built at derby in 1792 and charles bage’s flax-spinning mill
erected at shrewsbury in 1796, employed cast iron columns.
• In 1830s that EATON HODGKINSON introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of
iron construction.
• The CRYSTAL PALACE BY JOSEPH Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of
iron and glass construction;
• Cast and wrought iron products had been used extensively in building, especially in the 19th
century, but were largely superseded by the beginning of the 20th century by hot-rolled steel
members.
USE OF WROUGHT IRON:

• Wrought-iron masonry reinforcement in France had its origins in Paris, in PERRAULT’S east
façade of Louvre(1667) and SOUFFLOT’S portico of Ste-Genevieve(1772).
• VICTOR LOUIS used wrought-iron roof for theatre Francais of 1786 and theatre in the palais-
Royal of 1790.
• Around this time the technique of Iron construction underwent an independent evolution,
beginning with the AMERICAN JAMES FINLAY’S invention of stiffened flat deck suspension
bridge in 1801.
• In Britain Brown’s wrought iron flat bars were used in Union Bridge( span-115-metre), built over
Tweed in 1820.
• British wrought- iron suspension construction culminated IN BRUNEL’S CLIFTON BRIDGE (span-
214-metre), Bristol designed in 1829.
• Stephenson and FAIRBAIRN BRITANNIA’S Tubular Bridge over the Menai straits and Brunel’s salt
ash viaduct (1859) made use of plated wrought iron.
• The Britannia Bridge comprised of iron plated box tunnels which bridged the straits in 70-metres
span. Stone towers at intervals introduced for the anchorage of suspension members.
• The PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1889, which included Eiffel’s iron tower was designed by Gustave
Eiffel with overall height of 300 metres.
USE OF STEEL:
• The major disadvantage of iron, low tensile strength, was overcome in the mid-1850s, when the
Bessemer process of making steel (an alloy of iron and carbon).
• The first major structure built entirely of steel was the CANTILEVERED FORTH BRIDGE IN
SCOTLAND, completed in 1890. Its two record-setting spans of 521 m (1,710 ft) were the longest
in existence until 1917.
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• FORTH BRIDGE
• THE ARCHED EADS BRIDGE over the Mississippi River at St. Louis, Missouri, designed by James
Eads and completed in 1874, was the first steel bridge in the United States. At the time the Eads
Bridge was built, it was the longest structure in the United States.
EADS BRIDGE
• The Eads Bridge has three main spans. The center span is 160 m (520 ft) long, and the spans on
either side are each 153 m (502 ft) in length.
• JOHN AND WASHINGTON ROEBLING also designed and built the BROOKLYN BRIDGE, which was
the world’s longest suspension bridge at the time of its completion in 1883, having a main span
of 486 m 31 cm (1,595 ft 6 in).
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•
•
• BROOKLYN BRIDGE
• The completion of the Brooklyn Bridge marked the beginning of an 80-year period of large-scale
suspension-bridge design in the United States.
• GEORGE FULLER'S innovative steel-cage system for buildings, which involved a unified steel
framework to support the weight of tall buildings, created the multi-story factories and the
skyscrapers.
• The masonry bearing wall was transformed to the steel frame, which assumed all the load-
bearing functions. The building’s skeleton could be erected quickly and the remaining
components hung on it to complete it, an immense advantage for high-rise buildings on busy city
streets.
• The Chicago architect LOUIS SULLIVAN, IN HIS WAINWRIGHT BUILDING (1890-1891) in St. Louis,
Missouri, his Guaranty Building (1895) in Buffalo, New York, and his Carson Pirie Scott
Department Store (1899-1904) in Chicago, gave new expressive form to urban commercial
buildings.
• His career converges with the so-called Chicago School of architects, whose challenge was to
invent the skyscraper or high-rise building, facilitated by the introduction of the electric elevator
and the sudden abundance of steel.
•
• The best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by
William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan.
• In the same time another huge steel building was build in Paris. THE "GALLERIE DES MACHINES"
a huge 422m long, 114m wide and 47m high hall by Charles Dutert and Victor Contamin
• Russian Constuctivist Vladimir Tatlin's proposal for a spiraling steel monument to the Third
International in 1920 provided a dynamic and optimistic visual image for the new technology.
• By mid of 18th century cast iron columns and wrought iron rails used in conjunction with modular
glazing,had become the standard technique for the rapid prefabrication and erection of urban
centres.
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Examples of modern structures of steel
1. The Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building
The Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building is a landmark department store building at State
Street and Madison, Chicago, Illinois. It was designed by Louis Sullivan, built in 1899 for the retail
firm Schlesinger & Meyer, and expanded and sold to Carson Pirie Scott in 1904.The building is
remarkable for its steel structure, which allowed a dramatic increase in window area, which in turn
allowed far more daylight into the building interiors, and far more display of merchandise to outside
pedestrian traffic. The lavish cast-iron ornamental work above the rounded tower was also meant to
be functional. Sullivan designed the corner entry to be seen from both State and Madison, and that
the ornamentation, situated above the main entrance, would be literally attractive. The building is
one of the classic structures of the Chicago school.
The Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building Wainwright Building
2. Wainwright Building
The Wainwright Building is a 10-story red-brick landmark office building in downtown Missouri. Built
in 1891 and designed by Adler and Louis Sullivan, it is among the first skyscrapers in the world.
Sullivan used a steel frame and applied his intricate terra cotta ornament in vertical bands to
emphasize the height of the building.
3. Tatlin’s Constructivist tower
Tatlin's Constructivist tower was to be built from industrial materials: iron, glass and steel. The
tower's main form was a twin helix which spiraled up to 400 m in height. The main framework would
contain three enormous rotating geometric structures. At the base of the structure was a cube
which was designed as a venue for lectures, conferences and congress meetings. In the centre of the
structure was a cone, housing executive activities. The topmost one, a cylinder, was to house an
information centre. There were also plans to install a gigantic open-air screen on the cylinder.
Although there were plans to build Tatlin’s Tower, the monument was never constructed.
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Tatlin's Constructivist tower
CONCRETE
The Industrial Revolution provided another building material, a stronger more durable and fire
resistant type of cement called Portland cement was developed in 1824. The new material was still
limited by low tensile strength, however, and could not be used in many structural applications. The
nineteenth century builders came up with the idea of reinforced concrete. Though expensive, iron
and steel had high tensile strength and could be easily formed into long, thin bars. Enclosed in
cheap, easily formed concrete, the bars were protected from fire and weather. The result was a
strong, economical, easily produced structural member that could take almost any form imaginable,
including columns, beams, arches, vaults, and decorative elements. It is still one of the most
common building materials used today.
History of Concrete in Architecture:
Concrete was employed in ancient Egypt and was highly developed by the ancient Romans, whose
concrete made with volcanic-ash cement (pozzolana) permitted a great expansion of architectural
methods, particularly the development of domes and vaults (often reinforced by brick ribbing) to
cover large areas, of foundations, and of structures such as bridges and sewerage systems where
waterproofing was essential. The technique of manufacture declined in the middle ages and was
regained in the 18th century.
Use of Concrete –Building examples

• The first modern concrete bridge was a solid concrete bridge, 12 m (39 ft) long, built over the
GARONNE CANAL AT GRISOLES, FRANCE, IN 1840.
• All early concrete bridges used arched designs by necessity because concrete has great
compressive strength but is very weak in tension.
• Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression include Frank
Lloyd Wright's Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago,
• And Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built from 1926 near Basel, Switzerland.
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REINFORCED CONCRETE:
Reinforced concrete was developed to add the tensile strength of steel to the compressive strength
of mass concrete. Reinforced concrete emerged simultaneously in Germany, the United States,
England, and France between 1870 and 1900. Three 20th-century developments in production are
destined to have a radical effect on architecture:
1. The first, concrete-shell construction permits the erection of vast vaults and domes with a
concrete and steel content so reduced that the thickness is comparatively less than that of an
eggshell.
2. The second development, precast-concrete construction, employs bricks, slabs, and supports
made under optimal factory conditions to increase waterproofing and solidity, to decrease time
and cost in erection, and to reduce expansion and contraction.
3. Finally, prestressed concrete provides bearing members into which reinforcement is set under
tension to produce a live force to resist a particular load. Since the member acts like a spring, it
can carry a greater load than an unstressed member of the same size.
USE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE –BUILDING EXAMPLES

• IN FRANCE, FRANCOIS COIGNET was the first to use the reinforced concrete. In 1861 he
developed a technique for strengthening concrete with metal mesh (ferroconcrete) and used
this material in building sewers, other public structures including a remarkable series of six-
storey apartment blocks in 1867.
• IN 1892 FRENCH ENGINEER FRANÇOIS HENNEBIQUE combined the strengths of both steel and
concrete in a new system of construction based on concrete reinforced with steel. Hennebique’s
invention of monolithic joints created monolithic frames. His invention made possible previously
unimaginable effects: extremely thin walls with large areas of glass; roofs that cantilever to
previously impossible distances; enormous spans without supporting columns or beam; and
corners formed of glass rather than stone, brick, or wood.
• One of the earliest architects to experiment with these new effects was BELGIAN ARCHITECT-
ENGINEER AUGUSTE PERRET, whose 1903 apartment building on Rue Franklin in Paris, France,
exemplified basic principles of steel reinforcement. On the façade, Perret clearly separated the
structural elements of steel-reinforced concrete from the exterior walls, which were simply
decorative panels or windows rather than structural necessities. The reinforced concrete
structure also eliminated the need for interior walls to support any weight, permitting a floor
plan of unprecedented openness. Perret's building stood eight stories high, with two additional
stories set back from the front of the building, the typical height of most Paris buildings at the
time
.ROBERT MAILLART designed the reinforced concrete bridges in dynamic parabolic curves. (eg.
Bridge at Zuoz(1901),Bridge at Salgina Gorge(1929-30).
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• The most dynamic building of the early 20th century was the Jahrhunderthalle(1911-13) built in
Breslau. Max Berg conceived the interiors with gigantic arched ribs of reinforced concrete
supporting a glass dome over a 65-metre circular auditorium. The external appearance was
suppressed by Neo-classical elements and with concentric tiers of glazing.
• In United States, F.L. Wright began to use reinforced concrete for Bank project( 1901),E-Z Polish
factory and Unity Temple (1905-06).
• Adolf loos’s Steiner house in Vienna (1911) was perhaps the first modern example of reinforced
concrete house construction. Its cubist appearance with flat roofs and plain walls and its
freedom of plan- form were features of the material.
• "Erich Mendelsohn's, Einstein Tower is a small, but powerfully modeled tower, built to
symbolize the greatness of the Einsteinian concepts, was also a quite functional house.
Examples of early Concrete constructions
1. Rue Franklin apartments – Auguste Perret

This apartment building with which Perret established his reputation is to be regarded as one of the
canonical works of 20th-century architecture. Perret deliberately made the apartment partition
walls nonstructural throughout and their partial removal would have yielded an open space,
punctuated only by a series of free-standing columns. The cantilevers at the first floor level were
made possible with use of the new material. Each floor is organized with the main and service stairs
to the rear (each with its own elevator) the kitchen to one side and the principal rooms to the front.
Rue Franklin apartments – Auguste Perret Einstein Tower
2. Einstein Tower
"Erich Mendelsohn's small, but powerfully modeled tower, built to symbolize the greatness of the
Einsteinian concepts, was also a quite functional house. It was designed to hold Einstein's own
astronomical laboratory. Mendelsohn was after a completely plastic kind of building, moulded rather
than built, without angles and with smooth, rounded corners. He needed a malleable material like
reinforced concrete, which could be made to curve and create its own surface plasticity, but due to
post-war shortages, some parts had to be in brick and others in concrete.
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GLASS
The invention of glass took place around 4000 years ago in the eastern Mediterranean. Two
thousand years passed between the initial discovery and the appearance of blown glass, which led to
the production of thin transparent sheets strong enough for windows. This marked the beginning of
a symbiosis between glass and buildings. The use of glass as a building material allowed architects to
explore on a larger scale.
The next quantum leap occurred in the nineteenth century, with the introduction of the skeletal
structural frame, initially fabricated from cast and wrought iron, and latterly steel and reinforced
concrete. Iron and glass technology generated a new architectural language and new typologies -
conservatories, arcades, heroic glazed rail sheds and exhibition buildings, notably Paxton's seminal
Crystal Palace of 1851 which used over 300,000 sheets of glass.
History of Glass
Glass production flourished in Egypt and Mesopotamia until about 1200 bc. In the 9th century bc,
the industry spread throughout the Mediterranean region. In Churches of the medieval period,
mosaic glass was used in Mediterranean Europe and stained-glass windows in the north. Mosaics
were made of small glass cubes, or tesserae, embedded in cement. The tesserae, cut from solid
cakes of glass, could be extremely elaborate, with gold and silver lead inlaid.
Glass windows in churches are found as early as the 6th century. But the finest windows are
considered those from the 13th and 14th centuries, primarily in France and England.Medieval
cathedral windows used flat coloured glass. The glass was colored, or flashed with color, and then
cut into the shapes required by the design. Details were painted into the glass, often with brownish
enamel. The pieces were fitted into lead strips and set in an iron framework. The art declined in the
late Renaissance but was revived in the 19th century. The discovery of thin transparent sheets of
glass marked the beginning of a symbiosis between glass and buildings.
Use of Glass – Building Examples
• Fontaine’s Galerie d’Orleans built in the Palais Royal in 1829 was the earliest arcade to have a
glass barrel vault.
• Richard Turner and Decimus Burton’s Palm House at Kew Gardens built in 1845-48, was one of
the first structures to use sheet glass.
• The Crystal Palace(1851) by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example
of iron and glass construction;
• Gropius' Fagus Factory of 1911 was one of the first examples of a glass facade supported by a
thin steel framework;
• Bruno Taut's polygonal Glashaus Pavilion for the 1914 Werkbund Exhibition in Cologne was
made entirely from glass.
• Wain wright Building of Louis Sullivan.
INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – 19TH CENTURY

During the 19th&20th century international exhibitions, popularly called world's fairs, have become
elaborate showcases for technological and cultural developments as well as manufactured products.
Some of the important international expositions include:
1. The Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace (1851)

2. In Paris a series of international Expositions were held, they are : -The Paris Exposition of
1855, Exposition Universelle (1855), -The Paris Exposition or Paris World's Fair of 1878,-The
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Paris Exposition of 1889, Exposition Universelle (1889) ,-The Paris Exposition of 1900,-The
Paris Exposition'of 1925, Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et
Industriels Modernes.
3. World's Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago in 1893.
4. Vienna Exposition held in 1873.
1. THE GREAT EXHIBITION AT THE CRYSTAL PALACE (1851)
• The Great Exhibition, also known as the Crystal Palace Exhibition, was HELD IN HYDE PARK
IN LONDON in the specially constructed Crystal Palace
• The Crystal Palace was originally designed BY SIR JOSEPH PAXTON in only 10 days and was a
huge iron goliath with over a million feet of glass.
• Over 13,000 exhibits were displayed and viewed by over 6,200,000 visitors to the exhibition.
This building was divided into a series of courts depicting the history of art and architecture
from ancient Egypt through the Renaissance.
• Sir Joseph Paxton, its architect, was famous for his elegant conservatories and greenhouses;
in essence, the Crystal Palace was the largest greenhouse ever built. Except for three
entrance porches, symmetrically disposed, its glazed perimeter was uninterrupted.
• Paxton USED PREFABRICATED GLASS UNITS framed in wood and cast iron, supporting them
on a cast-iron skeleton.
• The massive glass house was 1848 feet (about 563 m) long by 454 feet (about 138 m)
wide, and went from plans to grand opening in just nine months. Its overall form was
structured around a basic 8 feet cladding module, structural spans varying from 24 to72 feet.
• The Crystal Palace itself was almost outshone by the park in which it stood, which contained
a magnificent series of fountains, comprising almost 12,000 individual jets. The park also
contained unrivaled collections of statues, many of which were copies of great works from
around the world.
• After the Great Exhibition closed, the Crystal Palace was moved to Sydenham Hill in South
London and reconstructed in what was, in effect, a 200 acre Victorian
theme park.
• Images of
Crystal Palace - 1851
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2. PARIS EXPOSITION: In Paris a series of international Expositions were held, they are
1. The Paris Exposition of 1855, Exposition Universelle (1855).

2. The Paris Exposition or Paris World's Fair of 1878, Exposition Universelle (1878).
5. The Paris Exposition'of 1925, Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels
Modernes.
PARIS EXPOSITION - 1855
• After London hosted the first international exposition in 1851, Napoleon III realized that
France needed to seize back the initiative.
• The Exposition Universelle held in Paris in 1855, Jean-Marie Viel and Alexandre Barrault
served respectively as architect and engineer for the Palais de l’Industrie.
• The Palace of Industry measured 850 feet long and 350 feet wide. The principal nave itself
was 630 feet long, 158 feet wide and connected on four sides by two story high, ninety-eight
foot wide aisles.
• It contained semi-circular trusses which bridged an 80 foot span to create an enormous
exhibition room. This giant structure was located on a triangular plot of land.
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Exterior and Interior of the Paris Exposition – 1855
PARIS EXPOSITION – 1867
• Le Play proposed a temporary oval exhibition palace whose appearance would recall the
Roman Colosseum.
• The engineer JEAN BAPTISTE KRANTZ was commissioned with the design and construction
of the 490 metres long and 390 metres wide building, which was altogether to cover an
area of 150,000 square metres. Léopold Hardy, Charles Duval and the young Gustave Eiffel
assisted in the realisation of the plans.
• Cast iron pillars and wrought iron piles on the foundation walls formed the framework
which supported the roof construction of glass and corrugated sheeting, which ensured an
even and natural light in the halls.
Exterior of the Paris Exposition - 1867
PARIS EXPOSITION UNIVERSELLE DE -1878
• The third Paris World's Fair, called as Exposition Universelle in French was held in 1878.
• The Paris Exhibition of 1878 was on a far larger scale in every respect than any which had
been previously held in any part of the world.
• The total area covered over 66 acres (267,000 m²), the main building in the Champ de
Mars occupying 54 acres (219,000 m²).
• The two main structures include the Trocadero Palace which was demolished in 1936 and
the Champ de Mars (1878).
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The Trocadero Palace constructed for the 1878

Exposition Universelle - Demolished 1936.
The Champ de Mars- 1878 Exposition Universelle
Exterior of the Champ de Mars.
View of the Exposition with

Trocadero Palace on the left and
the Champ de Mars to the right.
PARIS EXPOSITION UNIVERSELLE DE 1900
• The magnificent buildings produced for the Paris exposition in 1900 - THE EIFFEL TOWER,
THE TROCADERO AND THE MACHINE HALL.
• The strong increase in the number of themes to be exhibited and participating nations
resulted in collaboration between a large numbers of architects and prevented the
exposition from focussing on any one particular architectural style.
• The exhibition site could be entered via a main gate with 36 entrances. The "Porte
Monumentale" - also known as the "Porte Binet", after its architect, was an example of
richly ornamented scenic architecture which had a major influence in shaping the
exposition's overall appearance.
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• The hall consisted of three arches connected in a triangle, covered by a dome roof of 500
square metres in size. Two minarets of 35 metres in height flanked the main arch for
lighting purposes.
• A tower emerged from the dome like a bud, and the host city of Paris was represented at
the top of this tower in the form of an allegorical female figure by Paul Moreau-Vauthier.
• The Grand Palais des Arts - the venue for the international exhibition of contemporary art -
was the result of the collaboration of four architects, whose different approaches were
expressed in the four different historicizing façade designs.
View of the Grand Palace
Chateau de Eau and Palais de l’Électricitié Interior of the Grand Palace
View from Trocadero towards Eiffel Tower
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The Eiffel Tower
• The Eiffel Tower was built for the International Exhibition of Paris of 1889 commemorating
the centenary of the French Revolution.
• Designed by the French engineer Alexandre Gustave Eiffel (1832-1923) for the entrance to
the 1889 Exposition Universelle in the Paris Champ de Mars. The Eiffel Tower is the tallest
structure in Paris, and reigned for 40 years as the tallest in the world.
• The metal lattice-work, formed with very pure structural iron, makes the tower both
extremely light and able to withstand tremendous wind forces.
• At 300 metres (320.75m including antenna), and 7000 tons, it was the world's tallest
building until 1930. It was possible to make it so tall because Eiffel could use the new
material steel for his construction.
• Other statistics include:
1. 2.5 million rivets.

2. 300 steel workers, and 2 years (1887-1889) to construct it.
3. Height varies up to 15 cm depending on temperature.
4. 15,000 iron pieces (excluding rivets).
5. 40 tons of paint.
6. 1652 steps to the top.
• The lower section of the tower consists of four immense arched legs set on masonry piers.
• The legs curve inward until they unite in a single tapered tower.
• There are three main platforms, each with an observation deck.
1. The first deck is 57 m (187 ft) high,

2. while the second is 116 m (381 ft) off the ground. Both are
accessible by stairs or elevator. The third deck, which is 276 m (906
ft) high, is accessible to visitors only by elevator.
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Eiffel’s plan for the tower
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Photos of Eiffel Tower construction
Gallerie des Machines (1843 -93)
• The "Gallerie des Machines" consists of a huge 422m long, 114m wide and 47m high hall.
The Machines” was built by Charles Dutert and Victor Contamin (1843-93) and demolished
in 1910.
• The structure was spanned by a series of vast steel principal arches which were hinged at
the base and apex, braced longitudinally with steel ribs.
• Comparable in volume with the crystal palace, the gallerie was structurally more dynamic
and the first major example of the advantages of steel over iron.
3. WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, HELD IN CHICAGO
• The World's Columbian Exposition was held in Chicago in 1893. The Exposition occupied 630
acres in Jackson Park and the Midway.
• The main site was bounded by Stony Island Avenue on the west, 67th Street on the south,
Lake Michigan on the east, and 56th Street on the north. The Midway Plaisance, a narrow strip
of land between 59th and 60th streets, extends west from Stony Island to Cottage Grove
Avenue.
• The Woman's Building exhibited over 400 years of progress made by women. Displays
included objects made by nineteenth-century women from Europe and the United States as
well as women's work by Native Americans. Getting a building of their own symbolized the
importance of women at the Exposition.
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• The statue of the Republic symbolized the strength of the country, which had survived a civil
war and was taking in immigrants from all over
the world.
World's Columbian Exposition –Chicago (1893
The Woman's Building The dome of the Horticulture Building (1892
The Court of Honor and the Statue of the Republic
3. VIENNA EXPOSITION
• This fair was the first exposition to use multiple buildings instead of one main structure.
The Vienna exposition was the first to house the various categories of production in
separate buildings, while the national exhibits remained in a single structure.
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• The MOST PROMINENT FEATURE IS THE ROTUNDA, ROTUNDA the enclosed circular building
building. The
rotunda was actually just one part of the Palace of Industry, which expanded on either side
to form a horizontal strip about 2,953 feet long, running from east to west with sh shorter
corridors intersecting it.
• This created a series of twenty-eight
twenty galleries that displayed an international array of
industrial products.
• The palace was designed to be a permanent structure,
structure, and was used after the exposition to
hold trade shows. When n it burned down in 1937, new trade fair exhibition halls were built
that still remain in use today.
• The Machinery Hall ran parallel to, and was located north of, the main building, towards the
top of the map. It was 2060 feet long and 125 feet wide. wide It consisted in a single room, 60
feet high, and was built with brick walls and an iron roof. The building could accommodate
two parallel railway tracks, and was reused as a storage building for the Great Northern
Railway after the fair was over.
• The Art Hall,l, directly to the east of the rotunda and main exposition buildings. It was 100 by
600 feet and made of brick, with stucco finish on the outside. It held mostly paintings, with a
few statues and statuettes dispersed throughout. Art exhibits were divided into into three
categories: fine art, religious art, and amateur art.
Plan of the Weltausstellung in Vienna (1873) Exterior of the Vienna exposition
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This illustration depicts the Rotunda during opening ceremonies at the exposition in Vienna (1873)
INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION – 20TH CENTURY
The Barcelona International Exhibition (1929) - The Barcelona Pavilion
• The Barcelona Pavilion was designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969) as the
German national pavilion for the 1929 Barcelona International Exhibition.
• Built from glass, travertine and different kinds of marble, the Pavilion was conceived to
accommodate the official reception presided over by King Alphonso XIII of Spain along with
the German authorities.
• The pavilion had a flat roof supported on chrome columns. The steel skeleton and the
pavilion’s walls, rectangular planes of marble, glass, and onyx placed vertically or
horizontally, could be freely positioned and made it possible that space seems to flow
through them.
• This use of the open plan achieves extreme lightness and movement. The pavilion has
become a key reference point in both the career of mies van der rohe and 20th-century
architecture as a whole.
The Barcelona Pavilion -1929
34
UNIT II -REVIEWING INDUSTRIALISATION

Opposition to industrial arts and production - Arts and Crafts in Europe and America : Morris,
Webb- Art Nouveau: Horta, Van De Velde, Gaudi, Guimard, Mackintosh - Vienna secession:
Hoffman, Olbrich- Wright’s early works
BIRTH OF ARTS AND CRAFT MOVEMENT

1. The Victorian style of heavily ornamented interiors displaying many pieces of furniture
collections of small ornamental objects, and surfaces covered with fringed cloths prevailed
in middle-class homes in ENGLAND AND AMERICA during the latter half of the 19th century
2. Techniques of mass productions promoted the use of reproductions in many different styles.
3. WILLIAM MORRIS, the British poet, artist and architect rejected this opulence in favour of
simplicity, good craftsmanship, and good design.
“THE ARTS & CRAFTS MOVEMENT WAS BORN”
19TH CENTURY and the early years of the 20TH CENTURY
As a reaction to the”soulless” machine-made production aided by the Industrial Revolution.
EFFECTS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLTION

• Separated humans from their own creativity and individualism.
• The worker was a cog in the wheel of progress.
• Cheap manufactured goods, which had flooded shops and filled houses n the second half of
the 19th century.
• The machine to be the root cause of all repetitive and mundane evils.
1.These proponents sought to re-establish the ties between beautiful work and the worker,
RETURNING TO AN HONESTY IN DESIGN NOT TO BE FOUND IN MASS-PRODUCED ITEMS
2. The movement relied on the talent and creativity of the individual craftsman and attempted
to create a total environment.
3. Arts and Crafts Movement was a response to the industrial revolution. It was a broad and
diverse movement, incorporating many idealistic themes.
BELIEFS OF ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT:
1. That well-designed buildings, furniture and household goods would improve society.
2. That the material environment affected the moral fibre of society
3. That the ideal was contented workers making beautiful objects
4. And that both design and working lives had been better in the past
5. It was neither anti-industrial nor anti-modern
6. The Arts and Crafts movement were against the principle of a division of labour.
7. The Arts and crafts ideal they offered was a spiritual, craft-based alternative, intended to
alleviate industrial productions degrading effects on the souls of laborers and on the goods
the produced.
8. It emphasized local traditions and materials and was inspired by vernacular deign – that is,
9. “CHARACTERISTIIC LOCAL BUILDING STYLES THAT GENERALLYA WERE NOT CREATED BY
ARCHITECTS”
ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT IN EUROPE:

• BRITISH MOVMENT focuses on the richly detailed gothic style.
• Their interior walls were either e the common man, the cost of paying craftsman an honest
wage resulted in higher prices than the common man could afford
• This limited the movement to the upper class.
35
ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT ARCHITECTS:

JOHN RUSKIN (1819-1900)
WILLAM MORRIS (1834-1896)
PHILIP WEBB (1813-1915)
RICHARD NORMAN SHAW
EDEN NESFIELD
GEORGE EDMUND STREET
1.JOHN RUSKIN 1819 – 1900:
• Art critic, a fine writer of profound insight

• 1836-1853- First volume book- “ MODERN PAINTERS”
• 1849- “THE SEVEN LAMPS OF ARCHITECTURE” PUTTING FORWARD basic precepts for the
designer
Sacrifice - Involved in striving for excellence
Truth - in the honest use of materials
Power - of simple grand forms
Beauty - imparted by the use of nature as a source of inspiration
Life - given by the hand craftsmanship
Memory - offered to future generations by a work of art built for property
Obedience - of disciplining oneself to the use of finest styles of the past (which according to
Ruskin’s view were Italian Romanesque, Italian gothic, English Gothic of the late 13th and early 14th
century
DESIGN PRINCIPLES:
1. In the Stones of venice (1851-18530, he examines the venetian Gothic in more detail and
also developed his ideas on craftsmanship, explaining the artistic achievements of the
middle ages in terms of medieval craftsmans intimate involvement in the building process
and conversely the ugliness of the modern world in terms of modern craftsmans denied
opportunity for self creation through fulfilling work.
2. To him riches were less important than privilege and to demand uncreative work from one’s
fellow was immoral.
3. He had an immediate though superficial influence on many contemporary architects and
builders.
4. The post Ruskin period was marked by the use of Italian details – particularly plate tracery of
the Dodge’s palace, of decorative carving in natural vegetable forms, and by mixing of
materials to achieve polychromatic effects.
In Oxford where he lived and taught, his ideas affected a wole generation
of buildings.
1. OXFORD MUSEUM-DEANE AND WOODWARDS (1855-1859—
ON WHICH Ruskin collaborated for a while.
2. CHURCH OF ST.PHILIP AND JAME, OXFORD (1860-1862)-by
George Edmund Street-which was rich in Ruskinian
polychrome Masonary
The concepts of truth and power expressed in the seven Lamps of
architecture became a fundamental part of development of modern
architectural theory. He criticized Capitalism very vehemently.
36
OXFORD MUSEUM
-DEANE AND WOODWARDS (1855-1859) On which
Ruskin collaborated for a while.
Name : Church of St Philip and St James;

Type of site : Parish Church Faith: Anglican
Date: 1862
Architecture: Neo-Gothic
2.PHILIP WEBB (1831-1915)

Worked in street’s office in Oxford where he came to understand Ruskin’s theories their
essence and not their superficialities which surrounded them and a wish to take them
further.
Webb was an uncompromising, even brutal designer devoid of academicsm and prepared to
use any styles or mixture of styles without too much of regard for their original context but
merely for the functional appropriateness of motifs they contained
He confined himself almost entirely to the design of houses, in town and country
1. Red House (18590
2. Palace Green in London (1868)
3. 19 Lincoln’s Inn Field in London (1868)
4. Joldwyns in surrey (18730
5. Clouds in wiltshire (1876)
6. Smeaton in Yorkshire 918780
7. Conhurs in surrey (1885)
RED HOUSE:- (1859)
INTRODUCTION
37
• Red House in Bexleyheath in the southern

suburbs of London, England is a key building in
the history of the Arts and crafts movement
• 19th century British architecture.
• Was the most significant 19th century attempt
To return to vernacular architecture
• It was a building all most without style, in the
academic sense.
• Medieval in appearance.
• Forms were directly derived from the character
of the materials used and were designed
carefully and artfully to resemble the work of skilled
but simple craftsman
EXTERIORS
• Its plain brick walls and steeply pitched clay tile
roof gave its name RED HOUSE
• It was designed in 1859 by its owner. William
Morris, and the architect Philip Webb, with
wall paintings and stained glass by Edward Burne-
Jones.
• Morris wanted a home for himself and his new wife,
jane.
• He also desired to have a “Palace of Art” in which
he and his friends could enjoy producing works of art.
• The house is of warm red brick with a steep tiled
roof and an emphasis on natural materials.
• It was the first domestic dwelling to have stained glass windows.
PLANNING
• Morris wanted the garden to be an integral part of the house, providing a seamless
experience.
• The “rooms” were comprised of a herb garden, a vegetable garden, and two rooms full of
old-fashioned flowers-jasmine, lavender, roses and an abundance of fruit trees-apple, pear
and quince.
38
3. WILLIAM MORRIS (1834-1896):
1. Morris was an English poet, artist, and socialist reformer,

2. Who rejected the opulence on the Victorian era and urged a return to medieval
traditions of design, craftsmanship, and community.
3. He was inspired by the writings of John Ruskin and Augustus Pugin who championed
the eturn of gothic architecture (the lasttrue architectural movement in their
opinion)
4. The Red House (ALSO BY PHILIP WEBB) built for his marriage to jane Burden, was
designed according to his principles.
5. Having built the house, he needed furniture and decoration neither pretentious nor
shoddy-which was all capitalism could provide-
6. 1861 he founded THE FIRM to produce honest workmanlike furniture, wall paper
and fabrics for himself and others.
Later he expanded into

• Stained Glass
• Books
• Tapestries and
• Carpets making characteristic use of stylized, two
dimensional designs which emphasized the character of the
material he was working with, in contrast to the exaggerated
chiaroscuro of the contemporary machine-produced designs
typified by the great exhibition.
39
ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT IN AMERICA

o The AMERICAN MOVEMENT drew inspiration from the materials, choosing to
HIGHLIGHT THE GRAIN OF THE WOOD OR THE FORM OF THE POT.
o They incorporated walls of rich wood tones, relegating wallpaper to brothers.
o Paints were in rich earth tones.
o Furniture and architectural details were designed to take advantage of machines
o Allowing the individual craftsmen to assemble the furniture and finish the wood.
o The use of machines lowered the cost, making the furniture, pottery and metalwork
affordable and therefore available to “the people”.
o On a distinctively more BOURGEOIS flavor.
o The aesthetic counterpart of its contemporary political movement: Progressivism
o Spawned a wide variety of attempts to reinterpret European Arts and Crafts ideals
for Americans.
40
Living room from the Little Armchair, 1907-9, Library table, 1906, Gustav
house, Wayzata, Minnesota, Charles Sumner Stickley craftsman workshops.
1912-14, Made by Frank Lloyd Greene and
Wright Henry Mather
Greene
These includes the

1. “CRAFTSMAN”
-Style architecture,
-furniture, and
-other decorative arts such as the designs promoted by Gustav Stickley in his magazine,
The Craftsman.
-A host of Stickley’s furniture (the designs of which are often mislabeled the “Mission Style”)
included three companies formed by his brothers
2. The ROYCROFT community founded by Elbert Hubbard.
3. The “PRAIRIE SCHOOL” of Frank Lloyd Wright,
4. The COUNTRY DAY SCHOOL MOVEMENT,
5. The BUNGALOW STYLE of houses popularized by Greene and Greene.
6. ”Utopian communities like Byrdcliffe and Rose Valley,
7. The contemporary studio craft movement. Studio pottery-exemplified by Grueby,
8. Newcomb, teco, Overbeck and Rookwood pottery
9. Mary Chase Perry Stratton’s Pewabic Pottery in Detroit-
10. The art tiles by Ernest A.Batchelder in Pasadena, California,
• Mission,
• Prarie, and
• California bungalow styles of homebuilding remain tremendously popular in the United
States today.
ARCHITECTS INVOLVED IN THE MOVEMENT:

• The “MISSION OAK” style furniture embraced by GUSTAV STICKLEY,
• The “PRARIE SCHOOL” of FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT,
• The COUNTRY DAY SCHOOL MOVEMENT, the bungalow style of houses popularized by
GREENE AND GREENE
THE MISSION STYLE

• The term Mission style was also used to describe Arts and Crafts Furniture and design in the
United States.
• The use of this term reflects the influence of traditional furnishings and interiors from the
American Southwest which had many features in common with the earlier British Arts and
Crafts forms.
• Charles and Henry Greene were important Mission Style architects working in California.
• Southwestern style also incorporated Hispanic elements associated with the early Mission
and Spanish architecture, and Native American design.
• The result was a blending of the arts and crafts rectilinear forms with traditional Spanish
Colonial architecture and furnishings.
• Mission Style interiors were often embellished with Native American patterns, or actual
Southwestern Native American artifacts such as rugs, pottery, and baskets.
41
Mission Style, the Morris chair

Mission Style Footstool
MISSON STYLE:-
1. Charles and Henry Greene
The Gamble House Pasadena, California, is an outstanding
example of American Arts and Crafts style architecture.
The house and furnishings were designed by Charles and
Henry Greene in 1908 for David and Mary Greene of the
Procter and Gamble Company.
Interiors:
• Rooms in the Gamble House were built using
multiple kinds of wood; the teak, maple, oak, Port
Orford cedar, and mahogany surfaces are placed
in sequences to bring out contrasts of color, tone and grain.
• Inlay in the custom furniture designed by the architects matches inlay in the tile mantle
surrounds, and the interlocking joinery on the main staircase was left exposed.
• One of the wooden panels in the entry hall is actually a concealed door leading to the
kitchen, and another panel opens to a clothes closet.
• The Greenes used an experienced team of local contractors who had worked together for
them in Pasadena on several previous homes, including the Hall brothers, Peter and John,
who are responsible for the high quality of the woodworking in the house and its furniture.
• The woods, the low and horizontal room shapes, and the natural light that filters through
the art glass exterior windows, coexist with a relatively traditional plan, in which most rooms
are regularly shaped and organized around a central hall.
• Although the house is not as spatially adventurous as the contemporary works of Frank
Lloyd Wright or even of the earlier New England "Shingle Style," its mood is casual and its
symmetries tend to be localized - i.e. symmetrically organized spaces and forms in
asymmetrical relationships to one another. Ceiling heights are different on the first (8'10")
and second floors (8'8") and in the den (9'10") and the forms and scales of the spaces are
constantly shifting, especially as one moves from the interior of the house to its second-floor
semi-enclosed porches and its free-form terraces, front and rear.
42
The third floor was planned as a billiard room, but was used as an attic by the Gamble
•
family. The Gamble family crest, a crane and trailing rose, was integrated in part or whole in
many locations around the house.
GUSTAV STICKLEY: (March 9, 1858 – April 21, 1942)
• Gustav Stickley created the first truly American furniture, known throughout the
World as craftsman
• A hardworking dedicated man, stickley achieved success in the early 1900s as
THE LEADER OF THE ARTS & CRAFTS MOVEMENT IN AMERICA
• GUSTAV STICKLEY was a furniture maker and architect as well as the leading spokesperson
for the American Arts & Crafts movement.
• His trip to the 1900 Paris Exhibition confirmed his bias against reproductions. While taking
his philosophical inspiration from the Arts & Crafts European movement, STICKLEY took his
artistic inspiration from America.
• STICKLEY felt that art should be of and by the people, stemming from their everyday lives.
• In 1901, stickley founded THE CRAFTSMAN, A PERIODICAL WHICH BEGAN BY expounding the
philosophy of the English Arts & Crafts movement but which matured into the voice of the
American movement.
• He worked with architect Harvey Ellis to design house plans for the magazine, which
published 221 such plans over the next fifteen years.
• He also established the Craftsman Home Builders Club in 1903 to spread his ideas about
domestic organic architecture.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES:
These ideas had an enormous influence on Frank Lloyd Wright. Stickley believed that:
1. A house ought to be constructed in harmony with it landscape, with special attention paid to
selecting local materials;
2. An open floor plan would encourage family interaction and eliminate unnecessary barriers;
3. Built-in bookcases and benches were practical and ensured that the house would not be
completely reliant on furniture from outside;
4. Exposed Structural elements, light fixtures, and hardware are all considered to be
decorative; and
5. Artificial light should be kept to a minimum, so are groupings of windows were necessary to
bring in light.
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT:

Frank Lloyd Wright originated the PRAIRIE STYLE-
• Open plans
• Horizontality,
• Natural materials which was part of the American Arts and Crafts movement
• Hand Craftsmanship, simplicity, function an alternative to the then dominant classical
• Revival style (Greek forms with occasional Roman influences)
• Wright’s approach to design was closely associated with that of the Arts and Crafts
movement, in which the architect designed not only the house but also the interior
detailing, furniture lighting fixtures, and even doorknobs, hinges and other hardware.
(Prairie School was a late 19th- and early 20th-century architectural style, most common to the
Midwestern United States. The style is usually marked by horizontal lines, flat or hipped roofs with
broad overhanging eaves, windows grouped in horizontal bands, integration with the landscape,
solid construction, craftsmanship, and discipline in the use of ornament. Horizontal lines were
43
thought to evoke and relate to the native prairie landscape. The term Prairie School was not actually
used by these architects to describe themselves (for instance, Marion Mahony used the phrase The
Chicago Group); the term was coined by H. Allen Brooks, one of the first architectural historians to
write extensively about these architects and their work.)
WRIGHTS EARLY WORKS:-

• Wright believed that the architectural form must ultimately be determined by the particular
function of the building, its environment, and the type of materials employed in the structure.
Among his fundamental contribution:

1. The use of various building materials for their natural colors and textures, as well as for
their structural characteristics
2. His exteriors incorporated low Horizontal proportions and strongly projecting eaves.
This concept was particularly evident in his early prairie style, single-family houses, among them
1. Martin House (1904) in Buffalo, New York;
2. Coonley House (19080 in Riverside, lllinois; and
3. Robie House (19090 in Chicago.
FRANK LOYD WRIGHTAND THE MYTH OF THE PRARIE (1890-1916)
FORMATIVE PERIOD (1890’S)

• F.L Wright spent his formative period (early 1890’s) with Adler and Sullivan
• “The transformation of industrial techniques through art” – this exotic vision was what
inspired his early career.
• Yet what form this vision would take was not very clear
• Like his master he oscillated between the authority of the classical order and the vitality of
the asymmetrical form
• Issues of monumentality seems to have been problematic for both Sullivan and Wright
• The initial solution was the doubly articulated formula of:
o The Classical land stone-for urban
o Gothic- for the rural
1890
• After 1890, Wright was virtually in charge of Sullivan’s domestic work
• For Sullivan and wright, the young egalitarian culture of the new world could not be based
on something so ponderous Hence turned towards the more exotic places like India, China,
Egyptian and the Assyrian origins (Sources which were all removed from the west)
1. Oak Park, llinois
44
Wright’s home in Oak Park, Illinois Nathan Grier Moore House
Unity Temple by Frank Llyod Wright

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES of wright’s work:
1. Horizontal lines
2. Flat or hipped roofs with broad
overhanging eaves,
3. Windows grouped in horizontal
bands
4. Integration with the landscape.
5. Solid construction
6. Craftsmanship and
7. Discipline in the use of ornament
8. Horizontal lines were thought to
evoke and relate to the native prairie
landscape
EXAMPLES:
1. Oak Park, lllinois
2. Robie House
3. Willits House
4. Bradley House
5. Winslow House
2. ROBIE HOUSE
1. The Robie house is a residential prairie school style masterpiece designed by architect
Frank Lloyd Wright and built in 1910.
2. It is located on the campus of the University of Chicago in Hyde Park.
3. The House in famous for its art glass windows, which dapple the house with color and
light.
ROBIE HOUSE (1909)
45
Frank Lloyd Wright dining room chair Larkin administration building frank lloyd wright
3. Willits house
46
Stained Glass in Willits house
4. Bradley House
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHTSBradley House, 1902. Kankakee, lllinois
5. WINSLOW HOUSE 1893-1908

• Built at river forest, lllinois 1893
• In the winslow house the problem of evolving an egalitarian but appropriate formatwas
provisionally resolved by providing 2 distinctively different aspects
• The street or the urban façade-being symmetrical and entered on an axis
• Rural or garden façade being asymmetrical and entered on one side
47
• This anticipates that planning strategy of Wright’s prairie style” in which irregular distortions
to the rear of the formal façade conveniently accommodate awkward ingredients such as
the service elements
• Winslow house was a transitional work
• It is clearly confirmed by the mixed fenestrations, part sash and part casement
1. The low hipped prairie roof appears for the first time
2. The animation of surfaces with Sullivan esque bands of ornament and string courses testifies
to the continued influence of Wright’s master.
3. The early emphasis on fireplace testifies to another more critical influences, that of Japanese
architecture
COUNTRY DAY SCHOOL MOVEMENT

1. The Country Day School movement is a movement in progressive education that originated
in the United States in the late 19th Century
2. Country Day Schools seek to recreate the educational rigor, atmosphere, camaraderie and
character-building aspects of the best college prep boarding schools while allowing students
to return to their families at the end of the day
3. To avoid the crime, pollution and health problems of the industrial cities of the early 1900s,
the schools were sited in the ‘country’ where wealthy families owned large homes in what
would later be known as suburbs
4. The country Day School movement shared many values with the Arts and Crafts movement.
5. School buildings and campus landscaping were designed with the goal of creating an
inspirational atmosphere that would foster learning and culture
6. Students were given opportunities to develop leadership skills through clubs and student
organizations.
48
ART NOUVEAU
The name “Art Nouveau” ART NOUVEAU – French for “new art”
Derived from the name of a
shop in paris. Maison de I’Art DEFINITION
Nouveau .at the time run by • General term to describe flowing sinuous designs based on
Samuel Bing. That showcased natural forms
objects that followed this • Style in art, architecture and design that peaked in
approach to design popularity at the beginning of the 20th century.
• Flourished in Europe between 1890 and 1910.
• One of the earliest (and shortest-lived)ed) efforts to develop
an original style for the modern age.
• It was a Romantic individualistic and anti historical and a
highly decorative movement.
ARCHITECTS ASSOCIATED WITH ART NOVEAU:
• Emile Andre
• August Endel
• Antoni Gaudi (1852-1926)
• Victor Horta (1861-1947)
• Josef Hoffmann (1870-1956)
• Hector Guimard (1867-1942)
• Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868-1928)
• Louis Sullivan (1856-1924)
The Peacock Skirt, by Aubrey
• Otto Wagner
Beardsley
49
CHARACTER OF ART NOUVEAU
• DYNAMIC.
• UNDULATING and Flowing,
• Curved “whiplash” lines of syncopated rhythm characterize
much of Art Nouveau.
• Usage of hyperbolas and parabolas.
Art Nouveau sculpture, detail
• Conventional mouldings seem to spring to life and “grow”
of facade in Metz, France
into plant-derived forms
• Use of HIGHLY-STYLIZED NATURE as the source of
inspiration and expanded the “natural” repertoire to
inspirationand expanded seaweed, grass, and insects.
• Correspondingly ORGANIC FORMS.
• Curved lines, especially floral or vegetable, and the like,
were used.
MATERIALS USED
• Iron
• Glass
DECORATION
• Curved lines
Art Nouveau interior at the • Floral
1900 Paris Universal Exhibition
• Geometric Patterns
by Bruno Möhring, German
pavilion
doorway at place Etienne

Pernet
50
ANTONNIO GAUDI (1852-1926)
EARLY LIFE
-Antoni Gaudi (25 june 1852-1926)
-Antonio Gaudi – was a CATALAN ARCHITECT who belonged to the
MODERNIST STYLE (ART NOUVEAU) movement and was famous for
his unique style and highly individualistic designs.
-The artist’s parents--- Frances Gaudi Serra and Antonia Cornet
Bertran.
-Came from families of metalsmiths. It was this exposure to nature at
an early age that influenced him to incorporate natural shapes into
his later work
-Gaudi’s first works were designed in the style of GOTHIC
architecture and traditional Spanish architectural modes but he
soon developed his own distinct sculptural style.
-French architect EUGENE VIOLLET-LE-DUC.
Who promoted an evolved form of gothic architecture proved a
major influence on Gaudi.
-But the student surpassed the master architect and
contrived highly original designs
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
• The creator of the city of Barcelona

• Attentive observer of nature
• Attracted to the varied forms of nature
• colors and geometry
• Apioneer in his field using color, texture
• and movement
• Gothic art. Orient structures, the Art
• Nouveau movement.
• Use of traditional elements with
fancifulornamentation and brilliant technical solution
• Developed a sensuous, Curving almost surreal
design style which established him as the innovative leader
of the Spanish Art Nouveau movement.
Casa Batlló
NOTED WORKS
CASA VICENS (1883 – 1885)
51
Palau guell (1885 – 1889)

College of the teresianas (1888 – 1890)
Crypt of the Church of Colonia Guell (1898 – 1916)
Casa Calvet (1899 – 1904)
CASA Mila (La Padrera) (1905 – 1907)
Park Guell (1900 – 1914)
SAGRADA FAMILIA Nativity Façade and
Crypt of the Sagrada Familia Church
(1884 – 1926)
CASA VICENS:
BUILDING TYPE: Family residence

COUNTRY: Barcelona, Spain
CLIENT: Industrialist Manuel Vicens
PERIOD: 1883-1889
a) Gaudi built the exotic CSA VICENS

b) His first major commission in BARCELONA
c) STYLE: QUASI-MOORISH
d) In casa vicens, Gaudi first formulated the
essence of his style which while
GOTHIC-IN STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLE
ISLAMIC-IN INSPIRATION
FEATURES OF CASA VICENS
They were distributed in a long surface with a semi-subterranean BASEMENT.

GROUND FLOOR, SECOND FLOOR AND ATTIC
Gaudi used the traditional catain vault in which arch-like forms are achieved thrugh
corbelling out laminated layers of tiles
The vault became a key feature of his style appearing in its most delicate form in the thin,
shell structure of his sagrada Familia school in Barcelona of 1909
FACADE
1. The facade walls of the house are built with VISIBLE RUBBLE WORK (undressed stone) and of
rough red bricks, and colored ceramic tiles in checkerboard and floral patterns.
2. Adorned with horizontal rows of ceramics that represent the African marigolds
52
3. Form the second floor up, these rows; become vertical and their coating is replaced with
alternating green and white tiles.
4. The windows areProtected from the sun and curious onlookers with pretty shutters withsquare
geometrical designsWrought iron windows with flowers tiles and Sculptured stones.
5. The plan is asymmetrical with protruding gables and buttresses. Galleries project even farther at
the top. Rooftop towers are reminiscent of Moorish architecture.
Note: Moorish architecture is the articulated Berber–Islamic and Hispano–Islamic

architecture of North Africa, and theIberian peninsula.
ROOF
1. The roof is sloped on two sides, with four gables
2. The ventilation conducts and chimneys are profusely decorated with the same ceramic
material as the façade
3. Planned around a conservatory which in it Banded brick, glazed tiles and decorativeIron
work was more exuberant than any other house
SAGRADA FAMILIA
Location : Barcelona, Spain

Date: 1882 to 1926
Building type : Church
Context : Urban
Construction system :
Masonry
53
PLAN
APSE
CHAPELS
CLOISTER
CROSSING AND TRANSEPTS
CRYPT
GLORY FAÇADE
THE NATIVITY FAÇADE
PASSION FAÇADE
MAIN NAVE
SACRISTIES
The sagrada Familia is a temple of Basilical type with a

shape of Latin Cross
The central axis is occupied by

four lateral nave of 7.5 meters wide each one and
a central nave of 15 meters wide, what does a total of 4.5 meters
The total length of the temple, including the nave and the apse is of
95 meters
The transept is formed by three naves with a total width of 30meters

and a length of 60
This transept has two exits.
54
CLOISTER CROOSING AND TRANSEPTS
The cloister, which The transverse nave

Runs around the that links the nativity
Perimeter of the façade with the
Church, is a space passion façade is
That connects the
divided into three
Facades, the
Sacrifices and the spaces the
chapels transpects which
connect directly with
the two facades, and
the crossing, which
is the central
element and is
crowned by five
towers
SACRISTIES THE NATIVITY FACADE
The sacristies are domed Façade of the

Administrative buildings Transept facing east
on the corners of the and consisting of
north part of the church four towers with
three doorways. It is
GLORY FAÇADE
dedicated to the
The main façade of the
Church facing south-east birth of Jesus and
Towards the sea and was the first to be
Formed by four towers built, with the direct
Joined by a large portico intervention of
Or narthex Gaudi.
PASSION FAÇADE
MAIN NAVE
Space between the Façade of the transept
Main façade and the Facing west, formed by four
Crossing composed of Towers joined by a large
one central nave and porch and dedicated to the
two naves on each passion, death and
side resurrection of christ
THE TREE STRUCTURE THE OUTSTANDING WALLS
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The Sagrada Familia exterior

1. Gaudi planned inclined branching Walls only have to bear their
columns in the shape of a tree for the Own weight, because the
church Vaults weight and push are
From a long, meticulous empirivcal Transmitted to the floor
study of models of inverted weights Through the interior columns
with chains
Or strings and graphic calculations, he In addition, the walls are
managed to determine the inclination Completely perforated by
of the Rose windows, gives, large
Load-bearing elements (columns-trees) Windows and other openings
in order to optimize the Lightening very much the
structuralbehaviour by transferring the Weight
loads to the central nucleus. In that
way he makes Here also the hyperboloids
He also manges to bring down the main Are the most used form
loads along the interior pillars of the Allowing Gaudi to adopt the
Nave and not along the perimeter of the Better technical and
floor or the exterior elements. Aesthetical solutions
The walls basement has a

Height of four meters over
Which begins the first series
Of large windows with a 20
Height of twenty meters.
FACADE
1.The higher ones are
Those of the central
Nave they are
Comprised of a series of
Pyramids-one by vault
Connected between
Them ad with the large
Windows pediments
With some large
Paraboloids
2. They are culminated by lampposts with
References to the Holy
Family
Between the roof and the vaults, it is an space of some 25

Meters divided into four plants connected by a small spiral
Staircases
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CASA BATLLO
Location: Barcelona, Spain
Date: 1905 to 1907
Building Type: Apartment Building
Construction system: Concrete
Context: Urban
Style: Expressionist of Art Nouveau
Client: Josep Batllo 1 casanovas
CASA BATLLO
1. The present casa batllo, is the result of a * It was originally designed for a
TOTAL REFURBISHMENT of an old middle-class family and situated
Previous conventional house built in 1877 in a prosperous district of
Barcelona
1. The local name for the building is CASA * Gaud was commissioned by the
owner to
DELS OSSOS (House of Bones) and totally renew the old
indeed it does have a VISCERAL, building.
SKELETAL ORGANIC quality *On that base, Gaudr projected
This astonishing house, one of the
most fancyand special of Barcelona
The changes made by Gaudr on
The old building were radical
And affect all the building
*In fact the building of Gaudi is a
new building
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1.Inside, the spaces were Totally

REORGANIZED in order to obtain in it more
Natural light (the courtyard is covered with
Blue ceramic progressively brighten to assure
The same or similar light on top and on
ground) and ventilation
2.Gaudi also added two floors to the building
ADDITIONS
1. Gaudi added a gallery, the balconies and the
polychrome ceramics
FACADE
GAUDI CARRIED OUT ONE OF THE MOST IMPRESSIVE AND BRILLIANT URBAN FACADES OF THE
WORLD
The façade covered by MOSAICS of SPELDID COLORS is perhaps the Most suggestive, creative and
original Of the city of Barcelona
The balconies remember pieces of SKULLS WITH ITS EYES AND MOUTH.
The FIRST FLOOR, in particular, is rather astonishing with tracery, irregular OVAL WINDOWS and
flowing sculpted Stone work.
The COLUMNS to first floor look Like human bones.
ROOF
a. The design of that roof is one of the most characteristics of Gaudi for urban buildings
b. The interior is also very impressive showing various decorative elements as furniture,
glasses, forged, iron elements, fireplaces etc
The roof is arched and was likened to the back of a dragon or dinosaur
The roof decorated with POLYCHROME CERAMICS of brilliant colors is crowned by a tower
with the typical Guadi four branches cross.
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VICTOR HORTA (1861 – 1947)
Victor Horta- ‘Key European Art Nouveau Architect’
BELGIA ARCHITECT AND DESIGNER DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
EARLY LIFE *Victor Horta created buildings

1. Born in chent, Belgium in 1861 which rejected Historical
2. After studying drawing, textiles and Styles and marked the beginning
architecture at the Ghent, Academiedes of modern architecture
Beaux Arts, he worked in paris *He conceived modern
3. He returned to Belgium architecture as an abstract
and worked for the classical architect principles derived from
Alphons Balat, before he started his relations to the
own practice environment, rather than on
4. Horta was a leading Art Nouveau the imitation of form.
Architect until Art Nouveau lost *Although the ORGANIC FORMS
public favor. At this time he easily of Art Nouveau architecture as
assumed the role of a established by Horta do not meet
NEOCLASSICAL DESIGNER our standard ideas of modern
Architecture, Horta generated ideas
which became predecessors to the
ideas of many modernist
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY SIGNIFICANT BUILDINGS : HOTEL TASSEL
*The Characterizations are the use of industrial HOUSE AND STUDIO VICTOR
materials like STEEL AND IRON in the visible parts of HORTA
houses HOTEL VAN EETVELDE
*New decorations inspired by nature (e.g. the HOTEL SOLVAY
famous whiplash motive. Which occurs very often in PALAIS DES BEAUX ARTS IN
the Art Nouveau style and especially in the work of BRUSSELS
Horta) decorative mosaics or graphical MAISON SE PEUPLE
Patterns on the facades of houses can be seen Another common characteristics of Horta’s
applied in the Horta Museum itself. architecture focuses on his STAIRCASES
His IRON BRAISTERS and STONE STEPS

combined to make a prime example of
Horta’s mastery over organic forms and
tightly organized spaces.
His staircases mapped out movement

throughout the building as it carried its use
through the spaces.
Location : Brussels, Belgium

Date: 1893-1894
Building Type: Cultural
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Context: Urban
Style: Art Nouveau
Client: Professor Emile Tassel
HOTEL TASSEL
The Hotel Tassel has an OPEN PLANNING The octagonal vestibule on the ground floor rose Upwards
through a half level towards the garden, it Expands laterally into an adjacent foyer space covered By
an IRON SUPER STRUCTURE The FREE STANDING COLUMNS of this space embellished with IRON
TENDRILLS, echo similar Serpentine forma throughout The rest of the metal works.
From the balustrades to the light fittings the same aesthetic is dominated a linear exuberance that is
delicately echoed in the mosaic floor and wall finishes and in the coloured glass panels of the door to
the salon.
The main volumes are still tempered by the use of Rocco Mouldings
In an otherwise façade the stone
Quoins an iron bay window are wrought in such a way as to imply the thrust of the inner metallic
structure.
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HOUSE AND STUDIO VICTOR HORTA

“ORNAMENTATION WAS NO Location: Brussels, Belgium
LONGER A SIN BUT THE Date: 1898
MEDIUM BY WHICH ONE Building Type: Large House, architects
house
COULD REACH BEHIND THE Context: Urban
STATIC WORLD OF Architectural Style: Art Nouveau
APPEARANCES” Construction System: Iron, Wood, Cut Stone
Façade
*Horta rejected the standard Brussels
building
type with the staircase to the one side of
the
building
*Expressed quality of iron-used both inside
and
Outside like weightless ribbons spiraling
and
twisting into space.
*Floors supported for the most part by
iron
columns, rooms could into one and
another
and be disturbed in a novel manner
Victor Horta-Maison Tassel,

Belgium
Combined staircase with a light well, placed at the center.
Allowed him to vary the elevations of the floors in the front and back
Four floors in the front along the street and three in the back
with the main rooms oriented to the center
Interpenetrating space as well as the use of mirrors to enhance

the feeling of space
CHARLES RENNIE MACKINTOSH (1868-1928)
Was A SCOTTISH ARCHITECT, DESIGNER AND WATERCOLORISTEARLY LIFE:

1868-On June 7the 1868 in Glasgow London
1884-ed training as an architect inthe office of John Hutchinson in 1884, evening classes at the
Glasgow school of art.
1890- he won travelling scholarship and toured Italy before setting down into practice.
1894-Exhibitions with Herbert McNair and the macDonald sisters, later known as the Glsgow Four-
Mackinthosh developed an artistic relationship with Margaret Macdonald, Frances Macdonald and
Herbert McNair. Known as “The Four” they exhib9ited posters, furnishings and a variety of graphic
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designs in Glasgow, London, Vienna, and Turin. These Exhibitions helped establish Mackinthosh’s
reputation marries Margaret MacDonald in 1900 and works with her on most projects.
1896-participates in the competition for the Glasgow school of Art.
1. Mackintosh’s biography reveals that most of his architectural achievements and design
schemes were created parallel to his work on the Glasgow school of art. The art school is
perhaps not only his only master piece; it also marks the most productive phase of his
career.
2. Today the Glasgow school of art is acclaimed as one of the outstanding works of architecture
of the early 20th century modernism.
NOTED WORKS
1. GLASGOW SCHOOL OF ART, AT GLASGOW, SCOTLAND, 1897 TO 1909.

2. HILL HOUSE, AT HELENSBURGH, SCOTLAND, 1902 TO 1903.
3. THE WILLOW TEA ROOMS, AT GLASGOW, SCOTLAND, 1902 TO 1904.
THE MACKINTHOSH STYLE:
1. Mackintosh’s architectural philosophy involved readically updating the Scottish Baronial

style.
2. Favoring ELEGANTLY RECTILINEAR DESIGNS, FREE FROM WHAT HE CALLED ‘ANTIQUARIAN
DETAIL’
3. He was a COLLECTOR OF JAPANESE ARCHITECTURAL BOOKS and prints and in much of his
work traditional Scottish design meets art nouveau, harnessing the simplicity of Japanese
from in the process.
4. His architectural style had a distinctive edge.
5. And the sophistication of his artistic imagination is notable
6. He combined powerful architectural forms and soft, seductive decoration in a very
distinctive way.
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IDEALOGIES AND PHILOSOPHIES:
HIS BUILDING FALL INTO 3 CATEGORIES
• LOW PITCHED HOP ROOFS, presenting quiet unbroken

skylines
• Ex: Willits house
• LOW ROOFS WITH SIMPLE PEDIMENTS countering on
long ridges
• Ex: Bradley House
• THOSE TOPPED WITH SIMPLE SLAB
• Ex: Unity Church
- Used material in their natural form INFLUENCES:

- Wright practiced what is known
As ORGANIC ARCHITECTURE 1. Louis Sullivan, whom he considered to
An architecture that evolves be his ‘Lieber Meister’ (dear master
Naturally out of the context 2. Nature, Particularly shapes/forms and
Most importantly for him the colors/patterns of plant life
Relationship between the site and 3. Music (his favorite composer was
The building and the needs of the client Ludwigvan Beethoven)
4. Japan (as in art, prints, buildings)
- Wright responded to the
transformation of domestic life 5. Froebel Gifts (Educational
That occurred at the turn of the Kindergarden play gifts)
twentieth century when servants
became a less prominent or
completely absent feature of
most American households by
developing homes with
progressively more OPEN
PLANS
ELEMENTS COMMON TO HIS BUILDINGS
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1. All materials are used in the natural form

2. Free flow of space no sharp distinction between the inside and the outside.
3. Overlapping intergral spaces, offsets, changing ceiling heights
4. No ornamentional facades
5. Quality spaces no attics and no dead spades
6. Built-in furniture
7. Each piece serves many functions no piece works alone
8. Grandeur is used Sparingly
SIX PROPOSTIONS FORMULATED FOR HIS RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
1. SIMPLICITY AND REPOSE

A building should have very few rooms, comfort and utility should go hand in hand with
beauty. Openings must be a form of natural ornamentation. The whole building must be
taken as a integral unit
2. VARIED STYLE OF HOUSING
there must be as many styles of houses as people
3. HARMONISING
A building should appear to grow from its site and be shaped to harmonise with its
surroundings
4. PROMOTING NATURAL COLOURS
He preferred soft, warm, optimistic tones.
5. BRINGING OUT THE NATURE OF MATERIALS
He understood the material and used them to express their nature
6. HIS STATEMENT OF FAITH
A building that has character grows valuable as it grows older
EARLY WORKS OF FRANK LLOYD WRIGHTFROM 1880 UPTO 1920
• 1880’S
• All souls church, Chicago, lllinois. 1885
• Unity chapel, spring Green, Wisconsin. 1886
• Hillside Horne School, Spring Green, Wisconsin. 1887
• Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio, Car park, lllinois. 18891890’s
Louis Sullivan Bunglow, ocean springs, Mississiooi. 1890. Destroyed by Hurricane Katrina
Albert Sullivan House, Chicago, lllinois. 1892
Francisco Terrace Apartments, Chicago. Lllinois. 1895
1. 1900’s
Between 1900 and 1917 his residential designs were “ PRAIRIE HOUSES”
(extended low buildings with shallow. Sloping roofs. Clear sky lines. Suppressed
Chimneys, overhangs and terraces. Using unfinished materials). So-called
Because the design is considered to complement the land around Chicago
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These houses are credited with being the first examples of the “OPEN PLAN”
1. LARKIN ADKMINISTRATION BUILDING, BUFFALO, NEW YORK. 1903

2. Unity Temple, Car park, lllinois 1904
3. George Barton House, Buffalo NY. 1903
4. Darwin d Martin House. Buffalo NY. 1905
5. Westcott House. Sprinfield. Ohio. 1907
LATE PRAIRIE PERIOD

1. Frederick Robie house in Chicago (1907-1909)
2. A very and Queene Coonley House in Riverside, lllinois
2. 1910’s
1. New York City Exhibition for the Universal Portland cement company.
New York, New York. 1910
2. Taliesin spring Green, Wisconsin. 1911
3. IMPERIAL HOTEL, TOKYO, JAPAN. 1915 demolished 1968 lobby and pool reconstructed
in 1976 in at Meiji Mura, near Nagoya, Japan
4. Ravine Bluffs Development, Glance, lllinois. 1915
5. American system Built Homes.
Unity Temple, Car park, lllinois 1904
1. To accommodate the needs of the congregation, Wright divided the community space from the
temple space through a low, middle loggia that could be approached from either side.
This was an efficient use of space and kept down on noise between the two main gathering areas:
those coming for religious services would be separated via the loggia from those coming for
community events.
PLANNING:
This design was one of wright’s first use of a bipartite designs with two portions of the building
similar in composition and separated by a lower passageway and one section being larger than the
other.
The MAIN FLOOR of the temple is accessed via a lower floor (which has seating space) an the room
also has two balconies for the seating of the congregation.
These varying seating levels allowed the architect to design a building to fit the size of the
congregation, but efficiently no one person in the congregation is more than 40feet from the pulpit.
Wright also designed the building with very acoustics.
65
MATERIALS USED:
4. Concrete was poured into
1. To reduce construction costs them in order to create the walls
wright chose steel-reinforced
concrete as the main building 5. To reduce noise from the street, wright
material for unity Temple
Eliminated street level windows in the
2. Built from reinforced concrete Temple instead, natural light comes
Poured on the site that is from Stained glass windows in the roof,
Wooden forms were built on of clerestories along the upper walls
site and R.C.C slab is used
6. Because the members of the parish
here (new architectural would not be able to look outside, unity
expression) It is cast monolithic temples stained glass was designed
3. To reduce noise from the street.
with green, Yellow, and brown tones in
Wright eliminated street order to evoke the colors of nature.
Level windows in the temple.
Instead natural light comes
From stained glass windows in
The roof or clerestories along the
Upper walls.
66
Location : Chicago, Cook Country llinois, USA
Architectural Style : Prairie Style
1. Built in 1910
2. The Building has a LOW PROPORTIONED. HORIZONTAL PROFILE which gives it the
appearance of spreading out on the flat prairieland.
3. STEEL-FRAMED CANTILEVERED ROOF OVERHANGS, continuous Bands of art-glass
windows
And doors, and the use of natural materials are typical PRAIRIE STYLE FEATURESwhich
emphasizes this “horizontal Line” of the building.
PRAIRIE SCHOOL:
PRAIRIE SCHOOL was a late 19th and early 20th century architectural style mostCommon to the
Midwestern United States.
The term “Prairie School” was not actually used by these architects to describe
Themselves; the term was coined by H. Allen Brooks one of the first architectural
Historians to write extensively about these architects and their work
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
1. HORIZONTAL LINES
2. FLAT OR HIPPED ROOFS WITH BROAD OVERHANGING EAVES
3. WINDOWS GROUPED IN HORIZONTAL BANDS
4. INTEGRATION WITH THE LANDSCAPE
5. SOLID CONSTRUCTION
6. CRAFTSMANSHIP, AND
7. DISCIPLINE THE USE OF ORNAMENT.
8. HORIZONTAL LINES WERE THROUGHOUT TO EVOKE AND RELATE TO THE
NATIVE PRAIRIE LANDSCAPE
EXAMPLES
1. Oak Park, lllinois

2. Robies House
3. Willits House
4. Bradley House
5. Winslow House
1. A CHIMNEY MASS containing the houses four fireplaces rises through the center of the
house acting as the anchor to which the house is designed around on all three levels. The
exterior walls are constructed of a Chicago common brick core with a red-orange iron-
spotted Roman brick veneer.
2. The planter urns, copings lintels, sills and other exterior trim work are of Bedford
limestone.
3. The FIREPLACES AND CHIMNEYS ARE CONSTRUCTED OF THE SAME BRICK AND
67
LIMESTONE AS THE EXTERIOR AND HAVE A SENSE of an artistic sculptural shape of their
own as opposed to being a part of a wall.
LARKIN ADMINISTRATION BUILDING BUFFALO NEW YORK 1903
Designed in 1904
Client : The Larkin Soap company of Buffalo, New York
Demolished in 1950
The Five story red brick building was noted for many innovations including
1. Air Conditioning
2. Plate-glass windows
3. Built in desk furniture
4. Suspended toilet bowls
Sculptor Richard Bock provided ornamentation for the building
68
UNIT III
MODERN ARCHITECTURE: DEVELOPMENT
AND INSTITUTIONALISATION
Adolf Loos and critique of ornamentation- Raumplan:Peter Behrens- Werkbund-Modern

architecture and art- Expresssionism: Mendelsohn, Taut, Polzeig-Futurism-constructivism,
Cubism-Suprematism-De- stiji Bauhaus-Gropius, Meyer and mies-CIAM I to X and its role in
canonizing architecture-growth of International Style
Ideas and works of Gropius, Le Corbusier, Aalto, Mies, later works of Wright
NOTE: F.L.WRIGHT’S LATER WORK IS COVERED IN UNIT -2 EARLY WORK: 1880-1920
LATER WORK:1920 Onwards
Exampies for Later Work: IMPERIAL HOTEL, TOKYO, JAPAN, 1915 demolished, 1986, lobby and
pool reconstructed in 1976 in at Meiji Mura, near Nagoya, Japan
ISSUES OF ORNAMENTATION AND AESTHETICS UNIT-III
Adolf Loos and the arguments on Ornamentation-Futurists movement manifestos and the
works of Sant’Elia-Expressionism and the works of Mendelsohn, Polzeig-Cubism and
constructivism and its influence on Architecture-Destijl: Ideas and works.
ADOLF LOOS(1870-1933)
Adolf Loos was born in Brno(Bruenn), Moravia, now Czech Republic, on December 10, 1870. He
studied architecture in Dresden and as a student; Adlof Loos was particularly interested in the
works of the classicist Schinkel and, above all, the works of Viteuvius. In 1896, Adolf Loos
returned to Vienna, started working in the building firm of Carl Mayreder. He set up his own
practice in 1897 and produced his first major work-the Café Museum in Vienna-in 1899.
INFLUENCES
Adolf Loos ranks as one of the important pioneers of the modern movement in architecture.
Ironically, his influence was based largely on a few interior designs and a body of controversial
essays. Adolf Loos’s buildings were rigorous examples of austere beauty, ranging from
conventional country cottages to planar compositions for storefronts and residences. His built
compositions were little known outside his native Austria during his early years of practice.
In 1922, Adolf Loos was appointed to the post of Chie Architect of the Housing Department of the
Commune of Vienna. His projects during this time were primarily con struction modulated
arounts simply – composed layouts utilizing basic construction technology. Flexible interior
arrangements were achieved through the use of movable partitions. Exteriors were typical of
suburban housing Vegetable gardens, which were considered essential extensions of the
dwellings, were assigned high priorities.
69
ARCHITECTURAL THEORY
Adolf Loos was an architect who became more famous for his ideas than for his buildings. Ho
believed that reason should determine the way we build, and he opposed the decorative Art
Nouveau movement. Adolf Loos published essays that marked the beginning of a long
theoretical opposition to the then popular art noveau movement. In Ornament &Crime and
other essays, Loos described the suppression of decoration as necessary for regulating passion.
His theories culminated in a short essay entitled, “Ornament And Crime”, published in 1908. To
Adolf Loos, the lack of ornament in architecture was a sign of spiritual strength. Adolf Loos
referred to the opposite, excessive ornamentation, as criminal - not for abstract moral reasons,
but because of the economics of labor and wasted materials in modern industrial civilization.
Another point of contention was the masking of the true nature and beauty of materials by
useless and indecent ornament. In his 1898 essay entitled “Principles of Building,” Adolf Loos
wrote that the true vocabulary of architecture lies in the materials themselves, and that a
building should remain “dumb” on the outside.
To Adolf Loos, the house did not belong to art the house must please everyone, unlike a work of
art, which does not need to please anyone. The only exception, that is, the only constructions
that belong both to art and architecture, which by necessity must serve a specific end, must be
excluded from the realm of art.
ADOLF LOOS- IDEOLOGIES
Loos’ interiors were decorated comfortably using beautiful materials and elegant
details, in sharp contrast to simple exteriors.
Loos deliberately kept the public outside and the private inside of his houses as
separate as possible.”The building should be dumb outside and only reveal wealth
inside.”
“Raumplan” concept (“plan of volumes”) – designing continuous spaces, merging spaces
for living rather than regularly divided floors with limited flexibility. Each room on a
different level, with floors and ceilings set at different heights
Loos rarely designed furniture – his knieschwimmer armchair was used in several
interiors designed in the 1920s.
Residences designed by Adolf Loos featured: Straight lines, Clear planar walls and
windows, Clean curves and Raumplan concept.
MAJOR WORKS
1899 – Cafe Museum, at Vienna.

1908 – American Bar, Vienna.
1910 –Steiner House, Vienna.
1910 – Goldman & Salatsch Building, a mixed –use building overlooking Michaelerplatz,
Vienna (known colloquially as the “ Looshaus”)
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1922 –Rufer House, Vienna.

1926 – Villa Moller, Vienna.
1928 – Villa Muller , Prague (now in the Czech Republic).
1929 – Khuner Villa, Kreuzxberg , Austria.
1. Goldman Salatsch Building, Looshaus, Michaelerplatz (1910)
Between 1909 and 1911, Adolf Loos designed and constructed one of his best known works, the
controversial Looshaus in the Michaelerplatz, in the heart of old Vienna. This complex design
enunciated theorems on the relationship between the memory of the historic past of a great city
and the invention of the new city based on the modern work of architecture. The design was
characterized by a mute façade from which all ornamental plastic shapes were absent. The
architect referred this building as “Purism” –thelackofornament which became his moral defining
principle of architecture.
The side elevations of the Commercial zone at the base reveal the different levels of the spaces
within. The entrance to this zone is between four swuat columns. Above the commercial spaces
are the white rendered planer facades of the housing stories with their articulation in the form of
punched rectangular openings. Few criticized it as “ABuildingwithouteyebrows”/’’Amanhole-
coverbuilding.
This building is of a monumental scale, from the proportions of the two floors, with the
monolithic columns in Cipollino marble, to the squat form of the roof. Even the window
openings, deeply incised in the facades of the housing stories, suggest a firm immovable quality.
This building is monumental not only in its dimension and proportion but in term of its
demeanor.
2. Villa Muller, Prague (1928)
One of his most attractive projects, the Muller Villa in prague, built in 1930 and restored in 2003,
was the culmination of his pioneering “Raumplan “ concept – desiging continuous spaces for
living of rather than regularly divided floors with limited flexibilt. Outside, the Villa Muller is
distinguished by its cubic shape, with flat roof and terraces, its irregular windows and its clean,
white façade. Inside, the Villa Muller is more traditional, finished with luxurious and vibrant
marbles, woods and silks,”combined innovative promenade “ from outside to inside.
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The first entrance way is low, with strong

but dark colors such as deep green/blue
tiles. This opens onto a cloakroom area
that is generous in plan, brighter with white
walls and a big window, but still low. At
the far end a short, modest staircase takes
the visitor round a right – angle bend,
emerging dramatically between marble
pillars into the double – height, open – plan
sitting room. The promenade continues
past the raised dining room to the upper
floors of the house, the Raumplan providing
unusual and exciting views into adjacent
rooms. On the top level is a roof terrace,
with a “window” in the freestanding end
wall to frame the view of Prague cathedral.
3. Rufer House, Vienna (1922)
This dwelling was built for Joseph and Marie Rufer. The house has the shape of a cube with the
external walls serving as a structural shell. These four bearing walls contain the house within a
small area . At the center of the volume, a column articulated the spaces under the Raumplan
logic and also conceals the plumbing for the water and heating. In order to achieve a balanced
composition, Loos included three elements in the elevation: a squashed frieze and a cornice to
top the cubic volume and a rectangular molding depicting a Parthenon frieze and positioned low
on the street front. Some critics have stated that this frieze not only balances the formal
composition between voids and surface but also balances the purist abstraction of the cune with
the figutative.
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4. Steiner House, Vienna (1910)
The Steiner house was designed for the painter Lilly Steiner and her husband Hugo. Loos was a
remarkable architect when working within the limits imposed by the shape of the site or external
forces like the planning codes. The regulations only permitted a street front with one story and a
dormer window (a window built in a sloping roof ). The large window at the front brings light
into the atelier of the painter, which was situated on the first level. The garden façade is three
storied and with the use of the semi – circular metal – sheathed roof, Loos manages to articulate
the transition between the front and garden elevations. For Loos the exterior was the public side
of the house; that is the reason for the bare wall surfaces. The interior was the private side and
reflected the owner’s personal taste.
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5. Khuner Villa Austria (1929)
The Khuner Country House is a late work of Loos, completed when he was sixty. Like the Villa
Muller, a restrained (in this case somewhat traditional) facade hides a subtle interior design of
different room heights – Loos’ Raumplan. The house was built as a country nized around a home
for a Viennese food manufacturer, Paul Khuner. The house is organized around a central, double
– height living and dining space, with the upstairs landing forming a gallery around three sides.
On the fourth side, a full – height picture window provides dramatic views of the Alpine
meadows.
The rooms are tailored to each of his family members, with an impressive number additionally for
guests. The Raumplan design gives different heights, and very different characters, to the
different spaces within the house. Mr Khuner’s study combines a small, cost feel emphasized by
the low ceiling and the steps down into the room from the main hall, combined with generous,
bright views of the scenery from the outsize landscape window.
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EXPRESSIONISM
Expressionist architecture refers to an architectural style that developed in Europe in the first
part of the 20th Century. The term “Expressionist architecture” initially described the activities of
the German, Dutch, Austrian, Czech and Danish avant garde from 1910 until ca. 1924 which
occurred concurrently and interdependently with the expressionist movement in the visual and
performing arts. Expressionistarchitecture describes a type of architecture which uses the form
of a building as a means to evoke or express the inner sensitivities and feelings of the viewer or
architect. This tendency can be coupled with the notion that the form can represent the physical
manifestation of a transpersonal or mystic spirit. Today the meaning has broadened even further
to refer to architecture of any date or location that exhibits some of the qualities of the original
movement such as utopianism, distortion, fragmentation, or the communication of violent or
overstressed emotions.
CHARACTERISTICSFEATURES
Elastic Forms – Form played a defining role in setting apart expressionist architecture
form its immediate predecessor, art nouveau.
While art nouveau had an organic freedom with ornament, expressionist architecture
strove to free the form of the whole building instead of just its parts.
The style was characterized by an early – modernist adoption of novel materials, formal
innovation, and very unusual massing, sometimes inspired by natural biomorphic forms,
sometimes by the new technical possibilities offered by the mass production of brick,
steel and especially glass.
Distortion, exaggeration, primitivism, and fantasy and through the vivid, jarring, violent,
or dynamic application of formal elements.
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Distorted shapes, fragmented lines and organic or biomorphic forms.

Conception of architecture as a work of art.
Often hybrid solutions, irreducible to a single concept.
Distortion of form for an emotional effect.
Sense of Movement achieved by swooping, curving roofs with the use of concrete.
Expressionist architecture utilized curved geometries; a recurring form in the movement
is the dome.
Another expressionist motif was the emphasis on either horizontality or verticality for
dramatic effect, influenced by new technologies such as cruise liners and skyscrapers.
Utilizes creative potential of artisan craftsmanship.
The freedom of Expression is more suggestive of sculpture than of architecture, massive
sculpted shapes.
A recurring concern of expressionist architects is materials. There was often an intention
to unify the materials in a building so as to make it monolithic. Extensive use of concrete
and brick.
Lack of symmetry, many fanciful works rendered on paper but never built.
Tendency more towards the gothic than the classical. Expressionist architecture also
tends more towards the Romanesque and the rococo than the classical.
Though a movement in Europe, expressionism is an eastern as western. It draws as much
from Moorish, Isiamic, Egyptian, and Indian art and architecture as from Roman or Greek.
The major permanent extent landmark of Expressionism is Erich Mendelsohn’s Einstein
Tower in Potsdam.
ARCHITECTSASSOCIATEDWITHEXPRESSIONISM
Three major German architects of the period associated with the expressionist movement were
Bruno Taut, Hans Scharoun and Erich Mendelsohn. Bruno Taut and Paul Scheerbart’s were
known for the glass architecture. Mendelson was familiar for concrete architecture. Other
notable architects associated with expressionism include:
Adolf Behne
Hermann Finsterlin
Walter Gropius – early period
Hugo Haring
Fritz Hoger
Hans Poelzig
Rudolf Steiner
ERICH MENDELSOHN (1887 – 1953)
Erich Mendelsohn was born in Allenstein, East Prussia in 1887. He was a German Jewish
architect, known for his expressionist buildings in the 1920s. He studied in Berlin and Munich
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where he became involved with Expressionism. He escaped from Nazi Germany to England in
1933 and after 1934 designed medical centers and other buildings in Haife and Jerusalem.
In 1941, Mendelsohn became a resident of the United States, where he designed several
impressive synagogues in the Midwest. He is best known for his exuberant, sculptural design for
the Einstein Tower in Potsdam (1919 – 21). Mendelsohn turned to more restrained forms in such
later works as the Schocken Department Stores in Stuttgart (1926 – 27) and in Chemnitz (1928).
HIS IDEOLOGIES AND PHILOSOPHIES
He adopted only certain fundamental aspects of expressionism – The principle of organic

unity and the desire to show the character and content of a building in symbolic form.
His conscious aim in design was to achieve organic unity, used the structural
potentialities of steel and reinforced concrete.
Another aspect of Expressionism – “Dynamism” achieved in his designs . As a result, his
early building avoid the eclectic borrowing that mark so many of his contemporaries.
Mendelsohn used no historical precedents in formulating his designs. As a result, his
early buildings avoid the eclectic borrowing that many of his contemporaries.
His architectural ideas were derived form expressionistic sketches and romantic
symbolism which recognized that the qualities of modern building materials should
dictate a new architecture.
In later designs, mendehlson move away from his earlier expressionist architecture,
designing a series of buildings in a more linear fashion.
IMPORTANT PROJECTS
EINSTEIN TOWER in Potsdam, (1917/1920)

MOSSEHAUS is an office building in Berlin, renovated by Erich Mendelsohn in 1921 -23.
RED FLAG TEXTLL.E FACTIRY, Leningrad, 1926.
SCHOCKEN DEPARATMENT STORE, Stuttgart (1926 1928).
THE DE LA WARR PAVILION, Bexhill – on – Sea, Sussex, England (1934)
COHEN HOUSE, Chelsea, London (1934 – 1936).
1. EINSTEIN TOWER, ERICH MENDELSOHN(1917/1920)
The Einstein Tower is an astrophysical observatory in the Albert Einstein Science Park in
Potsdam, Germany designed by architect Erich Mendelsohn. It was built for astronomer
Erwin Finlay-Freundlich to support experiments and observations to validate Albert
Einstein’s relativity theory. This organic, Self-contained form of the tower was used as
“Astronomical observatory” and “Factory for optical instruments”. The building was first
conceived around 1917, built from (1920 to 1921) and became operational in 1924. It is
still a working solar observatory today as part of the Astrophysical Institute Potsdam.
The exterior was originally conceived in concrete, but due to construction difficulties,
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much of the building was actually realized in brick, covered with stucco. Formwork
problem meant that the specified material could be used only for the entrance portal and
the topmost ring of the tower. The rest of the flowing form was built in brickwork,
covered with a thick layer of cement rendering to lend the surface a uniform appearance.
Light from the telescope is brought down through the shaft to the basement where the
instruments and laboratory are located. This sculpted building with its expressionistic
form is devoid of applied ornament, from and space are shaped in fluid concrete to
express concepts of the architect. A dynamic quality pervades the volume of the
building, intensifying its expression and the space around it. This sculptural design
represents a unity that can be neither divided nor extended. The design, while logical
and perfectly sufficient to its purpose, stood out like an “ungainly spaceship” in the
suburbs of Potsdam. It remains the icon of expressionist architecture.
1. MOSSEHAUS renovated by Erich Mendelsohn in 1921-23.
Mossehaus is an office building in Berlin, renovated and with a corner designed by Erich
Mendelsohn in 1921-3. The original Mosse building housed the printing press and offices of
the newspapers owned by Rudolf Mosse. The sandstone-fronted historicist 1901 building by
Cremer & Wolffenstein was badly damaged in 1919. In 1921, on the strength of his Einstein
Tower, Menselsohn was hired to add extra storeys and a new entrance to the building.
Mossehaus was at one time the tallest non-church building in Berlin.
The new frontage made prominent use of aluminum and the new upper floors were made
form ferro-concrete. The use of strips and sculpted elements in the fenestration gave it a
dynamic, futuristic form, emphasized by the contrast with the Wilhelmine style below. It was
perhaps the first example of a streamlined building, and hence a great influence on
Streamline Moderne.
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2. RED FLAG TEXTLE FACTORY, Leningrad, 1926
The Red Banner Textile factory in Leningrad was designed by Erich Mendelsohn, in 1925-
1926.
Mendelsohn was the first foreign architect in 1925 to be asked to design in the USSR, on the
basis of his dynamic, futuristic Expressionist architecture. However, the primitive
construction techniques of the time were insufficient to realize the structure in full, and
liberties were taken with Mendelsohn’s design.
Mendelsohn participated only in the first stage of the project. He designed the power station
of the factory. The other buildings were completed by S. O. Ovsyannikov, E.A. Tretyakov, and
Hyppolit pretreaus, who was the senior architect of this project. Mendelsohn disowned the
building after its completion in 1926, although he would frequently make use of the model as
an example of his approach to industrial architecture. The factory is still partly in use as
storage space.
The Red Banner factory under construction in 1926
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BRUNO JULIUS FLORIAN TAUT (1880-1938)
Bruno Julius Florian Taut (1880-1938), was an author, German architect and urban planner.
Taut is best known in the English-speaking world for his theoretical work, speculative writings
and a handful of exhibition buildings. After training in Berlin and joining the office of Theodor
Fischer in Stuttgart, Taut opened his own Berlin office in 1910. After the war, Taut’s theories
and designs marked him as a leader in architectural innovation.
He served as city architect in Magdeburg from 1921 to 1923. Taut’s best-known single
building is the prismatic dome of the Glass Pavilion at the Cologne Werkbund Exhibition
(1914). Many of the works of Bruno Taut were domed, such as the Glass Pavilion and the
Worpswede Kaseglocke.
Glass Pavilion at the Cologne Werkbund

Exhibition.
In 1924 he was made chief architect of GEHAG, a private housing concern, and designed
several successful large residential developments in Berlin, notably the 1925 Horseshoe
Development (“Hufeisensiedlung”), named for its configuration around a pond, and the 1926
Uncle Tom’s Cabin Development (“Onkel-Toms Hutte”) in Zehlendorf. The designs featured
controversially Modern flat roofs, humane access to sun, air and gardens, and generous
amenities like gas, electric light, and bathrooms. Bruno Taut used brick as a way to show
mass and repetition in his Berlin Housing Estate “Legien-Stadt”.
Taut moved to Turkey in 1936, designed a number of educational buildings in Ankara and
Trabzon. The most significant of these buildings were the “Faculty of Languages, History and
Geography” at Ankara University, Ankara Ataturk High School” and “Trabzon High School”.
Taut is unique among his European modernist contemporaries in his devotion to color. He
applied lively, clashing colors to his first major commission, the 1912 Falkenberg housing
estate in Berlin, which became known as the “Paint Box Estates”.
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HIS IMPORTANT WORKS:
1912 Falkenberg housing estate in Berlin, “Paint Box Estates”

Glass pavilion for the Werkbund Exhibition (1914).
Horseshoe Development in Berlin(1924).
Worpswede artists’ colony (1921)
Housing estate>>uncle Toms hut<< in Berlin (1926-31).
1. BRUNO TAUT’S-GLASS PAVILION (1914)
The Glass Pavilion, built in 1914 by Bruno Taut, was a prismatic glass dome structure at the
Werkbund Exhibition. The structure was a brightly colored landmark at the exhibition, and
was constructed using concrete and glass. The concrete structure had inlaid colored glass
plates on the façade that acted as mirrors. Taut described his little temple of beauty as…
”reflections of light whose colors began at the base with a dark blue and rose up through
moss green and golden yellow to culminate at the top in a luminous pale yellow.”
The structure was made at the time when expressionism stood highest in Germany The
building was destroyed soon after the exhibition since it was an exhibition building only and
not built for practical use. The Glass pavilion was a pineapple-shaped multi-faceted
polygonal designed rhombic structure. It was a fourteen-sided base constructed of thick
glass bricks used on the exterior walls devoid of rectangles.
2. HORSESHOE DEVELOPMENT IN BERLIN (1924)
During the critical housing shortage that existed in Germany following W.W.I., various co-op
housing societies and associations, public housing associations and trades unions housing groups
were formed to build economical housing in Berlin. One of the largest of these associations,
Gehag (public utility homes, savings and construction company), was founded in 1919 to build
housing for its members. In 1924, Bruno Taut was appointed chief architect. Taut had been
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involved in the development of the Gross-Siedlungen (large residential community) large garden
city-type housing complexes, and had some experience designing a similar garden city
development in Magdeburg in 1912-15.
Built in an outlying area south of central Berlin, Britz-Hufeisensiedlung—literally “houseshoe”

community, named from the horseshoe shape of the inner group of apartments which are built
around a natural pond. There are over 1000 dwellings in Hufeisen, equally divided between 3-
story row houses and 3-story point access slabs. The slabs here are arranged as partial perimeter
blocks defining large interior gardens. In addition, buildings step in plan and vary in height and
exterior details so that; diversity is achieved within the format of a unified organization. This was
a very controversial feature in the 1920’s, one with political overtones especially when seen in
context of adjacent buildings which had steep pitched roofs and what Taut referred to as a
“romantic” ambiance. Even so, some of the slabs had a stepped section, and overhanging eaves
which tended to soften the stark profile of flat-roofed buildings. Some of the buildings were also
painted red.
The individual buildings contain quite conventional 2-4 bedrooms flats in the typical arrangement
of two apartments per floor per stair. The position of the stairs on the street side of the buildings
results in a repeating pattern of vertical glazed zones alternating with zones of regular windows.
Balconies opening to the opposite side dominate the garden facades. The small openings at the
top floor-a normal feature of housing of this period, light an attic space which was used for
washing and storage. The two story row houses feature complete basements, and pitched roofs
with small dormer attic windows.
2. WORPSWEDE ARTISTS’S COLONY (1921)
This circular wooden house surrounded by pine trees was designed by the architect Bruno Taut.
This small structure was given its name because of its resemblance to a cheese cover. The cheese
bell is now a monument with expressionist bizarre shapes and extensions. Since 2001 the
kaseglocke has been used as a museum. The niches in the two floors housed the shelves and
cabinets. Access to the first floor is by means of stair along the circumference.
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HANS POELZIG (1869-1936)
Hans poelzig was a German architect, painter and set designer. Polezig was born in Berlin in
1869. In 1903 he became a teacher and director at the Wroclaw Art Academy. From 1920-1935
he taught at the Technical University of Berlin. After finishing his architectural education around
the turn of the century, poelzig designed many industrial buildings. He was appointed city
architect of Dresden in 1916. He was an influential member of the Deutscher Werkbund
(German Association of Craftsmen).
Poelzig’s work developed through Expressionism and the New Objectivity in the mid-1920s
before arriving at a more conventional, economical style. In 1911, he designed the 51.2 m tall
Upper Silesia Tower in Poznan for an industrial fair. It later became a water tower. Poelzig was
also known for his distinctive 1919 interior redesign of the Berlin Grosses Schauspielhaus for
Weimar impresario max Reinhardt, and for his vast architectural set designs for the 1920 UFA
film production of The Golem: How He Came into the world. The interior of the Grosses
Schauspielhaus was domed. Poelzig also designed the 1929 Broadcasting House in the Berlin
suburb of Charlottenburg, a landmark of architecture.
Poelzig’s single best-known buildings is the enormous and legendary I.G. Farben Building,
completed in 1931 as the administration building for IG Farben in Frankfurt.
IMPORTANT BUILDINGS
1901 Church spire, Wroclaw.

1911 Sulphuric acid factory in Lubon.
1911 Exhibition Hall and Tower in Poznan for an industrial fair.
1912 Department store in Junkernstrasse, Wroclaw.
1913 Exhibition hall, wine restaurant, Pergola for exhibition, Wroclaw.
1919 Grosses Schauspiehaus, in Berlin.
1920 Festival Theater for Salzburing.
1929 Haus des Rundfunks (Radio Station), Charlottenburg, Berlin.
1931 I.G Farben Building in Frankfurt.
Apartment and cinema at Rosa-Luxemburg-platz, Berlin.
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1. GROSSES SCHAUSPIELHAUS, BERLIN (1919)
The Grosses Schauspielhaus (Great Theater) was a theatre designed by Hans Poelzig in Berlin,
Germany. The structure was originally a market built by architect Friedrich Hitzer, and it retained
its external, gabled form. It then became the Zirkus schumann, a circus arena. It was renovated
by poelzig and reopened in 1919, with seating for 3500 people. It was a cavernous, domed space,
painted red and had no balconies, which contributed to its vastness. The dome and pillars were
decorated with maquernas, a honeycombed pendentive ornament, which resembled stalactites.
When illuminated, the ceilings lightbulbs formed patterns of celestial constellations, and the
vaulted ceiling took on another concept, the night sky. In the loby and elsewhere, poelzig made
use of colored lightbulbs to create striking visual backdrops. Separate entrances were provided
for the expensive and the cheap seats. The theatre also included a restaurant for the wealthy
audience members, a cafeteria for the poorer audience members, and a bar. The performers and
technicians enjoyed their own bar, a barber shop, ample dressing room space, and the modern
stage equipment.
2. HAUS DES RUNDFUNKS (RADIO STATION), BERLIN-1929
The Haus des Rundfunks (House of Broadcasting), located in Charlottenburg, Brelin, is the oldest
self contained broadcasting house in the world. It was designed by Hans poelzig in 1929 after
winning a competition. The building contains three large broadcasting rooms located in the
centre, shielded from street noise by the surrounding office wings.
From the ends of the 150-meter long central front in the Masurenallee two wings convex swing
back and form blunt triangle. In the middle are three trapezoidal broadcasting halls, the large
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atrium behind the main front radial out, thus making four courtyards. Impressive is the central
front five, the middle 32 axes for a floor increases.
The monumental building is only vertically divided- with reddish brown ceramic plates Strip
disguised jump from the black geklinkerten wall surfaces. Since 1987 covered more than five
projectiles reaching the main hall, with its yellow geklinkerten galleries and the two lamps
striking back into old glory. The focus is Georg Kolbes sculpture “Big Night” of 1930.
The office and editorial rooms are located on the outer areas of the building and surround the
three large studio complexes. The largest broadcasting room comprises the heart of the building,
and aside from this there is also a smaller broadcasting room and an area for radio dramas which
possesses a diversity of acoustic characteristics.
Poelzig put a great deal of thought into the acoustics of the rooms. The chair in the large
broadcasting room were specially designed so that seats had the same sound-absorbing qualities
whether they were occupied or not. In the smaller broadcasting room a hundred wall panels
could be flipped. One side of the panels absorbed sound, the other reflected it. In this way very
different reverberation effects could be created.
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The Amsterdam school (It’s a style of Architecture)
The Amsterdam school was highly influenced by expressionism and was characterized by the use
of rounded, organic facades with many purely decorative, non-functional elements such as spires,
sculptures and “ladder” windows. The three leaders of the Amsterdam school Michel de Klerk,
Johan van der Mey and Piet Kramer all worked for the architect Cuypers until about 1910.
The Amsterdam School (Dutch: Amsterdamse School) is a style of architecture that arose from
1910 through about 1930 in the Netherlands. The Amsterdam School movement is part
of international Expressionist architecture, sometimes linked to German Brick Expressionism.
Van der Mey’s major commission, the 1912 cooperative-commercial Scheepvaarthuis (Shipping
House), is considered the starting point of the movement, and the three of them collaborated on
that building. The Scheepvaarthuis is the prototype for Amsterdam school work: brick
construction with complicated masonry, traditional massing and the integration of an elaborate
scheme of building elements (decorative masonry, art glass, wrought ironwork, spatial grammar,
and especially integrated figurative sculpture) that embodies and expresses the identity of the
building. The aim was to create a total architectural experience, interior and exterior, that also
carried social meaning.
The school’s philosophy was applied to all manner of buildings, including home and apartment
blocks. The most important examples of the style are obviously found in Amsterdam, amongst
the most important of which is Het Schip, designed by de Klerk. The De Bijenkorf department-
store in the Hague (1924) is considered to be the last example of “classic” Amsterdam school
expressionism.
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"Het Schip" apartment building In Apartment building Het Schip in Amsterdam,

Amsterdam, 1917-20 by Michel de southern facade on Zaanstraat
Klerk
"De Dageraad" housing estate, Amsterdam, "De Bijenkorf" department store in The
1920-23 By Piet Kramer Hague, 1924-26 by Piet Kramer
Expressionisminlate50’sand60’s
In the middle of the twentieth century, in the 50s and 60s, many architects began designing in a
manner reminiscent of expressionist architecture. In this post was period, a variant of
expressionism brutalism has an honest approach to materials that in its unadorned use of
concrete, was similar to the use of brick by the Amsterdam School. The designs of Le Corbusier
took a turn for the expressionist in his brutalist phases, but more so in his Notre Dame du Haut.
Another mid – century modern architect to evoke expressionism was Eero Saarinen. A similar
aesthetic can be found in later building such as Eero Saarinen’s 1962 TEA Terminal at JFK
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International Airport. His TWA Terminal at JFK International Airport has an organic form, as close
to Herman Finsterlin’s Formspiels. More recently still, the aesthetics and tactility of
expressionist architecture have found echo in the works of deconstructivist architects such as
Zaha Hadid and Daniel Libeskind.
FUTURUSM (1909 – 1944)
Futurist architecture (or Futurism) began as an early – 20th century. This artistic movement
startedin Italy and lasted form 1909 to 1944. Futurism was a largely ltalian and Russian
movement, although is also had adherents in other countries like England. The Futurists explored
every medium of art, including painting, sculpture, poetry, theatre, music, architecture and even
gastronomy.
The Italian poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti was the first among them to produce a manifesto of
their artistic philosophy in his Manifesto of (1909). Marinetti summed up the major principles of
the Futurists, including a passionate loathing of ideas form the past, especially polotocal and
artistic traditions. He and others also espoused a love of speed, technology, and violence. The
car, the plant, the industrial town were all legendary for the Futurists, because they represented
the technological triumph of people over nature.
Futurism is not a style but an open approach to architecture, so it has been reinterpreted
by different generations of architects across several decades, but is usually marked by
striking shapes, dynamic lines, strong contrasts and use of advanced materials.
Form of architecture characterized by anti – historicism and long horizontal line
suggesting speed, motion and urgency.
Futurist form suggest speed, dynamism and strong expressivity, In an effort to make
architecture belonging to modern times.
That Futurist architecture is the architecture of calculation, of simplicity; the architecture
of reinforced concrete, of steel, glass, cardboard, textile fiber, and of all those substitutes
for wood, stone and brick that enable us to obtain maximum elasticity and lightness.
Decoration as an element superimposed on architecture is absurd, and that the
decorative value of Futurist architecture depends solely on the use and original
arrangement or raw or bare or violently colored materials.
Monolithic skyscraper building with terraces, bridges and aerial walkways that embodied
the sheer excitement of modern architecture and technology.
The term architecture is meant to harmonize the environment with Man with freedom
and great audacity.
ARCHITECTS ASSOCIATED WITH FUTURISM
• Santa Elia
• Virgilio Marchi
• Louis Armet
• Welton Becket
• Arthur Ericksin
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• Wayne McAllister
• Oscar Niemeyer
• William Pereira
• Zaha Hadid
• Frank Gehry
MANIFESTOS OF FUTURISM FOR FUTURE CITY
Manifestoo of futurist Architecture published in Lacerba 11 July 1914, supposedly by Sant’Elia

stated that:
• Architecture must be impermanent. The decorative value of futurist architecture

depends solely the use and original arrangement of raw or bare or violently colored
materials.
• Should invent and remake the Futurist city like a huge tumultuous shipyard, agile, mobile,
and dynamic in all its part; and the Futurist house like a gigantic machine.
• Elevators would be on the out side of the buildings, buildings would be proportioned in
accordance with their needs.
• Built of concrete, glass , and steel they would proudly display their structure and
mechanical functions”.
ANTONIO SANT’ELIA (1888 – 1916)
He was born in Como, Lombardy. He opened a design office in Milan in 1912 and became
involved with the Futurist movement. Between 1912 and 1914, influenced by industrial cities of
the United States and the Viennese architects Otto Wagner and Adolf Loos, he began a series of
design drawings for a futurist Citta Nuova (“New City”) that was conceived as symbolic of a new
age.
SANTA ELIA”S CONCEPT OF NEW CITY – LA CITTA NUOVA,(1914)
Sant Elia’s visions were not materialized and we only have his sketches to refer to.
His vision was for a highly industrialized and mechanized city of the future, which he
say not as a mass of individual buildings but a vast, multi – level, interconnected and
integrated urban hub.
The city would resemble a complex that linked domestic and industrial habitats – at
the center would be the power station (the new cathedral).
The bold three – dimensional drawings imagined Milan in the year 2000. At the
center of his visions was the power station, the great dynamo of the 20th century.
Santa’ Elia “New city” represents multi levels, built form new materials and
technology; reinforced concrete, glass, and steel.
There would be no decorative elements. He felt that the “disposition of raw, naked,
and violenty colored materials can derive the decorative value of a truly Modern
architecture”.
Elevators replaced stairwells and served as dynamic vertical elements fully expressed
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on the outside of the monumental buildings.

Emphasis was given to the vertical line. He stressed curvatures and other dynamic
expressions. It resembles in part the new cities that are depicted in science fiction
films.
ISSUES OF ORNAMENTATION AND AESTHETICS UNIT – III
Cubism and Construtivism and its influence on Architecture – Destijl : Ideas and Works.
CUBISM
Cubist architecture developed between the years 1910 – 1914. Cubism was an early 20th century
avant – garde art movement pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picassothat revolutionized
European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music and literature. It was
a revolt against the excessively decorative style.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF CUBISM
• Principle:- that the basic shape is THE CUBE.

• In cubist artworks, objects are
o BROKEN UP,ANALYZED, AND RE–ASSEMBLED in an abstracted form.
• The cubists had technology on their side. Reinforced concrete was making its way into
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construction, and enabled them to design open floor plans.

• Cubism can be divided into two phases:
o ANALYTICAL CUBISM, the earlier phase, continued until 1912,
o SYNTHETIC CUBISM, which lasted through 1915.
• Analytical cubism fragment the physical world into intersecting geometric planes and
interpenetrating volumes.
• Synthetic cubism, by contrast, synthesize (combines) abstract shapes to represent objects
in a new way.
• New form of window and doors (HEXAGONAL WINDOWS).
• Crystal like form lead to the crystal cubism, wherever round shapes were found, for
instance even in grilles, the term RONDO – CUBISM was used.
• Cubist villas were both costly and demanding, give that most of them were made of brick,
which is difficult to cut into geometric shapes.
• Concrete was far more ideal as a material for Cubist construction, since it could be
poured into more dramatic geometric forms.
Pablo Picasso (Artist), 1909, Brick Factory at Tortosa
ARCHITECTS ASSOCIATED WITH CUBISM
1. Pavel Janak,
2. Josef Gocar,
3. Josef Chochol and
4. Vlastislav Hofman became the creators and propagarors of cubism in architecture.
5. This style, Cubism in architecture, was accepted by only some people like architects
Gocar, Chochol, Kralicek and others.
PAVEL JANAK (1882)
Pavel Janak became one of the pioneers of cubism in architecture.
In 1911, he sketched crystals form the National Museum’s collection of mineralogy and tried to
create something like a ‘crystalline’ architecture with many motife of or prisms and pyramids,
very dynamic architecture, closer to Excpressionism.
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He was the architect of prague Castle, participated in the reconstruction Micovny, Belvederu or
Riding School. He proposed numerous alterations to the Old Town Hall and summer star.
After 1918 Janák and Gočár developed Cubism into Czech Rondocubism, with decoration taken
from folk and nationalist themes, and then subsequently into a purer functionalism. His 1925
Palace Adria is an unusually late example of integrated sculpture. As the chairman of the
Czechoslovak Werkbund he drew up the master plan for the 1932 Baba Werkbund Housing
Estate, the last of the European housing exhibitions, and also designed 3 of its 32 houses. He was
also entrusted with the design for the Hussite Church in Vinohrady.
JOSEF GOCAR’S (1880 – 1945)
Josef Gocar was a Czech architect, one of the founders of modern architecture in Czechoslovakia.
Josef Gocar received his early instruction at the State Technical School in Prague. At the age of
23 he went to study under Jan Kotera at the Prague Schoed by of Applied Arts. For two years
afterward, 1906 -1908, Gocar was employed by Kotera’s studia. At that time he decided to join
the Manes Union of Fine Arts, but left it in 1911 to join the Cubist Group of Visual Artists. Gocar
joined Pavel Janak , Josef Chochol and Odoln Grege in founding the Prague Art Workshops in
1912.
After his involvement in cubism, Gocar turned to “national” Czech Rondocubism style in the early
20s. Later on he adopted the Functionalist approach to architecture. Among his greatest
accomplishment are the Czechoslovak Pavilion for the Exposition internatale des art decoratifs at
industriels moderns in Paris of 1925;he was awarded the Grand Prize for that design. In 1926
Gocar was awarded the Ordre de la Legion d’honneur.
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WORKS
1. Wenke Department Store, Jaromer, (1909 – 1911)

2. House of the Black Madonna, Prague’s Old Town (1911 – 1912)
3. Bauer villa, Libodrice near Kolin, (1912 – 1913)
4. Saint Wenceslas church, vrsovice, Prague, 1929 – 1930
HOUSE OF THE BLACK MADONNA (1911 -1912)
The House of the Black Madonna is a cubist building designed by Josef Gocar, in the “Old Town
area of Prague, Czech republic. The House of the Black Madonna sometimes referred to as Black
Mother of the Lord. The House at the Black Madonna was originally designed to house a
department store. Herbst’s store occupied the ground and second floor of the building. Grand
Café Orient was established was established on the first floor. The topmost floor has apartments.
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Josef Gocar built his house as the first example of cubist architecture in Prague. Gocar designed
this house (department store) for the wholesale merchant Frantisek Josef Herbst. Gocar’s
building was subject to strict harmonization rules that demanded the department store not
conflict with its historical setting. It uses the language of baroque in the architecture in the cubist
forms which exemplifies the ‘contextualization’ of cubist architecture.
The House at the Black Madonna like many of Gocar’s houses was built with a reinforced –
concrete skeleton. Main feature include. Angulated bay windows, lconic capitals between
windows, and Cubist railing of the balcony. This very modern building style of reinforced -
concrete skeletons allowed for large interior spaces without ceiling support that more
complimented cubist aesthetics. Grand Café Orient, which encompassed the entire first floor
without supporting pillars, was a revolutionary feat of engineering.
The facade breaks with the cubist and modern traditions at the third level and incorporated
elements to reconcile the cubist building with its surrounds. For example the roof is a kin to
Baroque double roofs. The third story also features flat windows and pilasters with Classical
fluting between them. In 1994,the space was created again as a center for Czech art and culture.
Reconstructed in 2003, it is currently in use as a small museum of cubism.
EMIL KRALICEK (1877 – 1930)
Kralicek was a Czech architect, studied at Prague Industrial Arts School. He began designing in
Prague around 1900 in the office of Matej Blacha, and worked in the styles of classicism, Art
Nouveau, Czech Cubism and Czech Rondocubism successively. Beginning as draftsman Kralicek
worked himself into a position of project manager, and developed collaboration with a number
of Czech sculptors like celda kloucek, Antonin Waigant and Karel Pavlik.
Notable Works:
• Hotel Zlata Husa, Prague,1909 – 1910

• Adam Pharmacy, 1911 – 1913
• Kovarovic house in prague, 1912 -1913
• Supich Building, now the Moravian Bank, Wenceslas Square.
Emil Kralicek’s - Kovarovic House
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Otakar Novotny and Emil Kralicek’s Kovarovic House in Prague’s is a brilliant example of radical
Cubism. The well – known Diamond House with its diamond – shaped motifs used in the
windows and around the roof line.
Emil Kralicek’s – Cubist streetlamp
It was designed by Kralicek in

1912, designed for the back lot
of Adam’s Pharmacy, stands on
Jungmann square. There was
strong criticism of the lamp then
by conservatives. Now, it is an
icon of sorts for Czech Cubism
Constructivist architecture
Constructivist architecture was a form of modern architecture that flourished in the Soviet Union
in the 1920s and early 1930s. Constructivist (Constructivism) is a term used to define a type of
totally abstract (non – representational) relief construction. The principles of constructivism
theory are derived from three main movement that evolved in the early part of the 20th century:
Suprematism in Russia, De Stijl (Neo Plasticism) in Holland and the Bauhaus in Germany. In
architecture, constructivism is a broader movement of functionalism.
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Thus any object (building) efficiently made for its purpose is ideal to be followed. This calls for
encouragement of modern materials and methods of construction.
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, two distinct threads emerged, the first was encapsulated in
Antoine Pevsner’s and Naum Gabo’s Realist manifesto which was concerned with space and
rhythm, the second represented a struggle between pure are and the Productivists (Alexander
Rodchenko, Varvara Stepanova and Vladimir Tatlin, a more socially-oriented group who wanted
this art to be absorbed in industrial production). Although it was divided into several competing
factions, the movement produced many pioneering projects and finished buildings, before falling
out of favour around 1932.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM
In 1922, Naum Gabo wrote that constructivists no longer paint pictures or carve
sculptures but make construction in space. The distinction between painting and
sculpture ceases and becomes architecture.
Constructivists reduced all natural forms to simple geometric forms. Geometric form was
thus the structural form and this cubism was symbolic of Constructivism.
Constructivism combined advanced technology and engineering.
Space organized by means of an open structure, rather than enclosed volumes,
combination of frame and glazing rather than solid walls, all these devices being aimed at
preserving the visual impression of undivided space.
The Constructivists emphasized and took advantage of the possibilities of new materials.
Steel frames were seen supporting the large areas of plate glass.
The joints between various parts of a building were exposed rather than concealed.
Buildings had balconies and sun-decks, exteriors were painted white.
The first Constructivist architectural project was the 1919 proposal for the headquarters
of the Communist International in St Petersburg by the Futurist Vladimir Tatlin, often
called Tatlin’s Tower.
ARCHITECTS ASSOCIATED WITH CONSTRUCTIVISM
EI Lissitzky-(1890-1941)
Moisei Ginzburg, architect (1892-1946)
Ivan Leonidov-architect (1902-1959)
Konstantin Melnikov -architect (1890-1974)
Vladimir Tatlin-(1885-1953)
KONSTANTIN MELNIKOV
Konstantin Melnikov was a Russian architect and painter. Melnikov studied at the school for 12
years, first completing General Education(1910), then graduating in Arts (1914) and architecture,
Melnikov leaned to painting at the Moscow school of painting, sculpture and Architecture.
During World War I and the first years after Revolution of 1917, Melnikov worked within the
Neoclassical tradition. Before the Russian Revolution, he was involved in AMO Truck plant
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project.
In 1918-1920, he was employed by the New Moscow planning workshop headed by Zholtovsky
and Alexey Shchusev, designing Khodynka and Butyrsky District sectors of the city. His first
success in architecture was a 1922 entry to a workers housing contest. Codenamed Atom,
Melnikov’s design employed the sawtooth arrangement of units that became his trademark in
later Works. Unlike other, “revolutionary” projects, Atom was based on traditional single-family
townhouse and apartment units.
HIS IMPORTANT PROJECTS
Rusakov Workers’ Club, Moscow

Melnikov’s own residence, Moscow
Burevestnik Factory Club, Moscow
Svoboda Factory Club, Moscow
1. The Rusakov Workers’ Clubis
TheRusakov Workers’ Club in Moscow is a notable example of constructivist architecture.

Designed by Konstantin Melnikov, it was constructed from 1927 to 1928. The club, according to
Melnikov, is not a single fixed theater hall, but a flexible system of different halls that may be
united into a single, large volume when necessary. His larger main halls can be divided into three
independent halls. In plan, the club resembles a fan; in elevation, it is divided into a base and
three cantilevered concrete seating areas.
Three prominent balcony-blocks are cut like wedges into the symmetrical volume of the building,
the main façade of which is in concrete and glass. The blocks contain three small auditorioums
for 200 people which were used either individually or combined to from a single large space for
1200 people. At the rear of the building are more conventional offices with bold use of exterior
stairs. The only visible materials used in its construction are concrete, brick and glass. The
function of the building is to some extent expressed in the exterior, which Melnikov described as
a “tensed muscle”.
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2. MELNIKOV HOUSE
The finest existing specimen of Melnikov’s work is his own residence in Moscow, completed in
1927-1929.
1929. Melnikov preferred to work at home, and always wanted a spacious residence that
could house his family, architectural and painting workshop. It consists of two intersecting
intersecting
cylindrical towers decorated with a pattern of hexagonal windows. Floor plan evolved from a
plain square to a circle and an egg shape, without much attention to exterior finishes.
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VLADIMIR TATLIN
Vladimir Tatlin (1885-1953) Worked as a painter and architect. With Kazimir Malevich he was
one of the two most important figures in the Russian avant-grade art movement of the 1920s,
and he later became the most important artist in the Constructivist movement. He began his art
career as an icon painter in Moscow, and attended the Moscow school of painting, Sculpture and
Architecture. Tatlin achieved fame as the architect who designed the huge Monument to the
Thrid International, also known as Tatlin’s Tower.
1. TATLIN’S TOWER
Tatlin designed the huge

Monument to the Third
International, also known as Tatlin’s
Tower ( 1919–20 ). The monument
was to be a tall tower in iron, glass
and steel which have dwarfed the
Eiffel Tower in pairs. This
Monument to the third
International was a third taller at
1,300 feet high. Inside the iron-
and-steel structure of twin spirals,
the design envisaged three building
blocks, covered with glass windows,
which would rotate at different
speeds (the first one, a cube, once a
year; the second one, a pyramid,
once a month; the third one, a
cylinder, once a day). High prices
prevented Tatlin from executing
the plan, and no building such as
this was erected in this day. (This
was never built, though)
EL LISSITZKY
Lazar Markovich Lissitzky (1890-1941), was Russian artist, designer, photographer, typographer,
and architect. He was an important figure of the Russian avant garde, helping develop
suprematism with his mentor, Kazimir Malevich, and designed numerous exhibition displays and
propaganda works for the former Soviet Union. His work greatly influenced the Bauhaus, and
Constructivist movements. In 1925, after the Swiss government denied his request to renew his
visa, Lissitzky returned to Moscow and began teaching interior design, metalwork, and
architecture at VKhUTEMAS (State Higher Artistic and Technical Workshops), became increasingly
active in architecture and designs.
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1. WOLKENBUGEL (CLOUD-IRON)-
LISSITZKY
In 1926, he and architect mart Stam designed
the Wolkenbugel (Cloud-iron), a unique
skyscraper on 3 posts planned for Moscow.
Although never built, the building was a vivid
contradiction to America’s vertical building
style, as the building only rose up a relatively
modest height then expanded horizontally
over an intersection so make better use of
space. Its three posts were on three different
street corners, canvassing the intersection.
Lissitzky wrote about the building as being a
proposal for a new, “rational architecture,” a s
opposed to the trend towards massive
skyscrapers going on at the time, mostly in the
united States.
DE STIJL:
“De Stijl” is a Dutch phrase meaning “the style”. The de stijl arts movement was centered in
Amsterdam during 1917 -1932, also called Neoplasticism. The leaders of the movement were the
artists TheoVanDoesburgandPietMondrian. Their austerity of expression influenced architects,
principally J.J.P. OudandGerritRietveld. The movement lasted until 1931; in architecture a few
de Stijl principles are still applied. The works of De Stijl influenced the Bauhaus style and the
international style of architecture and interior design.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF DESTIJL
• De Stijl proposed ultimate simplicity and abstraction, both in architecture and painting,
by using only straight (horizontal and vertical) line and rectangular forms.
• The movement focused on pure and simple elements of artistic expression, including
straight line, right angles, basic geometric shapes and primary colors like red, yellow and
blue. Black, white and grey were used as well.
• The works avoided symmetry and attained aesthetic balance by the use of opposition.
• In many of the group’s three – dimensional works, vertical and horizontal line are
positioned in layers or planes that do not intersect, thereby allowing each element to
exist independently and unobstructed by other elements.
• This feature can be found in the Rietveld Schroder House and the Red and blue chair.
• They advocated pure abstraction and universality by a reduction to the essentials of form
and colour.
• This element of the movement embodies the second meaning of stijl: “a post, jamb or
support,” this is best exemplified by the construction of crossing joints most commonly
seen in carpentry.
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ARCHITECTS ASSOCIATED WITH DE STIJL
The leaders of the movement were the artists TheovanDoesburgand PiedMondreian. Next to
Van doesbryg , the group’s principal member were the painters Piet Mondrian and Bart van der
Leck, and the architects Gerrit Rietveld, Robert Van ‘t Koff and J.J.P.Oud.
GERRIT THOMAS RIETVELD (1888 – 1964)
Gerrit Thomas Rietveld was a Dutch furniture designe and an architect. Rietveld was born in
Utrecht in 1888, the son of a cabinetmaker. As a young boy of 11, Rietveld wad an apprentice
craftsman in his father’s workshop. He attended architecture drawing classes given by P.J.C.
Klaarchamer. In 1918, Rietveld became one of the first members of the De Stiji movement. His
celebrated “ Red and Blue “ chair design was first published in “De Stijl” magazine. In 1923, the
“Red and Blue” chair was included in an exhibition at the Bauhaus.
Later, Rietveld completed his most important architecture commission for the Schroeder House
in 1924. True to his neoplasticism roots, he started to design experimental fiberboard and
plywood furniture in 1927. He designed low – cost furniture constructed form packing – crated
components. Rietveld started designing with alternative materials, making a stamped aluminium
chair in 1942 a line of chairs using bent metal components in 1957. His last chair design in 1963,
the Stelman, chair, saw the return of the use of solid wood elements and geometric formalism.
1. The Rietveld Schroder House
Rietveld is best known for building the Schroder House in Utrecht in this style in 1924. It was
considered to be the only building created completed form destijl principles of design. His
concepts are always clearly and functionally presented through use of economical and
modest materials. The two – story house is built onto the end of a terrace, but it makes no
attempt to relate to its neighbouring buildings. Inside there is no static accumulation of
rooms, but a dynamic changeable open zone. The ground floor can still be termed
traditional: ranged a rounds a central staircase are kitchen and three sit/ bedrooms.
The living area upstairs is a large open zone except for a separate toilet and a bathroom.
Rietveld felt that as living space it should be usable in either from, open or subdivided. This
was achieved with a system of sliding and revolving panels. When entirely partitioned in, the
living level comprises three bedrooms, bathroom and living room. The facades are a collage
of planes and lines whose components are purposely detached from, and seem to glide past,
and one another. External surfaces are in white and shades of grey with black window and
doorframes, and a number of linear elements in primary colors.
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The house is small and yet commands the

space around it effortlessly. The
architecture is not an expression the
materials used, but of the space itself.
The interior is a reflection of the
orderliness of the modernistic town. It
forms a microcosm of pronounced lines
which navigate across color surfaces,
alongside and around pieces of furniture,
which in turn comprise permanent
features on the interior landscape. And
just as each architectural element of a
modernist town reflects a particular
function, there are separate areas for
movement, storage, sitting, sleeping and
working. Did not imitate nature through
decoration but instead allowed nature
through windows and glass skylight.
2. RED AND BLUE CHAIR

Architect Gerrit Thomas Rietveld
(Netherlandish, 1888-1965)”scientifically”
designed a chair in 1918 using formulas
and calculations to arrive at his chair to
keep one both alert yet comfortable. His
work was part of the “deStiji” arts
movement which focused on the
essentials of form and design. Rietveld’s
multi-colored chair was originally created
for the Schroder house, also designed by
Rietveld. It has geometric lines and bold
colors that were born of the deStiji arts
movement, evolving form the Cubist
design components.
In 1917, Rietveld created the canonical
“Red/Blue Chair” and projected the Neo-
plastic aesthetic into three dimensions.
The chair, with its simple planes of
primary colors set against a lattice of
interlocking black bars, was above all a
modest piece and followed the Bauhaus
ideology of producing modern furniture
simply, cheaply, and efficiently.
JACOBUS JOHANNES PIETER OUD
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Jacobus Johannes Pieter Oud (1890-1963) was a Dutch architect. His fame began as a
follower of the De stiji movement. As a young architect, he was influenced by Berlage, frank
Lloyd Wright and studied under Theodor Fischer in Munich. Oud attempted to reconcile
strict, rational, ‘scientific’ cost-effective construction technique against the psychological
needs and aesthetic expectations of the users. Oud’s early buildings, those designed
between 1906 and 1916, show a nearly total dependence upon the work of Berlage (for
example, the design for a bathhouse for Purmerend, 1915).
In 1917 Oud joined Theo van Doesburg and became involved with the movement De stiji.
Oud’s work now assumed-the bleached, cubical forms, characteristic of the new architecture
of the 1920’s (design for row houses, Scheveningen, 1917). Between 1918 and 1933, Oud
became Municipal Housing Architect for Rotterdam. During this period he mostly worked on
socially progressive residential projects (mass housing). Oud became a leader in the
European architecture of the International style.
Oud contributed a group of low-cost row houses (1927) to the exhibition of the Werkbund, at
the Weissenhof in Stuttgart. This exhibition marked the maturation of the International style.
Other outstanding works from this period in Oud’s career include the façade design of
asymmetrical rectangles for the Café de Unie in Rotterdam (1925; destroyed) and workers’
housing quarters in the Hook of Holland (1924-1927) and the Kiefhoek area of Rotterdam
(1924-1929). The workers’ quarters show the plain stucco cubes, the efficient planning, and
the social consciousness characteristic of the progressive architecture of the 1920’s in
Europe.
IMPORTANT BUILDINGS
• 1922 Garden Village in Rotterdam at Oud – Mathenesse.

• 1925 Café de Unie in Rotterdam.
• 1926 – 1927 Worker’s Houses – Holland.
• 1927 Row of 5 houses, Weissenhof Housing Exposition, Stuttgart.
• 1928 – 1930 Keifhoek Housing Development in Rotterdam.
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ROW OF 5 HOUSES – WEISSENHOF HOUSING

EXPOSITION, STUTTGART (1927) 1956, National Monument (with sculptor
John Raedecker), Dam Square,
AmsterdamThe Weissenhof Estate is an
estate of working class housing which was
built in Stuttgart in 1927. The estate was
built for the Deutscher werkbund exhibition
of 1927, and included twenty – one building
coprising sixty dwellings, designed by sixteen
European architects. Out of 21 dwellings, J.
Oud designed five Gallery houses at
Weissenhof Estate. The twenty – one building
vary only slightly in form, consisting of
terraced and detached houses and apartment
buildings and display a strong consistency of
design. All the twenty – one building have
simplified facades, flat roofs used as terraces,
window bands, open plan interiors, and the
high level of prefabrication which permitted
their erection in just five months.
KEIFHOEK HOUSING DEVELOPMENT IN ROTTERDAM (1928 – 1930)
J. P. Oud designed keifhoek housing development in Rotterdam in 1928. The district comprises
approximately 300 homes, shops, a church and two children’s playgrounds. Feature include 2
storeyed terrace housing, flat roof, horizontal articulated facades with band of fenestration, use
of red grey and yellow colors, white stucco, rounded corners with shops below.
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NEOPLASTICISM
Neoplasticism is the belief that art should not be the reproduction of real objects, but the
expression of the absolutes of life. To the artist’s way of thinking, the only absolutes of life were
vertical and horizontal lines and the primary colors. To this end neoplasticisist only used planar
elements and the colors red, yellow, and blue. The neoplastic movement happened in the 1919’s
and the two main painters of this movement where piet Mondrian and Theo van Doesburg.
PIET MONDRIAN
Mondrian was born on March, 7 1872 in Netherlands. Although Mondrian intended to become a
painter his family pursued him to acquire a degree in education. He studied in the Amsterdam
Academy of Fine Arts from 1892 to 1895 and then began to paint on his own. Up through 1907,
Mondrian’s paintings followed an effective trend of art in The Netherland. The Dutch artist
Mondrian repeatedly lived and worked in Paris for longer periods of time. His topic less,
elementary compositions originated form processing of symbolist shifting of meanings of colors
and cubistic shape – splitting.
In 1911 Mondrian saw, for the first time, the Cubist works of Georges Braque and Pable Picasso in
Amsterdam. He was so deeply amazed by their works that he moved to Paris in 1912. Back in
Paris he began to adjust the principles of Cubis to his aown use. He produced many analytical
series such as “Trees” (1912 – 1913) and “ Scaffoldings” (1912 =1914). He produced moved
towards increased abstraction, which led him to a style of only vertical and horizontal
brushstrokes.
Piet Mondrian, Theo van Doesburg, van der Leck, and Vilmos Huszar together founded the art
magazine and movement of De Stijl ( the style) in 1917. Through De Stijl, Mondrian developed
his own theories of a new art form called neplasticism. He believed that art should not concern
itself with reproducing images of real objects but instead focus on their underlying nature. He
maintained the belief that a canvas should contain only basic element such as primary colors,
straight lines, and right angles. His “ Composition with Red, Yellow, and Blue” was composed
solely of a few black lines and a well – balanced block of color. This gave his painting a sense of
proportionality like no other and created a prodigious effect with its limitations.
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Examples of Piet Mondrian’s paintings (their title always beginning with the term “composition):
• Composition with Red, Yellow, Blue and Black

• Composition 2
• Composition with Red, Yellow and Blue
• Composition with two lines
• Composition with Blue
Elementarism.
A form of Neo – Plasticism propounded by van Doesburg in the mid – 1920s, notably in a
manifesto published in the journal De stijl in 1926.
Elementarism is partly a reaction against the too dogmatic application of Neo – Plasticism, and
partly a consequence of Neo – Plasticism itself. Van Doesburg wrote an article in the form of a
manifesto, in the course of which he said: What it seeks, above all, is a strict rectification of the
Neo – plastic ideas. He then went on to explain what he meant by ‘rectification’. As against the
homogeneous construction of Mondrian’s Neo – plasticism, he proposed a heterogeneous form
of expression, deliberately unstable, with inclined planes. He tried, in this way, to increase the
dynamic effect, and renew the element of surprise. The painters Cesar Domela and
Vordemberge – Gildewart, previously disciples of Mondrian, followed Van Doesburg
Elementarism expanded the limitations of necplasticism Neoplasticism allowed only the depiction
of flat surfaces, straight lines, and right angles in artworks, whereas Doesburg believed that the
use of inclined planes was also acceptable.
Whilst maintaining Mondrian’s restriction to the right angle, Elementarism abandoned his
insistence on the use of strict horizontals and verticals. By introducing inclined lines and forms
van Doesburg sought to achieve a quality of dynamic tension in place of Mondrian’s classical
repose. Mondrian was so offended by this rejection of his principles that he left De Stijl.
INFLUENCE OF ART MOVEMENTS ON MODERN ARCHITECTURE MODERN ART
Parallel to the rapid scientific, technological, and social changes that have taken place in the 20th
century are the rich varieties of art styles that have developed. Notable are the number of
“isms,” such as Fauvism, expressionism, cubism, futurism, constructivism, neoplasticism,
surrealism, precisionism, and minimalism.
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MODERN ARCHITECTURE
The approach to designing and constructing buildings that has characterized most of the 20th
century has come to be called modern architecture. First established in Germany after World
War I, it rapidly attracted a following in other European countries. In 1932 the Museum of
Modern Art in New York City, in a famous exhibition, acclaimed it as the INTERNATIONAL STYLE,
(q.v.). Neither of these terms is descriptive of the movement. Initially, it offered pure abstract
forms to replace stylistic traditions inherited from the Renaissance. Gradually this austere purism
become diffused, and by the 1980s architectural theory and practice had ceased to follow
modernist orthodoxy.
The Renaissance itself had taken diverse directions, yet all of these shared a common trait – they
continued to manipulate the orders (columns and entablatures) and the arches and vaults
forming the vocabulary of masonry building developed by the Greeks and Romans. In the late
19th century, however, the revival of historic styles had often degenerated into an indiscriminate
and unprincipled mixture of borrowings; this mixture was called eclecticism (a term of
opprobrium).
ORIGINS OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE
The Industrial Revolution had so changed the technological and social context of design that old
concepts were no longer valid. Form 1840 on, leading artists, designers, and critics tried to
develop new approaches to environmental art. Modern architecture has its roots in a number of
transient efforts in various centers.
In England the writer and critic John Ruskin and the writer and designer William Morris
encouraged what became known as the ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT, (q.v.). Inspired by the
medieval past, the movement rejected the idea that machine – made object could constitute a
true culture. It affirmed the importance of handicraft and led leading artists to become involved
in the design of ordinary human artifacts and surroundings.
Modern Architecture
Introduction
Modern architecture started in the year 1920, after the industrial revolution in Europe. Modern
architecture originated in the United States and Europe and spread from there to the rest of the
world. By the 1940 these styles had been consolidated and identified as the international Style
and became the dominant way of building for several decades in the twentieth century.
The modern movement was an attempt to create a non historical architecture of functionalism in
which a new sense of space would be created with the help of modern materials. The modern
movement had given birth to “ modern man,” who would need a radically new kind of
architecture.
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Evolution of Modern Architecture
The modern movement came into being to suit the need of masses. It had no influence of
Geographical, Geological, Climatic conditions and Social and Religious customs. Modern
architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and the
availability of new materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new
building techniques as part of the industrial revolution.
With economic pressure brought about, the need and importance for functional planning was
felt. Architects got more freedom to plan buildings suitable for various purposes and
environments. The crystal palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 is an early
example; possibly the best example is Louis Sullivan’s development off the tall steel skyscraper in
Chicago around 1890.
Characteristics
Modern architecture is usually characterized by:
• It arises from an accurate analysis of the needsofmodernsociety – achieved by the direct

application of means to ends.
• Important civic buildings, aristocratic palaces, churches, and public institutions had long
been the mainstay of architectural practices, but modernist designers argued that
architects should design all that was necessary for society, even the most humble
buildings.
• It represents the logicalsolutionoftheproblemofshelter – houses, schools and colleges,
health centers and hospitals, railways and bus station, clubs and theatres, banks, office
buildings and factories.
• They began to planlow–costhousing, railroad les stations, factories, warehouses, and
commercial spaces.
• In the first half of the 20th century many modernist produced housing as well as furniture,
textiles, and wallpaper to create a totallydesigneddomesticenvironment.
• Building style with similar characteristics, primarily the simplificationofform and the
elimination of ornament- “unnecessarydetail”.
• Functionalism, geometricorder, proportions and simplicity were the key factors.
• It is based on a study of scientific resources and an exploitation of new materials; it is the
architectureofindustrialliving.
• Arejectionoftheprinciple that the materials and functional requirement determine the
result.
• An adoption of the machine aesthetic, expressed structure.
• Newmaterials like cement concrete, steel and glass brought changes in construction
methods.
• Framedstructuresofsteel or R.C.C. instead of load bearing ones, became the prominent
feature of the modern architecture.
• Steel found to be most suitable material for framing huge cellular building over
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uninterrupted spans .
• Functionalstructure with R.C.C. columns, beams, slabs, chajjas, canopies produced new
breed of buildings.
• Massive stone wall were replaced by thin R.C.C. curtainwalls thus producing large
interior space.
• A wide range of shapes used for roods form flat, barrelvault,
shellroofhemisphericaldomes, hyperbolicparaboloiddomes.
• Prestressedconcrete helped in the construction of bridges, hangers of air ships.
• Useofmaterialsintheirnaturalstate, exposed brickwork, finished concrete, varied use of
steel and glass became popular.
• Use of plywood, laminates, glass, different types and shades of colours, helped architects
to make new structures more elegant.
• Finally it is organic – meaning the architecture looks if it belongs to the environment in
which it is placed.
MODERNARCHITECTS
• Le Corbusier
• Mies van der Rohe
• Louis Kahn
• Philip Jonson
• Frank Lloyd wright
• Louis Sullivan
• Walter Groupis
LATER PHASE MODERN ARCHITECTS
• Richard Rogers
• Norman Foster
• I.M. Pei
• Nicholas Grimshaw
• Michael Hopkins
NOTABLE EARLY MODERN ARCHITECTURAL PROJECTS
• Amount notable early modern architectural projects are exuberant and richly decorated
buildings in Glasgow, Scotland, by CharlesRennieMackintosh;
• Imaginative designs for a city of the future by ltalian visionary AntonioSant’Elia;
• Houses with flowing interior spaces an projecting roofs by the American pioerr of
modernism, FrankLloydWright.
• Important modern buildings that came later includes the sleek villas of Swiss – French
architect leCorbusier;
• Bold new factories in Germany by PeterBehrens and WalterGropius; and
• Steel and glass skyscrapers designed by German –born architect
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LudwigMiesvanderRohe.
The International style
Introduction
The International style was a major architectural style of the 1920s and 1930s. The term usually
refers to the building and architects of the formative decades of modernism, before World War ll.
The international style was little more of architecture which had spread throughout the
developed world by the time of the Second World War.
Evolution of International style
The term had its origin form the name of a book – “The International Style: Architecture Since
1922”. By Henry – Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson written to record the International
Exhibition on modern Architecture held at the Museum of modern Art in New York city in 1932
which identified, categorized and expanded upon characteristics common to modernism across
the world. Thus the basic design principles to the international style thus constitute part of
modernism.
The foundations of this style can be traced to the Bauhaus, an architectural school founded by
walter Gropius in 1918. The style arose from the need to create decent housing for the post-
WWI German worker, and to address the needs of a growing technological and mechanized
world. Breaking from the Arts and crafts movement, Bauhaus embraced technology, new
materials and the mass production of furnishings and fixtures. In the form of the International
style, the Bauhau’s influence eventually extended around the world.
Ideals of this style
Hitchcock’s and Johnson’s aims were to define a style of the time, which would encapsulate this
modern architecture. They identified three different principles:
The expression of volume rather than mass,

Balance rather than preconceived symmetry and
The expulsion of applied ornament.
The ideals of the style are commonly summed up in four slogans:
Ornament is a crime,
Truth to materials,
Form follows function, and
Le Corbusier’s description of houses as “machines for living”.
Architects working in the International style gave new emphasis to the expression of structure,
the lightening of mass, and the enclosure of dynamic spaces. While Johnson and Hitchcock wrote
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that the new architecture was defined by “an effect of volume, or more accurately, of plane
surfaces bounding a volume”.
Elements of International style
The International style is usually characterized by:
A style of architecture applied to residences to residences and public buildings that is

minimalist in concept, is devoid of regional characteristics, stresses functionalism, and
rejects all nonessential decorative elements.
Favoured light weight technique, synthetic modern materials and standard modular parts
so as to facilitate fabrication and erection.
Flexibility of free plan – open interior spaces achieved through frame construction.
Simplification of form – Simple geometric forms, often rectilinear, occasionally, cylindrical
surfaces.
Reinforced- concrete and steel construction with a nonstructural skin.
Complete absence of ornamentation and decoration; often, an entire blank wall –
typically of glass steel, or stucco painted white
Typically this style emphasizes the horizontal aspects of a building. Houses in this stle are
characterizes by open interior spaces and are commonly asymmetrical.
Commercial building are not only symmetrical but appear as a series of repetitive
elements
Doorway and window treatments conspicuously plain, lacking decorative detailing
Focused on the transparency of buildings and, thus, the construction – called as the
honest expression of structure.
The typical International Style high –rise usually consists of the following
1. Square or rectangular foot print

2. Simple cubic “extruded rectangle” form
3. Windows running in broken horizontal rows forming a grid
4. All façade angles are 90 degrees.
Notable architects – International style
Walter Gropius, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and Le Corbusier are among the architects most
clearly associated with the style. Other architects include:
• AlvarAalto
• Welton Becket
• Philip Johnson
• Louis Kahn
• Richard Neutra
• Oscar Niemeyer
• Rudolf Schindler
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Notable architectural projects – International style
Important examples include the BauhausatDessau,Germany,byWalterGropius (1925 -26) and

the Villasavoye,Poissy–sur–Seine,France, by Le Corbusier (1929 -30). Spurred by American
corporate culture, theglassboxofficetower – developed through a debased interpretation of
MiesvanderRohe’s prophetic dictum,” less is more”- popularly represented that which was new,
innovative, and, above all modern.
CLAM – CONGRESSES AND DECLARATIONS
CIAM – CONGRESS INTERNATIONAUX D’ ARCHIECTURE MODERNE (CONGRES INTERNATIONAL

D’ ARCHIECTURE MODERNE)
The need identify common directions and to awaken understanding for new approaches in
architecture and hence in urban planning, led to the founding of CIAM.
Topics discussed by 1st Congress (CIAM) – 1928 (The La Saraz Document, Switzerland)
LA – SARAZ DECLARATION
Modern Technology
Standardization
Cost Efficiency
Urban Planning
Youth Education
Architecture of the state.
Topics discussed by 2nd Congress (CIAM ll) – 1929 at Frankfurt
THEME – “The Existence Minimum Apartment”
Topics Discussed by 3rd Congress (CIAM lll) – 1930 at Brussels
THEME – “Rational methods of Development”
Topics discussed by 4th Congress (CIAM lv) – 1933 at Athens
THEME – “The Functional City”
This congress identified the four primary functions of city:
Residential
Work
Free form
Traffic
The city should be designed for maximum comfort and maximum time savings.
Topics discussed by 5th Congress (CIAMV) – 1937 at Paris
THEME – “Dwelling and Leisure”
The three stages of CIAM
Stage l – 1928 -1933
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Stage ll – 1933 – 1947

Stage lll – 1947 – 1956
THE LA – SARAZ DECLATATION
This declaration in 1928 was signed by 24 Architects representing
a) France
b) Switzerland
c) Germany
d) Holland
e) Italy
f) Spain
g) Austria
h) Belgium.
The declaration emphasized building rather than architecture as the “Elementary Activity” of
Man intimate linked with evolution and the development of Human Life.
THE DECLARATION
1. The idea of Modern Architecture includes the link between the Phenomenon of
Architecture and that of General Architecture.
2. The idea of “Economic Efficiency” does not imply production furnishing maximum
commercial profit, but production demanding a minimum effort.
3. The need for maximum Economic efficiency is the inevitable result of the impoverished
state of the general economy.
4. The most efficient method of production is that which arises from “Rationalisation and
standardization”. These two act directly on working methods of both Modern
Architecture (conception) and in the building industry (realization).
5. Realisation and standardization react in a three fold manner:
They demand of architecture conceptions leading to simplification of working

methods on site and the factory.
They mean for building forms a reduction in skilled labour force.
They expect from the consumer a revision of his demands in the direction of
readjustment to the new condition of social life.
THE ATHENS CHARTER
In 1943, the French group published an annotated version of the principles of the 4th congress in
the form of “Athens charter”. There were hundred and eleven propositions of the charter. It
tried to address the problems associated with towns throughout the world. The proposals were
given under five headings:
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1. Dwellings
2. Recreational
3. Work
4. Transportation
5. Historic buildings.
The Athens Charter had the following declarations:
a) A rigid functional zoning of city plans with green belts between the areas reserved for
the different functions.
b) A single type of urbanhousing expressed in the charter as “high, widely spaced
apartment blocks”, wherever the necessity of housing and high density population exists.
THE END OF CIAM
It didn’t take long for the architectures to question the conclusions reached in Athens. Chief
among the “doubters” were young British architects-Alison and peter Smithson, broke away
from CIAM in 1956. In 1953, they had outlined their concerns:
“Man may identify readily with his own hearth”, but not easily with the town within
which it is placed.
Belonging is a basic emotional need-its associations are of the simplest order. From
“Belonging”. Enriching sense of Neighbourliness.
The short narrow street of slum succeeds where spacious redevelopment frequently
fails.
The Smithsons worried that CIAM ideal city would lead to isolation and community
breakdown.
The last CIAM X meeting held in 1956 at Dubrounik where the Smithsons group now known as
Team X had taken over. The official demise of CIAM and the succession of Team X were
confirmed in a meeting at otterlow in the presence of the old master Henry Van de velde.
Works of Alvar Alto:
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House of Culture, Helsinki Finlandia Hall (1962–71)
KUNSTEN Museum of Modern Art Aalborg Table and chairs designed by Alvar Aalto
, Denmark (1958–72)
Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto (3 February 1898 – 11 May 1976) was a Finnish architect and designer,
as well as a sculptor and painter.[1] His work includes architecture,
furniture, textiles and glassware. Aalto's early career runs in parallel with the rapid economic
growth and industrialization of Finland during the first half of the twentieth century and many of
his clients were industrialists; among these were the Ahlström-Gullichsen family.[2] The span of
his career, from the 1920s to the 1970s, is reflected in the styles of his work, ranging from Nordic
Classicism of the early work, to a rational International Style Modernism during the 1930s to a
more organic modernist style from the 1940s onwards. His furniture designs were
considered Scandinavian Modern. What is typical for his entire career, however, is a concern for
design asa total work of art; whereby he – together with his first wife Aino Aalto – would design
not just the building, but give special treatments to the interior surfaces and design furniture,
lamps, and furnishings and glassware. The Alvar Aalto Museum, designed by Aalto himself, is
located in what is regarded as his home city.
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UNIT IV
MODERN ARCHITECTURE : LATER DIRECTIONS
Post WW II developments and spread of international style
Later works of Corbusier: United de Habitation, Chandigarh
Brasilia City Planning
Works of later modernists: Louis Kahn, Paul Rudolph, Eero Saarinen
LATER MODERN ARCHITECTURE-AFTER WAR II
Mid-Century MODERN
As the International Style took hold, others architects reacted to or strayed from its purely
functionalist forms, while at the same time retaining highly Modernist characteristics. Eero
Saarinen, Alvar Aalto and Oscar Niemeyer were three of the most prolific architects and designers
in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.
Mid-century Modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and
playful nature. Expressionist exploration of form was revived, such as in the Sydney Opera House
in Australia by lorn Utzon.
Eero Saarinen would invoke suggestions of flight in his designs for the terminal at Dulles
International Airport outside of Washington, D.C, or the TWA Terminal in New York, both finished
in 1962.
LATER MODERN ARCHITECTURE
Mid-Century MODERN
Contributing to these expressions were structural advances that enabled new forms to be
possible or desirable. Felix Candela, a Spanish expatriate living in Mexico and Italian engineer
Pier Luigi Nervi, would make particular strides in the use of reinforced concrete and concrete
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shell construction. In 1954, Buckminster Fuller patented the geodesic dome.
Another stylistic reaction was “New formalism” (or “Neo-formalism”) would blend elements of
classicism (at their most abstracted levels) with modernist designs. Characteristics drawing on
classism include rigid symmetry, use of columns and colonnades or arcades, and use of high-end
materials (such as marble or granite), yet works in this vein also characteristically use the flat
roofs common with the International Style.
Architects working in this mode included Edward Durrell stone, Minoru Yamasaki, and some of
the middle-period work of Philip Johnson, with examples in the United states including the
Kennedy Center(1971) and the National Museum of American History (1964) in Washington, D.C.,
and the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts (mid-1960’s) in New York.
Mid-Century MODERN
Arising shortly after the end of World War II, a particular set of stylistic tendencies in the United
states during this time is known as Googie (or “populuxe”), derived from futuristic visions
inspired by the imagery of the Atomic Age and Space Age, with motifs such as atomic orbital
patterns and “flying saucers”, respectively, such as in the Space Needle in Seattle. Though the
style was unique to the United States, similar iconography can be seen in the Atomium in
Brussels.
A distinctly Mexican take on modernism, “plastic integration”, was a concretization of Mexican

artistic traditions (such as muralism) with International Style forms, and can be seen in the later
works of Luis Barraggn and Juan O’Gorman, epitomized by the Ciudad Universitaria of UNAM in
Mexico City.
Mid-Century MODERN
Urban design and mass housing
The Congres Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM) would be a force in the

shapingModernist urban planning, and consequently the design of cities and the structures
within, from 1928 to 1959. Its 1933 meeting resulted in the basis of what would become, via Le
Corbusier, the Athens Charter, which would drive urban planning practice for much of the mid -
20 century.
Following its principles, in the late 1950’s the entirely-new city of Brasilia was built as a new
capital for Brazil, designed by Lucio Costa, with prominent works for it designed by Oscar
Niemeyer. Le Corbusier himself would help design the city of Chandigarh in India.
The devastation that WW II wrought in Europe, Asia, and the Pacific and subsequent post-war
housing shortages would result in a vast building and rebuilding of cities, with a variety of
techniques employed for the creation of mass-housing. One attempt to solve this was by using
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the Tower block. In the Eastern Bloc, mass housing would take the form of prefabricated panel
buildings, such as the Plattenbau of East Germany, Khrushchvoyka of Russia and the panelak of
Czechoslovakia.
LATER WORKS OF LE CORBUSIER:
1. NOTRE DAME DU HAUT

2. CITY OF CHANDIGARH
3. UNITED DE’ HABITATION
NOTRE DAME DU HAUT 1950-54
NOTRE DAME DU HAUT- RON CHAMP, FRANCE 1950-54
Informally known as RONCHAMP, the chapel of Notre Dame du Haut is in France
BUILDING TYPE: church
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM: Reinforced concrete
SITE: the site is on a hill near Belfort in eastern France
STRUCTURE:
In the interior, the spaces left between the walls and roof are filled with clerestory
windows as well as asymmetric light from the wall openings.
The chapel is renowned for its simple aesthetic and curvilinear artistic expression along
with the size and layout of the windows which were based on his MODULAR.
The structure is built mostly of concrete and stone, which was a remnant of the original
chapel built on the hilltop site destroyed during world war II.
ATTRICUTES:
SOFT-FORM COMPOSITION, DEEP WINDOWS WITH COLORED GLASS WALL THICKNESS '4 TO12’.
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NOTRE DAME DU HAUT
The floor of the chapel follows the natural slope of the hill down towards the altar.
The towers are constructed of stone masonry and are capped by cement domes.
The concrete shell of the roof is left rough, just as it comes from the formwork.
Water tightness is effected by a built-up roofing with an exterior cladding of aluminium.
The interior the walls are white: the ceiling grey: the communion bench of cast iron.
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NOTRE DAME DU HAUT
DESIGN CONCEPT:
Simple, Geometric shape from Le corbusier’s earlier buildings have given way to more subtle,
fractal, natural shapes here, leading to the description of Ranchamn as the first post-Modern
building.
NOTRE DAME DU HAUT
CONCEPT:
The whole conception of Ron champ is dominated by the REVERSE CURVE

ASYMMETRICAL ROOF cast in two separate membranes.
The interior is strangely list by colored glass, patches of light contrasting with the
shadowy areas in a highly dramatic and emotional way.
APPROACH:
Its entrance is a along a path.

The approach of the building, is an OBLIOUE approach-it enhances the effect of
perspective on the front façade and form of a building.
ROOF:
The billowing (to swell out, puff up, etc., as by the action of wind) roof of concrete was
planned to slope towards the back, where a fountain of abstract forms is placed on the
ground.
When it rains, the water comes pouring off the roof and down onto the raised, slanted
concrete structures, creating a dramatic but natural fountain
Chandigarh,
HISTORY
The idea of building Chandigarh was conceived soon after India’s independence in 1947,
when the tragedy and chaos of partition, and the loss of its historic capital Lahore, had
crippled the state of Punjab.
A new city was needed to house innumerable refugees and to provide an administrative
seat for the newly formed government of re-defined Punjab.
Chandigarh was regarded as a unique symbol of the progressive aspirations of the new
republic and the ideology of its struggle for independence.
It aimed to provide a generous cultural and social infrastructure and living even to the
poorest of the poor.
The near vacuum of indigenous expertise needed to realize this dream prompted the
search for western skill.
Yet conscious of the specificities of their situation, the search was narrowed to…a good
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modern architect who was not severely bound by an established style and who would be
capable of developing a new conception originating from the exigencies of the project
itself and suited to the Indian climate, available materials and the functions of the new
capital.
The Chandigarh project was, at first, assigned to the American planner Albert Mayer, with
his associate Matthew Nowicki working out architectural details. Le Corbusier’s
association with the city was purely fortuitous, a result of Nowicki’s sudden death.
Corbusier continued to be associated with the city as the principal.
Architectural and planning advisor for till his death in 1965.
Chandigarh
CORBUSIER’S PLAN OF MODERN CHANDIGARH
Taking over from Albert Mayer, Le Corbusier produced a plan for Chandigarh that
conformed to the modernist city planning principles, in terms of division of urban
functions, an anthropomorphic plan (resembling or made to resemble a human form)
form, and a hierarchy of road and pedestrian networks.
This vision of Chandigarh, contained in the innumerable conceptual maps on the drawing
board together with notes and sketches had to be translated into brick and Nortar.
Le Corbusier retained many of the seminal ideas of kayer and Nowicki. Like the basic
framework of the waster plan and its components: The Capitol, City Centre, besides the
university, Industrial area, and Linear parkland.
Even the neighborhood unit was retained as the basic module of planning. However, the
curving outline of Mayer and Nowicki was reorganized into a wesh of rectangles, and the
buildings were characterized by an honesty of Materials.
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Exposed brick and boulder stone masonry in its rough form produced unfinished concrete
surfaces, in geometrical structures. This became the architectural form characteristic of
Chandigarh, set amidst Landscaped gardens and parks.
Chandigarh,
The initial plan had two phases: the first for a population of 150,000 and the second taking the
total population to 500,000. Le Corbusier divided the city into units called “sectors”, each
representing a theoretically self-sufficient entity with space for living, working and Leisure. The
sectors were linked to each other by a road and path network developed along the Line of or a
hierarchy of seven types of circulation patterns. At the highest point in this network was the V1,
the highways connecting the city to others, and the lowest were the V1s, the streets leading to
individual houses. Later a V0 was added: cycle and pedestrian paths.
Chandigarh,
The city plan in Laid down in a grid pattern.

The whole city has been divided into rectangular patterns, forming identical looking
Sectors, each sectors Measures 800m X1200m. The sectors were to act self-sufficient
neighbourhoods, each with its own market, places of worship, schools and colleges-all
within 10 minutes walking distance from within the sector.
The original two phases of the plan delineated sectors from 1 to 47, with the exception of
13 (Number 13 is considered unlucky).
The Assembly, the secretariat and the high court, all located in sector-1 are the three
monumental buildings designed by Le Corbusier in which he showcased his architectural
genius to the maximum.
The city was to be surrounded by a 16 kilometre wide greenbelt that was to ensure that
no development could take place in the immediate vicinity of the town, thus checking
suburbs and urban sprawl.
While leaving the bulk of the city’s architecture to other members of his team, Le
Corbusier took responsibility for the overall master plan of the city, and the design of
some of the major public buildings including the High court, Assembly, secretariat, the
Museum and Art Gallery, school of Art and the Lake Club.
Le Corbusier most prominent building, the court House, consists of the High court, which
is literally higher than the other, eight lower courts. Most of the other housing was done
by Le Corbusier cousin pierre Jeanerette.
It continues to be an object of interest for architects, planners, historians and social
scientists.
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Chandigarh,
Open hand
Open hand in Chandigarh, India is one of the most significant monuments of the city.
The credit for laying down its plan goes to Le Corbusier.
It is located in sector 1 in the Capital complex.
Chandigarh, open hand monument has been designed in the form of a giant hand made
form metal sheets that rotates like a weathercock, indicating the direction of wind.
This giant hand is 14 metres high and weighs around 50 tonnes.
The significance of open hand is that it conveys the social message of peace and unity
that is open to give & open to receive.
Open hand is the city’s official emblem.
Secretariat - Chandigarh
The Secretariat is the largest of these edifices in the Capitol Complex. It is the
Headquarter of both Punjab and Haryana government.
It is a huge multi-storied linear slab-like structure, intended as a work place for 6000
people.
The building is 256 meters Long and 42 meters high.
It is composed of 8 storeys.
The long line of rhythmic sun breakers is relieved by introducing varied heights and
projections, together with a roof containing towers, funnels. Pavilions and a cafeteria
jutting out like an art object placed on a pedestal.
In the hands of Corbusier, this basically repetitive framework has been shaped into a
work of art.
Built during 1953-59, it is shaped like an eight-storey concrete slab, with its distinctive
brise-soleil I louvered screen I of deeply sculptured two-storey porticos in the centre,
housing the offices of ministers.
The Cafeteria rests atop the terrace like an art object, giving a spectacular view of the
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city.
High court
This structure has a double roof, projecting

over the office block like a parasol or an
inverted umbrella.
This magnificent outward sweep of the
upper roof symbolic of protection a justice
to the People.
The 3 vertical piers, rising 60 feet from the
floor and painted in bright colours form
grand entrance of the building façade. On
the rear walls of the court rooms, hang the
Access to the upper giant wooden tapestries.
floors is through a ramp Classic example of Cubism.
sheltered by a portico. Perfectly composed vertical and horizontal
The gradual climb lines with solids and voids.
reveals the vast expanse
and the coloured
concrete volumes of the
building.
The rooms are shielded
by the sun breakers from
inside.
Assembly hall
The most majestic entrance to the assembly is reflected in a large pool of water.
The main entrance is fitted with a door made of enamel steel, a gift from France to
Punjab on which many of Corbusier’s motifs are depicted.
The circular auditorium is crowned by a frustum which is said to depict the horn of a cow.
Untied de’ habitation
Architect Le Corbusier
Location Marseilles, France
Date 1946 to 1952
Building Type Multifamily housing
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Construction concrete
System
Climate Mediterranean
Style Modern
United de’ habitation
Le Corbusier most influential late work was his first significant postwar structure the unit Ed’
Habitation in Marseilles of 1947-25.
The giant, twelve-storey apartment block for 1,600 people is the late modern counter part of the
miss housing schemes of the 1920’s similarly built to alleviate a severe postwar housing shortage.
Although the program of the building is elaborate, structurally it is simple: a rectilinear

ferroconcrete grid, into which are slotted precast individual apartment units, like ‘bottles into a
wine rack’ as the architect put it.
Through ingenious planning, twenty-three different apartment configurations were provided to

accommodate single persons and families as large as ten, nearly all with double-height living
rooms and the deep balconies that form the major external feature.
The Unite d’ Habitation, literally, “Housing Unity” or “Housing Unit is the name of a
modernist residential housing design principle developed by Le Corbusier (with the
collaboration of painter-architect NadirAfonso), which formed the basis of numerous
housing developments designed by him throughout Europe with this name.
The first and most famous of these buildings, also known as City Radieuse (radiant city)
and, informally, as La maison bu Fada (French-provencal, “The Lunatic’s House”), is
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located in Marseille, France work, it proved enormously influential and is often cited as
the initial inspiration of the Brutalist architectural style and philosophy.
The Marseille building comprises 337 apartment s arranged over twelve stories, all
suspended on large piloti. The building also incorporates shops, sporting, medical and
educational facilities, and a hotel.
The flat roof is designed as a communal terrace with sculptural ventilation stacks and a
swimming pool.
Inside, corridors run through the centre of the long axis of every third floor of the building, with
each apartment lying on two levels, and stretching from one side of the building to the other,
with a balcony.
In the block’s planning, the architect drew on his studies of early soviet communal houses such as
the Narkomfin Building.
Appropriately, unlike many of the inferior system-built blocks it inspired, which lack the original’s
generous proportions, communal facilities and parkland setting, the Unit’s is popular with its
residents and in now mainly occupied by middle-class professionals.
The building is constructed in hgton brut (rough-cast concrete), as the hoped-for steel frame
proved too expensive in light of post-war shortages.
The replacement material influenced the Brutalist movement, and the building inspired several
housing complexes including the Alton West estate in Roehamnton, London and park Hill in
Sheffield.
Brasilia
BRASILIA-Capital city:
The Athens Charter (CIAM 4), which would drive urban planning practice for much of the mid 20th
century.
Following its principles, in the late 1950’s the entirely-new city of Brasilia was built as a new
capital for Brazil, designed by Lucio Costa, with prominent works for it designed by Oscar
Niemeyer.
LUCIO COSTA & OSCAR NIMEYER
Brasilia
BRASILIA-1960:
Brasilia is the capital of Brazil. The city and its District are located in the Central-West region of
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the country, along a plateau known as Planalto Central.
As a metropolitan area, it ranks lower at sixth and the fourth largest city in Brazil.
As the national capital, Brasilia is the seat of all three branches of the Brazilian
government. The city also hosts the headquarters of many Brazilian companies such as
the Banco do Brasil, Caixa Economica Federal, Correios and Brasil Telecom.
The city a world reference for urban planning.
The city was planned and developed in 1956 with Lucio Costa as the principal urban
planner and Oscar Niemeyer as the principal architect. In 1960, it formally became
Brazil’s national capital. When seen from above, the main planned part of the city’s
shape resembles an airplane or a butterfly. The city is commonly referred to as Capital
Federal, or simply BSB. People from the city of Brasilia are known as brasilienses or
candanaos.
Brasilia was a conception of technocratic elite surrounding the figure of President
lusceline Kubitschek de Oliveria, and was a symbol of national commitment to Industrial
development.
Brasilia
MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE-transformation & dissemination
First World War destroyed social and economic order and to that extent eroded some of
the impulses which had brought Modern Architecture into existence.
Optimism in architectural innovation.
Architects seeking forms in the late 1940’s found himself in the position of an extender of
tradition.
Creative transformation was a necessity.
Striking Feature: of the years and between the end of the war and about 1960 was a
battle between factions seeking a revitalization on the basis of a new post-war state of
mind.
The international victory of modern arch. From Rio de Janeiro to Sydney, from Tokyo to
Beirut, the inheritance of pre-war architecture began to pop-up.
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It also stemmed from the need of indigenous elites to break with earlier nineteenth
century colonial traditions.
Brazil in the ‘developing world’- post-war architecture could build on pre-war beginnings.
The formal complexity of Brazilian modern arch. May be traced in the in part to the
colonial baroque, but it also drew upon the biomorphic abstraction of modern art.
There was a dual pressure to symbolize progress and to celebrate myths.
Brasilia
LUCIO COSTA-Designed the city planning of Brasilia
OSCAR NEIMEYER-Designed the main state Institutions in Brasilia.
ABOUT LUCIO COSTA:
He is a Freelance Town planner. Conception of what a city should be so the city will be a result of
regional planning but the cause of it: ITS FOUNDATION LEAD TO THE PLANNED DEVELOPMENT OF
THE WHOLE REGION. Brasilia a ‘Ovitas’ possessing attributes in a capital not merely as on ‘urbs’.
PRELIMINARY REMARK:
The city should be planned for orderly and efficient work, but, at the same time, be both vital and
pleasing, suitable for reverie and intellectual speculation, it should be such a city as, with time,
could became not only the seat of government and administration, but also one of the more lucid
and distinguished cultural centers in the country.
LUCIO COSTA’S CONCEPTION- ideas conceived & took shape & resolved.
1. Possession of a place: two axes crossing at right-angles; the very sign of the cross.
2. Sought to adapt this sign to the local topography, the natural drainage of the area, to the
best possible orientation; one of the axes was curved in order to make it fit into the
equilateral triangle which limits the urbanized area.
3. To apply to the technique of town planning the free principles highway engineering,
including the elimination of intersections, the curved axis, which corresponds to the
natural ways of access, was made into a through radial artery, with fast central lanes and
side lanes for local traffic. Along this axis, the bulk of the residential districts have been
placed.
4. As a consequence of this residential concentration, the civic and administrative centers,
the cultural, entertainment and sporting centers, the municipal administration facilities,
the barracks, the storage and supply zones, the sites for small local industries, and the
railway station, naturally fell into place along the transverse axis, which thus became the
monumental axis of the system. Alongside the intersection of the axes, but appertaining
functionally and in terms of urbanistic composition to the monumental axis, the banking
and commercial districts have been placed, as well as the offices for private business and
the liberal professions, and the ample areas set aside for retail trade.
5. The intersection of the monument and the highway-residential axes, the former being on
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a lower level, called for the creation of a broad platform where only parking and local
traffic would be permitted, and which logically suggested the location of the
entertainment center for the city, with the cinemas, theatres, restaurants, etc.
6. Through traffic to other sectors passes along the lower ground level under the platform,
in one way lanes, the platform being closed at its ends but open on the two broader
sides; most of this covered area is used for parking, and the inter-urban bus station has
been placed three and is accessible to passengers from the upper level of the platform
(fig.6). When the transversal axis reaches the platform its central lanes go underground,
beneath the lower ground level, at which local traffic continues to circulate and which
slopes gently down unit it levels with the esplanade in the ministry district.
7. Thus, and with the introduction of three separate clover-shaped turn-offs on each arm of
the highway axis, and as many lower level crossings, automobiles and buses circulate
both in the residential districts without any intersections what so ever. For heavy
vehicular traffic a secondary independent road system with point crossings was
established, but without crossing or interfering in any way with the main system, except
above the sports district. This secondary system has access to the buildings of the
commercial district at basement level, goes around the civic center on the lower plane,
and is reached through galleries at ground level.
8. A general network for automotive traffic thus established, independent paths for local
pedestrian traffic were created both in the central and the residential districts, ensuring
free circulation.
9. The most outstanding buildings are those which will house the fundamental powers, and
because these are three in number, and autonomous, the equilateral triangle seemed the
elementary form most appropriate to enclose them; then too, this solution is linked with
the architecture of remote antiquity. A triangular temaced embankment was therefore
created. It will be supported on retaining walls of rough stone, rising above the
surrounding countryside. It is approached from the freeway leading to the residence and
the airport. One of the buildings was placed at each angle of this plaza. Plaza of the
three powers as it might well be called-with Government House and the Supreme Court
occupying the base of the triangle and congress at the apex.
10. We find the entertainment center an appropriate mixtune of Piccadilly Circus, Time
Square and the Champs Elusees. On the front face of the platform the cinemas and
theatres have been concentrated, the Pattem chosen being low and uniform so that they
form a single, harmonious and continuous architectonic whole; they have a gallery, broad
pavements, terraces and cofes, and the full height of the respective facades can serve for
the installation signs and advertisements.
11. Two great nuclei reserved exclusively as shopping centers, and two other areas, one
reserve for the banking and commercial enterprises and the other as office space for the
liberal arts professions, agencies, representatives, etc; in the former the Bank of Brazil,
and in the later the Central post office and Telegraph building. These areas and districts
can be reached by car directly from the various traffic lanes, and by pedestrians along
paths free from traffic crossings.
12. The sports district, located between the Municipal plaza and the radio transmitter tower,
which is envisaged as a triangular structure standing on a monumental base of unfaced
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concrete and having a metal superstructure with an observation tower half a way up. On
one side is the stadium with its dependencies, and beyond it the Botanical Gardens; on
the other is the race course with its stands and riding club, and the zoological Gardens
beyond. These two vast green spaces, symmetrically laid out in relation to the city’s
monumental axis, will serve as the new city’s “lungs”.
13. In the Municipal plaza were Sited the Town Hall, police Headquarters, the fire Brigade
and the public Welfare Building; a prison and an asylum are also part of this district,
though set at some distance from the urbanized core.
14. Beyond the municipal sector space was set aside for the garages of the city’s public
transport system, beyond them again on both sides lie the military barracks, and a broad
transversal strip reserved for small local industries completes the sector. This industrial
area has its own autonomous residential section, and is connected with the railway
station and with a branch of the heavy vehicular highway.
15. Having run the length of city’s monumental axis, it can be seen that the fluency and unity
of the layout form the Government plaza at one end to the municipal plaza at the other
does not preclude variety, and that each sector forms what we might call an autonomous
plastic unit within the whole. This autonomy creates spaciousness on a noble scale, and
permits the appreciation of each unit’s individual qualities without adversely affecting
their harmonious integration in the urban whole.
16. “super-quadras” the residential buildings could be arranged in many and varying
manners, always provided that two general principles are observed: uniform height
regulations, possibly six stories raised on pillars, and separation of motor and pedestrian
traffic, particularly on the approaches to the elementary school and public facilities
existing in each block.
17. Social gradations can easily be regulated by giving a higher value to certain blocks, such
for example as the single blocks bordering on the embassy district. The district lies on
both sides of the residential highway parallel to the city’s main axis, and has an
independent avenue for access, while it shares the heavy vehicles traffic lanes with the
residential blocks.
Brasilia
LUCIO COSTA’S CITY PLAN:
Costa’s city plan resembled an aero plane with its wings spread out in a slight arc and a cross laid
on the landscape. The focal point was the plaza of the three powers, containing the Presidential
palace, the Supreme Court & the congress with its secretariat. The bifurcated slab of the
secretariat stood between the main state chambers, which were expressed as Saucer shapes, one
face up and the other down. The notch between the prisms carried the axis of the city on over
the vast space of the continent towards the infinity. Flanking the axis on each side were the
ministries, also oblong prisms with glazed facades, but this time lying on their sides. Completing
this ensemble of abstract shapes was the cathedral (1959-70), with the bundle of curved beams
contributing to a hyperboloid shape but also evoking the image of a crown of thorns. Reflection
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Ag pools, level changes and Ramps complemented the wide-open spaces and launched the eye
towards the sky.
ABOUT OSCAR NEIMEYER:
Oscar Neimeyer was born in Rio de lanerio. He went to school and graduated from the Escola
Nacianai de Belas Artes in Rio in 1934. After graduating, he went on to work with Le Corburien,
who is often considered the leader in the modemist movement in architecture during the 20th
century.
Oscur Bibeiro de Almeida Niemeyersoares Filho is a Brazilian architect who is considered one of
the most important names in international modern architecture. He was a pioneer in exploring
the formal possibilities of reinforced concrete solely for their aesthetic import.
His buildings are often characterized by begin spacious and exposed, mixing volumes and empty
space to create unconventional pattems and often propped up by pilotic. Both lauded and
criticized for being a “sculptor of monuments”. Among his numerous famous works there are
the many public buildings he designed for the city of Brasilia a UNESCO World Heritage site. The
United Nations Headquarters in new York City (with others), etc.
Oscar Niemeyer is considered Brazil’s greatest 20th century architect, because of his prolific and
distinctive work.
PRELIMINARY REMARK:
The opportunity to design the buildings for the new capital of Brasilia gave Niemeyer a chance to
experiment with different forms. Niemeyer added to the stark modernist style of Le Corbusier
more organic, curved and warm. Niemeyer’s style shows a marriage between modern and
baroque styles that many feel is uniquely Brazilian.
Brasilia’s important government buildings are the best representation of Niemeyer’s work; the
domes of the National congress, the distinctive curved columns of the palaces and supreme
court, and the utterly original designs of the Brasilia cathedral and Ministry of Justice all show his
best works.
Brasilia
POWER & THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT…
The plaza of the three powers…
A. The National Congress with its Secretariat.

B. The Planalto palace.
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C. The Supreme Court.
HISTORIC SITES & MUSEUMS
Eixo Monumental
At the end of the Eixo Mounmental lies the Esplarisado dos Minitberrios, an open are in
downtown Brasilia. The rectangular lawn area is surrounded by two eight-lane wide avenues
where many important government buildings, monuments and memorials are located. This is
the main body of the “airplane” shape of the city, as planned by Lucio costa.
Brasilia
NATIONAL CONGRESS:
Brazil’s bicameral National congress consists of the senate (the upper house) and the Chamber of
Deputies of Brazil (the lower house). Since the 1960’s the National congress has its seat in
Brasilia. As with most of the official buildings in the city, it was designed by Oscar Niemeyer in
the style of modern Brazilian architecture. The hemisphere to the left is the seat of the senate
and the hemisphere to the right is the seat of the chamber of Deputies. Between them there
are two towers of offices. The congress also occupies other surrounding buildings, some of them
interconnected by a tunnel.
The building is located in the middle of the Exio Monumental, the main avenue of the capital. In
front of it there is a large lawn and a reflecting pool. The building faces the praca do Tres
poderes, where the palacio do planlto and the supremo Tribunal Federal are located.
From the viewpoint of architecture, a building like that of the National congress must be
featured by its Fundamental elements. Our aim was to emphasize their plastic
appearance and therefore we transplanted them onto a huge esplanade where their
forms sprout like a symbol of the legislative power.
The senate cupola has a normal, parabolic form which is 128 ft in diameter but that of
the chamber ofdeputies is in the form of a bowl which rises about 33 ft above the
surface of the roof and is 203 ft in diameter.
The two cupolas, one convex and the other concave, impart a feeling of individualism
and of modern form to the building.
Brasilia
PLANALTO PALACE:
The palacio do planaltois the official workplace of thepresident of Brazil. As the seat of
government, the term “o plonalto” is often used as a metonym for the executive branch of the
government. The main working office of the president of the Republic is in the palacio do
Planalto. Besides the president, senior advisors also have offices in the “planalto”, including the
vice-president of Brazil and the chief of staff; the other ministries are laid along the Esplanada
dos MInisterios.
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The idea was to project an image of simplicity and modernity using fine lines and waves to
compose the columns and exterior structures.
The palace is four stories high, and has an area of 36,000 sa.m. Four other adjacent buildings are
also part of the complex.
Brasilia
SUPREME COURT
The supreme court housed in a building opposite to planalto palace. Its colonnade which gives its
architectural Personality, closely resembles that of the planalto place though its proportions are
smaller.
‘’One of the most self – assured, self confident – even self - conscious – buildings to emerge as a
result of the interplay of the architectonic and engineer – inspired building was saarinen’s TWA
Terminal Buildings at New York. It alarmed the remaining purists of modern architecture.
Its bird – like symbolism, exciting forms and cavernous interior were not simply a casual reminder
of the changes that had taken place in architectural thinking in the 1950s, but a demonstration of
the architect’s role as an originator and, in the American scene, as a ‘building stylist’ …. Clearly it
represented a revival of architectural Expressionism”…
- Dennis Sharp Twentieth Century Architecture: a Visual History.
“This is surely one of the world’s most dramatic airline terminals. Few straight lines here:
approached head on, its curving contours uncannily suggest a bird in flight. Inside, the main
lobby’s soaring, swooping walls, its carefully modeled staircases, seating areas, and many other
features are a blend of graceful sculpture forms selected ‘to suggest the excitement of the trip’.
- From Sylvia Hart Wright. Sourcebook of Contemporary North American Architecture:

From Postwar to Postmodern.
Later Modernist
The Creator’s Words…
“All the curves, all the spaces and elements right down to the shape of the signs, display boards,
railings and check – in desks were to be of a matching nature. We wanted passengers passing
through the building to experience a fully – designed environment, in which each part arises from
another and everything belongs to the same formal world”.
- Eero Saarinen, 1959 from Peter Gossel and Gabriele Leuthauser. Architecture in the
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Twentieth Century.
Later Modernist
“We should stop thinking of our individual buildings. We should take the advice my father gave
me, Always look at the next larger thing. ‘When the problem is a building, we should look at the
spaces and relationships that buildings creates with others… In the process [the architect] will
gradually formulate strong convictions about outdoor space – the beauty of the space between
the buildings – and if he does, he does, he will carry his conviction on to his most important
challenge – how to build cities”.
Brutalism and monumentality
Brutalism architecture
Architects such as Louis Kahn, Paul Rudolph, Marcel Breuer, I.M. Pei and others would respond to
the “light” glass curtain walls advocated by Ludwig Mies van de Rohe, by creating architecture
with an emphasis on more substantial materials, such as concrete and brick, and creating works
with a “monumental” quality. “Brutalism” is a term derived from the use of “Beton brut” (“ram
concrete”), unadorned, often with the mold marks remaining, though as a stylistic tendency,
Brutalism would ultimately be applied more broadly to include the use of other materials in a
similar fashion, such as brickwork. The term was first used in architecture by Le Corbusier.
Later Modernist
LOUIS KHAN
The National Assembly Building of Bangladesh by Louis Kahn, 1962-74
Architect Louis L Kahn
Location Dacca, Bangladesh man
1962 to 1974 timeline

Date
government center
Building Type
concrete, marble
Construction system
desert
Climate
Modern
Style
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Concept:
The main feature of the building is its monumental presence. The great mass of concrete lined
with strips of marble, marked by the outer wall openings and the predominance of geometric
forms of circular and rectangular concrete offer a great tribute to the building, fairly consistent
with the noble functions that take place in the interior.
Earlier in his career, in projects like the Jewish Community Center in Trenton or in the expansion
of the Yale Art Gallery, Kahn experimented with monumental forms and simple materials such as
brick or concrete. His goal was to make contemporary buildings with a universal quality. For the
Assembly building, he chose a red brick produced by a local factory. He also used indigenous
technologies to equip buildings throughout the complex.
To complement this knowledge of the native methods, Kahn built the building on a human scale.
He believed that architecture was reflective of the art of making places, and that's exactly what is
experienced by pedestrians who enter the building. Indoor high streets were built with local
materials while the glass windows utilize the latest technology to ensure a comfortable climate.
Thus Kahn only alters the factors incompatible with the needs of use as per the temperature and
keeps the local environment and the materials.
The intention of Kahn for the parliament was to produce an ideal expression for the new
democracy by using perfectly geometric shapes: circle, the half circle, square and triangl
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Description:
The edifice is located on an enormous artificial lake and is connected to the land across the plaza
north and the plaza south.
This is a concentric plan, where several functional layers are developed around a main hall where
meetings with capacity for 354 parliament seats are held. The plan is born of a square that has
been manipulated to reach an octagon. There are nine individual blocks around the hall with nine
floors connected between them only through three levels.
An illuminated building seven stories high at the zenith of the assembly hall is surrounded by a
bypass road around the town.
There are four identical blocks of offices along with other features in the blocks of the corners.
There is also an elaborate system of traffic with different types of elevators.
In the floor situated in the basement is a parking area and the chambers of machines and
facilities that cater to the building.
Structure:
One cannot find a column inside the building. The columns have disappeared inside the divisive
elements that have adopted the function of bearing walls. It's more like a large mass of concrete
that has been digging and sculpting itself to achieve a perfect functional entity.
One of the most important considerations to take into account during the project was protection
from the sun and heavy rains and at the same time allow the free circulation of air. This was
achieved by giving the facades at grade geometric openings in the form of triangles, rectangles,
circles and arcs. It avoids any conventional method of placing the windows on the outside as well
as the disadvantages of the composition of a typical monument building.
Materials:
The predominant materials are the concrete and red brick exterior that give the image of the
complex.
“The interior of the Assembly Building is divided into three zones. The Central zone is the area of
the Assembly. The middle zone provides inner circulation, ties together the galleries of the
people and the press gives access to Committee rooms and the Library. The outer zone is the
area of the offices, party Rooms, Lounges, Tea Rooms and Restaurant, the Garden Entrance, and
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the Entrance of the Mosque”…
- Alessandra Latour ed Louis L Kahn: Writings, Lectures
“The architectural image of the assembly building grows out of the conception to hold a strong
essential form to give particular shape to the varying interior needs, expressing them on the
exterior. The image is that of a many – faceted precious stone, constructed in concrete and
marble”.
- Louis L Kahn from Heinz Ronner, with Sharad lhaveri and Alessandro
Vasella Louis L Kahn
“In the assembly I have introduced a light – giving element to interior of the plan. If you see a
series of columns you can say that the choice of columns is a choice in light. The Columns as
solids farme the spaces of light. Now think of it just in reverse and think that then the voids are
rooms, and the column is the maker of light and can take on complex shapes and be the
supporter of spaces and give light to spaces.
I am working to develop the element to such an extent that it becomes a poetic entity which has
its own beauty outside of its place in the composition. In this way it becomes analogous to the
solid column I mentioned above as a giver of light.
“It was not belief, not design, not pattern, but the essence from which an institution could
emerge”…
The evident in most of Rahns buildings, the national assembly hall responds immensely to the
surrounding culture. One of the noticeable characteristics of the structure is the marble bands
that run vertically and horizontally across the structure these bands run at increments of 5 feet
for one main reason: kahn realized that in a day, the people of Bangladesh could only pour five
feet of concrete. Without the bands, the structure would show the different levels of the
concrete poure and the building would look unsatisfactorily constructed.
The bands accomplish two things:
1, they establish a human proportion to the entire structure, and
2, they hide the imperfections of incremental concrete pours.
The main objective of the project was to focus on how the building is put together. From a single
screw all the way to conjoining concrete walls, we were to understand and diagram how these
structures were physically built.
Brutalism has an image problem…
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The word itself, which most people associate with “brutal” rather than brut as in beton, does no
great service to the style. Nor do the many terrible buildings thrown up in its name, especially
those by heavy – handed urban renewalists. Nor do its ongoing associations in popular culture
with dystopian cityscapes (think A Clockwork Orange’s tour of concrete London). Nor do the
cracks, spalls and stains one sees embedded in facades from decades of neglect. It takes a
committed eye to find beauty in those chunky folds of concrete, those unapologetic masses
bullying their way into the cityscape.
Among these out – of – favor works are those by paul Rudolph. After building ships for the Navy
in World War II and studying at Harvard under Walter Gropius, Rudolph began his career
designing innovative modernist houses in Florida, became chairman of Yale’s architecture
department in 1958, and by the early 1960s was one of the country’s most prolific architects. His
brand of Brutalism (the term itself didn’t gain traction until the late 1960s, and Rudolph himself
never used it) was intriguing powerful and intensely three – dimensional.
Yet by the end of the decade, Rudoiph’s large commissions in the U.S. began to dry up. By the
late 1970s, Brutalism had gone mainstream, becoming derivative and banal, and changing tastes
swept any building clad in exposed concrete into the aesthetic dustbin. The poor planning,
deferred maintenance, ineffective mechanical systems and lack of owner stewardship plaguing
Brutalist buildings became conflated, in the public imagination, with their design. None of this
helped the reputation of Rudolph, who spent the rest if his career mixing residential projects at
home with skyscrapers in the Far East. He died in 1997.
PAUL RUDOLPH (Later Modernist)
Yale University Art and Architecture Building, 1959-63
Architect Paul Rudolph
Location New Haven, Connecticut man
1959 to 1963 timeline

Date
University building, architecture school
Building Type
concrete,
Construction system
Temperate
Climate
urban campus
Context
Modern
Style
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Notes The art and architecture building at Yale University Rugged

cuboid forms.
Later Modernist
Art and Architecture Building Commentary…
“The dramatic entrance to the building is up a narrow flight of steps that penetrate deeply into
the mass of the main volume, between it and the main vertical circulation tower. Future
extension of the building will simply connect to this.
The strong vertical striations of the corduroy – textured surfaces are obtained by pouring
concrete into vertically – ribbed wood forms, that are then stripped away, and concrete edges
hand – hammered to expose the aggregate. This has become Rudolph’s favorite treatment for
exposed concrete surfaces, because, apart from being an interesting surface, it controls staining
and minimizes the effect of discoloration inherent in concrete. Art works, restrained use of lively
colors – mainly orange – and cleverly built – in furnishings enhance the architecture, which is
intended ‘to excite and challenge the occupants,’ says Rudolph.
Later Modernist
Thirty – seven changes of level accommodate functional and circulation areas, and since walls are
de – emphasized these levels are defined principally by floor and ceiling planes. Rudolph, like
[Louis l. Kahn], is concerned with the method and drama of natural lighting. This has clearly been
an important factor in the design of the building, as it contributes to the changing character and
psychological implication of space.
Internally the building is organized around a central core space defined by four large concrete
slab columns that, similar to the external towers, are hollow to accommodate mechanical
services. On two sunken levels, sculpture and basic design studios encircle a central auditorium,
the approach to which is rather torturous and abscure.
Later Modernist
At street level, the library occupies a single story side. Above this, with the possibility of looking
down into the reading area, is a two – story central exhibition hall, with administrative offices on
its mezzanine, and a central, sunken jury pit.
At the fourth level is the most dramatic space: an architectural zone on five levels, each
connected by a few steps.
Between the four central piers two skylights rise as giant clerestories, intensifying natural light in
the center of the space that receives it on all four sides through peripheral gazing. Painting and
graphic art studios are on the top two levels, with an open terrace for sketching. Finally, there is
a penthouse apartment for guest critics, that also had its own terrace.
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Later Modernist
“Rudolph has been criticized for the serious functional shortcomings of the building: that he put
the areas he cared least about in the basement; that the painters are very disturbed by south
light; that the sculptors are in the low – ceilings ‘caves’; that the best spaces are reserved for
architectural activity. Functionally, Rudolh’s building is a studied, politically architectural
statement. Architecturally it tends to extend beyond its own urban context. It cleverly
established a general urban scale and a particular internal scale, both compatibly and
expressively related”.
- From Paul Heyer. Architects on Architecture: New Directions in American
‘External forces dictated that this building turn the corner and relate to the modern building
opposite as well as suggest that it belongs to Yale University. The internal forces demanded an
environment suitable for ever varying activities which will be given form and coherence by the
defined spaces within. As the years go by, it is hoped other interests and activities will take place
within the spaces, but the space itself will remain”.
- Paul Rudolph. The Architecture of Paul Rudolph New York Praeger Publishers, 1970.
Later Modernist
Yale University Art and Architecture Building: section perspective.
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UNIT V- INSTITUTIONS WERKBUND AND BAUHAUS
Works of
a) Peter Behrens
b) Walter Gropius
BACK GROUND:
Why Germany:
Britain, the pioneer found it more profitable to invest her surplus abroad than to
modernize her home environment and production.
This meant that the 20th century industrialism did not emerge much in Britain
It emerged in a more industrial nation like Germany
Gottfried Semper
Architect and liberal revolutionary

Fled from Dresden, to Paris first and then to London
There on the occasion of the 1851 Exhibition he wrote his essay (Science, Industry and
art)
Published in Germany in 1852
In his book he examined the impact of industrialization and mass consumption on the
entire field of applied art and architecture.
Semper crystallized his critique of industrial revolution
We have artists but no actual art
The abundance of means is the first serious danger with which art has to struggle.
Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition of 1876
141
1. At the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition of 1876, German industrial and applied art
products were regarded as inferior to those from England and France.
2. It was realized that Germany products were ”cheap and nasty”.
3. German industry must relinquish the principles of competition in price alone and instead
use the intellectual power and the skill of workers to refine the product and this to a
greater degree approaches art.
4. Numerous critics held that improved design in both craft and industry was essential to
the future prosperity or Germany.
5. And Germany could only compete with the products of exceptionally high quality.
THE DEUTSCHE WERKBUND (1898-1927)
1. The Werkbund was founded in 1907 in Munich at the instigation of Hermann Muthesius.
2. Its initial membership consisted of 12 independents and 12 crafts firm.
3. The important architects involved were
1. Peter Behrens
2. Josef Hoffmann,
3. Bruno Paul, and
4. Richard Riemerschmid.
5. Henry Van de Velde
The werkbund was less an artistic movement than a state-sponsored effort to integrate
traditional crafts and industrial mass-production techniques, to put Germany on a competitive
footing with England and the states. Its motto “Vom Sofakissen zum Stadtebau” (from sofa
cushions to city-building) indicates its range of interest.
REASONS FOR THE BIRTH OF WEERBUND
1. To compete with the rapidly expanding United states.

2. To elevate the taste of the German society.
3. To bring good design and quality which will represent Germany’s national purity.
KEY DATES OF THE DEUTSCHER WERKBUND:
1907 Establishment of the Werkbund in Munich

1914 Cologne exhibition
1924 Berlin exhibition
1927 Stuttgart exhibition (including the Weissenhof Estate)
1929 Breslau exhibition
1938 Werkbund closed by the National Socialists
1949 reestablishment
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PHILOSOPHIES OF WERKBUND
1. Largely influenced by the Arts and craft movement

2. Adapted a more flexible attitude to machine manufacturing
3. Emphasized the creation of standard building elements
4. Emphasized prefabricated elements
5. Emphasized Basic units and the buildings is a multiple of the basic unit
6. There was this argument between Norm and form between type and Individuality
7. There were differences in the ideologies of Muthesius and Behrens and Van de Velde
8. Muthesius emphasized on the design where as early as 1908, Behrens rejected it for a
design should have individuality
To demonstrate their arguments the architects participated in the Werkbund exhibition in 1914
at cologne and put forth their ideas.
The Werkbund Exhibition of 1914 was held in Cologne, Germany. Bruno Taut’s best-known
building, the prismatic dome of the Glass Pavilion familiar from black and white reproduction,
was a brightly colored landmark. Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer designed a model factory for
the exhibition. Henri van de Velde designed a model theater.
LIFE AND WORKS
German architect and designer.

He became director of Dusseldorf’s arts crafts school in 1903.
The large electrical company AEG hired him in 1907 as its artistic adviser, a
comprehensive job that led him to design the hexagonal trademark of the AEG, its
catalogs, its office stationery, products such as electric fans and street lamps, and retail
shops and factories.
His AEG Works turbine factory in Berlin (1909-12), with its sweeping glass curtain wall,
became the most significant building in Germany at that time. He was an influential
pioneer of Modernism; Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe all
worked in his office.
AEG TURBINE FACTROY Built in 1909
143
1. Far from being a straight forward design in iron and glass, Behrens turbine factory was a
conscious work of art, a temple to industrial power.
2. The hexagonal AEG honeycomb pattern was used not only for the actual products but
for the architecture itself.
3. Instaed of concealing the different load-bearing systems of the two bay hall behind the
bulwarks of stone, he exposed them to view in the long faces of the factory.
4. The steel skeleton frame penetrates the glass skin articulating and enclosing the building.
5. Sloping glass membranes takes the place of massive vertical walls.
6. He transformed the seemingly fragile internal trussed girders through which day light
flooded in, into closed box sections.
7. The horizontal bean that links the 14 steel columns at the top does indeed recall a frieze
with metopes.
8. The light steel frame of the street façade of the turbine factory is terminated at the ends
by solid battered corner elements whose elements whose surfaces are rendered in such
a way as to deny any sustaining load.
9. This tectonic formula of flanking light trabeated frames with massive corners
characterizes virtually all the industrial structures that Behrens designed for AEG.
INTRODUCTORY YEARS:
The Bauhaus school was founded by WALTER GROPIUS IN WEIMAR.
In 1919, the Bauhaus manifesto proclaims that the ultimate aim of all creative activity is a
building.
Bauhaus is a German expression meaning house for building. In 1919, the economy in Germany
was collapsing after a crushing war. Architect Walter Gropius was appointed to head a new
institution that would help rebuild the country and form a new “rational” social housing for the
workers.
In spite of its name, and the fact that its founder was an architect, the Bauhaus did not have an
architecture department during the first years of its existence.
The Bauhaus style became one of the most influential currents in Modernist architecture and
modern design. The Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequent development in art,
architecture, graphic design, interior design, industrial design, and typography.
BAUHAUS SCHOOLS:
The school existed in three German cities:
1. WEIMAR from 1919 to 1925,

2. DESSAU from 1925 to 1932,
3. BERLIN from 1932 to 1933.
Under three different architect-directors:
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1. Walter Gropius form 1919 to 1927,

2. Hannes meyer from 1927 to 1930,
3. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe from 1930 to 1933.
When the school was closed by the Nazi regime students at the school were taught both by an
artist and a master craftsman.
IDEALOGIES:
1. One of the main objectives of the Bauhaus was to unify art, craft, and technology. The
machine was considered a positive element, and therefore industrial and product design
were important components.
2. The Bauhaus school pioneered a functional, severely simple architectural style, featuring
the elimination of surface decoration and extensive use of glass.
3. The radically simplified forms, the rationality and functionality, and the idea that mass-
production was reconcilable with the individual architect spirit.
4. One of the most important contributions of the Bauhaus is in the field of modern
furniture design. The ubiquitous Cantilever chair by Dutch designer Mart Stam, using the
tensile properties of steel, and the Wassily Chair designed by Marcel Breuer are two
examples.
Walter Gropius
Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe
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Hannes Meyer
BAUHAUS AT WEIMAR:
1. The Dessau years saw a remarkable change in direction for the school.
2. Hannes Meyer became director when Gropius resigned in February 1928, and brought
the Bauhaus its two most significant building commissions, both of which still exist: Five
apartment buildings in the city of Dessau, and the headquarters of the federal school of
the German Trade Unions (ADGB) in Bernau.
3. Meyer favored measurements and calculations in his presentations to clients, along with
the use of –off-the=shelf architectural components to reduce costs, and this approach
proved attractive to potential clients.
4. The school turned its first profit under his leadership in 1929. In the next two years
under Meyer, the architectural focus shifted away from aesthetics and towards
functionality. Meyer’s approach was to research user’s needs and scientifically develop
the design solution.
But Meyer also generated a great deal of conflict. As a radical functionalist, he had no patience
with the aesthetic program, and forced the resignations of Herbert Bayer, Marcel Breuer, and
other long-time instructors.
Bauhaus at Weimer
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Bauhaus at Dessau
Bauhaus at Berlin
BAUHAUS AT BERLIN:
1. 1933, Nazi writers had already labeled the Bauhaus “un-German” and criticized its
modernist styles, deliberately generating public controversy over issues like flat roofs.
2. Increasingly through the early 1930’s they characterized the Bauhaus as a front for
communists and social liberals. Indeed, a number of communist students loyal to Meyer
moved to the Soviet Union when he was fired in 1930.
3. Even before the Nazis came to power, political pressure on Bauhaus had increased.
Despite Gropius protestations that as a war veteran and a patriot his work had no subversive
political intent, the Berlin Bauhaus was closed in April 1933. Mies van der Rohe was expelled
from Germany Curiously; however, some Bauhaus influences lived on in Nazi Germany.
Gropius was founder of the Bauhaus and one of the most influential architects of the 20th
century.
This house was his first architectural commission in the United States. He designed it in 1937,
when he came to teach at Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design,
It was built in 1938.

It remained Gropius’ home from 1938 until his death in 1969.
The house caused a sensation when built. In keeping with Bauhaus philosophy, every
aspect of the house and its surrounding landscape was planned for maximum efficiency
and simplicity.
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Gropius carefully sited the house to complement its New England habitat on a rise within
an orchard of 90 apple trees.
Set amid fields, forests, and farmhouses, the Gropius House mixes up the traditional materials of
New England architecture (wood, brick, and fieldstone) with industrial materials such as glass
block, acoustical plaster, and chrome banisters. The house structure consists of a traditional New
England post and beam wooden frame, sheathed with white painted tongue and grove vertical
siding. Traditional clapboards are used in the interior foyer, but are applied vertically.
LeCorbusier
Le Corbusier, the four compositions of 1929

1. Maison La Roche
2. Villa at Garches
3. Weisenhofsiedlung in Stuttgart
Villa Savoye
• Le Corbusier employed ‘regulating lines’,

that classical device used to maintain
proportional control over façade,
manifest for instance in the disposition of
the fenestration in accordance with the
golden section
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UNIT V
COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA
Colonialism and its impact- early colonial architecture :forts, bungalows, cantonments – Stylistic
transformations: Neo- classicism, Gothic Revival and Indo Saracenic - PWD and
institutionalization of architecture - Building of New Delhi showcasing imperial power.
COLONIAL INDIA INDO SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE WORKS OF CHISHOLM PLANNING OF NEW

DELHI
Colonial Architecture-Introduction
Architecture has always been a symbol of power, designed to endorse the might of the patron. By
the time the Europeans arrived, several outsiders had invaded India and created architectural
styles reflective of their original and adopted homes. The European colonisers created an
architecture that was a symbol of their mission of conquest, whether it the dedicated to the
church or to the state.
Early European Powers
The Portuguese, the Dutch, the British and the French, all came to India with perhaps different
intents, but their architectural articulation was based on the same principle of establishing their
identity and authority.
The Portuguese, led by Vasco da Gama in 1498, were the first to come to India, and were more
driven by a Catholic missionary Zeal than a desire for lasting political control. Their first, and
indeed, most glorious buildings were churches, cathedrals, basilicas and seminaries.
Colonial Architecture Early European Powers
• The British, who, by the beginning of the 17th century had established the
East India Company, formally made India a colony of the British Empire in 1857.
• By this time, their presence had been architecturally established through the
construction of a host of buildings, including forts, garrison churched and civic structures.
• The architecture that they created, both before and after 1857, was an expression of the
power of the state, and the term ”colonial” of “imperial” is commonly understood to
refer to thus phase of architecture in India.
The fort of Diu was built on the gulf of Cambay, by the Portuguese, Protected by the sea on
three side this citadel is fortified by a deep moat on the fourth side.
British Architecture – Colonial Architecture
Although at the time of Britain’s colonizing activities there was a move in England and
Europe to incorporate “exotic” oriental elements into prevalent neoclassicalstyle to
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create the Ecclesiastic movement, the British in India departed from the norm.
Imperial lodge Simla designed by Henry Irwin in the English Rena issuance style with hardly any
Indian influence in its detailing and forms. It now houses the institute of advanced studies.
British Architecture - Colonial Architecture
• Colonial buildings were built in a pure rendering of different classical styles where clear
lines,imposing pediments and white surfaces reflected the power and dignity of Greek
and Roman originals.
• In England, the Gothic style we being revived, and the British Perpendicular Gothic, the
chosen style for most civic buildings made in the mid1800s in India, necessitated the use
of imported glass.
• Climatic conditions of India, however, make it imperative for them to adapt the forms
and styles of medieval Europe to the functional requirements of the subcontinent.
• This adaptation marked the beginning of a hybridisation of Indian and Euro0pean
stylisticelements, leading to the creation of what is no referred to as the Indo Saracenic
style.
• The range to this style is wide indeed, from incorporating a few Indiandecorative
elements in to a basic Gothic building, to a full-blown syntheses of both traditions.
• The fusion of the two traditions, though awkward and self-conscious at first, found its
balancein the architecture of Six Edwin Lutyens, in his design of the capital of New Delhi.
• Colonial architecture encompassed a wide range of buildings, from churches to

warehouses.
• British architecture, in turn, influenced native rulers to adopt Western palace types in
whole or part.
• Elements such a salons and banqueting hall were freely introduced to cater to the new
needs of entertaining Western guests.
The Colonial Church
• Let by the Portuguese, the Europeans, in the 15th century, established colonies along the
coasts of India.
• The Portuguese, built many splendid cathedrals and churches in Goa. These were built
typically in the European Classicist and Baroque styles.
The church of Bom Jesus, Goa crowded with beautiful detailing.
The Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa
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• When they arrived in 1498, the Portuguese were the first to introduce Catholicism to
India.
• The church of Bom Jesus(Good Jesus) in Goa was completed in r605. It is built of lateritic
and plaster and has a three storied Tenaissance façade.
• The Interior is ornamented with wood and gold leaf, characteristic of the “Indian
Baroque” style.
• All three classical orders of columns-Doric, Ionic and Corinthian-find expression in the
church.
The Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa
The Colonial Fort
The early architectural needs of the colonial powers Who came to India were manifested in
buildings catering to their mercantile needs. Later fortified these and housed not only
warehouses but also residential and official quarters for officers and soldiers, churches, banks
and theaters. Thus, Fort St. William was built to house the entire European community.
St. Andre’s Krik, Madras
• St. Andre’s Krik, in madras, consecrated in r821, was based on the design of St. Martins
in the Fields, London.
• Thomas de Havilland and James Caldwell of the Madras Engineers modified the original
design to make it structurally suited to the marshy site to the marshy site on which the
church was built.
• The foundations of St. Andrew’s Kirk, considered to be the finest British church built in
India in the 19th century.
• The building itself is basically circular in form one of only three churches in India which
has a circular seating plan.
• It is axially flanked by tow rectangular compartments, one of which contains the deep
entrance porch.
• The porch is surrounded by double colonnade of twelve massive ionic columns, and
surmounted by a pediment.
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• One of the facades has a pediment flanked by tow British lions, and the motto of the East
India Company engraved on it.
St. Andre’s Krik, Madras
• The main chamber measures 15 meters in diameter.

• It is roofed by a shallow dome and supported by an annular arch, made of specially
designed hallow potter cones, on which rest sixteen columns with Corinthian capitals.
• The concessions made by the builders the how tropical climate van be seen in the cool
checkered floor of black and white marble, the cane pews and louvered doors.
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The Colonial Fort
Bengal was the center of the trading empire of the East India company and font William
was the most important symbol of the British military power in Asia.
The Bastion – seen between St. Peter’s church and the Warren of Barracks
Fort St. George, Madras
Built in the mid – 17th century, Fort St. George at Madras is the oldest fort to be built by
East India Company.
Within its stellar fortifications, separated from the native settlement that lay outside, was
the European settlement.
The area within the fort was known as White Town, and the Indian township outside was
called Black Town.
Within the fort there was a clear demarcation of space.
The military garrison lay beneath the walls, while the civilians lived near the warehouses.
This division was the beginning of a later well-established separation in all British
settlements in India, with the military area coming to be known as the Cantonment.
Fort St. George, Madras
Within the fort there was a clear demarcation of space. The military garrison lay beneath the
walls, while the civilians lived near the warehouses. This division was the beginning of a later
well-established separation in all British settlements in India, with the military area coming to be
known as the Cantonment.
The town planning of fort St. George, is the first instance of large – scale English town planning
principles in India.
Plan of fort St. George reflects the Star shape, allowed angular bastions and protected
recessed flanks.
In the 1750’s when the British recovered from the French it was designed in semi-
octagonal form by Benjamin Robins.
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Fort St. George, Madras-designed by Jan Van Ryne in 1754 showing Public buildings
Including St. Mary’s church
Fort William, Calcutta
Fort William designed on the star-shaped plan by a Caption Brohier.

The civic buildings of the Company were built around open space, known as the Maidan.
The public buildings are outside the walls of the fort.
Plan of Fort William.
The original fort was destroyed by Siraj-ud-daulah, the nawab of Bengal in 1756.
Brohier’s new design was completed in 1733.
The Victoria Memorial, Calcutta
Commissioned by Lord Curzon in 1906 to rival the Taj in grandeur (which it never did),
and to mark over 300 year of British presence in India, it was monument built in tribute
to Queen Empress.
The building houses personal memorabilia relating to Queen Victoria’s reign, and
artifacts, documents and painting that illustrate the progress of the British Indian empire.
Lord Curzon specified that the building be designed either in the Classical or the Palladian
style and also built of the same white Makrana marble as the Taj Mahal, to rival the
beauty of the magnificent Mughal monuments.
The Victoria Memorial, Calcutta
The plan of the building consists of a large central part, flanked by tow chambers
separated from it by colonnaded corridors.
The central chamber is roofed by a high dome and each corner of the building with
smaller domes.
The dome is surmounted by a 5 meter high bronze revolving statue of the Angle of
Victory, symbolizing British power.
The entire building is place on a low marble plinth surrounded by reflecting pools and 26
hectares of gardens.
The statuary was made in Italy and the building completed in 1921.
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Colonial architecture-Civic Buildings
Colonial architecture in India-civic buildings-synthesis of the two architectural cultures.

Early examples of civic architecture, which include town halls, railway terminuses,
museums, law courts municipal buildings, university buildings and libraries, were
based entirely on design philosophies of the west.
Victoria Terminus, Bombay
The Victoria Terminus, labelled the finest Gothic building in India. The building was
designed by Frederick William Steven.
Modeled on St. Pancras Station in London, the Victoria Terminus is a symmetrical
building that combines Gothic elements such as pointed arches, vaults, dome and
ornament.
A massive masonry dome in the center provides the focus of the building, atop which
stands the Statue of progress.
Victoria Terminus, Bombay
The ornamentation of the dome, as well as the rest of the building, was the work of the
Bombay Art School.
Arches pierce the facades, emphasized by polychromatic stone and glazed tiles.
The windows are filled with stained glass or delicate wrought-iron grillwork tracery.
Turrets rise above the two tranverse projections on either side.
The ornamentation consists of floral designs and grotesque animals.
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COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA
Writers’ Building, Calcutta-Civic Building
In 1780, the Writers’ Building was constructed to house the junior clerks of the East India
Company, making it the first civic building built by the British in India.
Initially, this very long, plain building, said to be designed by a carpenter, Thomas Lyon,
was like a barraks, strictly utilitarian and with very little architectural ornamentation.
In 1880, the Writers’ Building was given a major face lift. Terracotta dressing with an
omate Corinthian façade and a dummy pedimented portico.
Municipal Corporation Building, Bombay

Designed by Stevens, the Bombay Municipal Corporation building was finished in 1893.

It combines the Indo-Islamic (or Indo-Saracenic) style with Gothic in form and
ornament.
The vast stair case tower that rises in the center of the building proclaims its British
origins, but the windows are framed by the cusped arch in the Indo-Islamic style, and
the corner towers have bulbous domes of the same origin.
The term “bungalow” is conceptually derived from bangle, the vernacular thatched roof
hut of Bengal.
The original bangle was a rectangular abode on a raised plinth, with the sloping roof
projecting out to form a verandah supported on wooden pillars.
The word was corrupted to bungalow and came to mean any single-storied house with a
verandah.
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The arrival of the Europeans in India, gave rise to the need to provide homes that were
more comfortable than the tents used by the military personnel.
These homes not only had to be suited to the local climate, built from local materials and
by local masons and carpenters, but also had to maintain the concepts of European
identity and superiority.
The bungalow was designed to facilitate this by various means;

The large compound.
Enclosed by walls, gates;
The long driveway;
The deep verandah; and
Even the insulating thick walls and high ceilings.
The bungalow evolved as a response to these requirements and soon came to
represent the ideal tropical colonial house, and was adopted as a prototype
throughout the British empire.
Colonial Bungalows
Bungalows soon developed into luxurious mansions, their size and from representing the
social status of the occupants.
The wooden posts, originally used to support the verandah, gave way to Doric and
Tuscan columns.
Elaborate carriage porches projected out to mark the entrance. Tiles replaced the earlier
thatch, and ornamental balustrades were added.
Classical detailing was superimposed on indigenous structures, not only to maintain the
European identity but also to copy the grand town residences of Calcutta.
Section of a typical bungalow showing the central wide colonnaded verandah covered by a
pitched roof and flanked on either side by Venetian windows.
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Colonial Bungalows-The plan
The plan rectangular

Projecting colonnaded portico that led to a verandah on a high plinth
The verandah ran the entire length of the house, the centrally placed drawing room, and
was connected to the dining room behind through an open archway.
The dining room opened out on to a rear verandah, also deep and colonnaded, which
overlooked the back garden. Windows and doors were arched.
The kitchen was generally located in a separ
separate outer building.
The extensive grounds included modest quarters for the retinue of native servants
required to maintain the bungalow.
Colonial Bungalows- Bungalows in the South
Bugalows in the south of the country, especially in Bangalore and Mysore, de

developed
their own architectural style.
Wide porch roofs and gables were enriched by elaborately carved barge boards and
fretworks canopies known as “monkey tops.”
These were expressed as projecting pointed hoods over doors, windows and canopies
enclosing verandahs and porches.
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Colonial Architecture-Hill Stations
• Between 1815 and 1947, the British created over 80 hill stations or small towns nestling amongst
the mountains of India.
• The architecture of the colonial house in the hills was based more on vernacular housing traditions.
• These houses were constructed from local stone Roofs were slated or shingled, over a shallow
pitched form.
CANTONMENT
The Cantonment is a military town which also housed civil servants-usually separately.
Features:
• Attractive with tree lined streets

• Contains cathedral, law courts and other public
• Transformed from military camps into towns under the Raj
• Eg-Bangalore Cantonment had a population of I lakh by the end of the 19th c.
CANTONEMNT
Features:
• Consisted of public offices, churches, parks, shops and schools

• The upper income families lived there
• It was an entity distinct from the old city-traffic between the two had to stop at a toll
gate and pay taxes.
• The major cities had race courses, bars and dance halls.
• It was a European town in India made possible by the dominant position in society of a
few and large numbers of lowly paid servants.
• The predominant house form was the Bungalow
CANTONMENT-BUNGALOW
The bungalow appears to have a dual origin.
1. The detached rural Bengal house sitting in its compound

2. The British suburban villa
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It was a fusion of these two types that led to a building form which would later become an
enduring symbol of the Raj.
• The early bungalows had long, low classical lines and detailing.
• The Gothic revival in England-spawning buildings with pitched roofs and richly
carpentered details.
• The Classical bungalow with its Doric, and later, in New Delhi for instance, Tuscan orders
became a symbol not only of an European heritage but also of the military and political
might of Britain.
CANTONMENT-BUNGALOW
The typical residential bungalow for the wealthy was:
• Was set back from the road by a walled compound

• The amount of land enclosed was a symbol of status.
• For a senior officer a ratio of 15:1, garden to built form, was appropriate, while for a
beginning rank it could even be 1:1
In this sense the British showed a hierarchical system no less developed than the complex caste
system which they ascribed to India.
Indo Saracenic architecture
• Indo Saracenic architecture was an effort to merge British and Indian aspirations after
1858 and to show that despite being an imperial power, the British in India were part of
the Indian milieu.
• The Indo Saracenic movement began in the 1870’s (similar themes go back to Chepauk
palace 1768 by Paul Benfield). The palace was a mix of tropical Gothic and Muslim
precedents.
• Lasted until Independence and thereafter in Revivalist modes drawing more from Hindu
than Mughal precedents
• Indo-Saracenic also known as Indo Gothic, was style of architecture used by British
architects in the late 19th century in India.
• It drew elements from Mughal architecture, and combined it with the Gothic revival style
favored in Victorian Britain.
160
Indo Saracenic style
Madras High Court buildings are a prime example of Indo-

Saracenic architecture, designed by J W Brassington under
the guidance of famous British architect Henry Irwin
The Indo Saracenic is a mixture of Indian and Islamic architecture but remained British in spatial
organization and composition.
• It was not an evolutionary synthesis but done self consciously

• Evolved over time and varied in degree of complexity and homogeneity
• Consistent in borrowing from Indian prototypes
• Each architect’s work is distinguishable-eg. Jacob and Emerson
• Gathered momentum in 19th c. in direct proportion to the increasing power of
nationalism
• Seen by the British-Britain’s benevolence
• To others symbol of dominance
• Craftsmen were employed as skilled workers
• Accepted by the Indian elite
• Later works were dominated by the PWD for design
• The style continued to be popular with the Indian royalty
• Built palaces and public buildings in the princely states
• The Ranjit Vilas Palace, Cbbota Udaipur etc
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INDO SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE
Characteristics:
• It is fundamentally British with Indian characteristics including:

• Onion (bulbous) domes
• Overhanging eaves
• Pointed arches, cusped arches, or scalloped arches
• Vaulted roofs
• Domed kiosks
• Many miniature domes
• Domed chhattris
• Pinnacles
• Tower or minarets
• Open pavilions or pavilions with Bangala roofs
• Pierced open arcading
Indo Colonial Architecture
The Laxmi Vilas palace, Barado
• This colossal palace was designed by Major Charles Mant.

• It was completed twelve years later by Robert Fellowes Chisholm in 1890, after the death
of Mant.
• The craftsmanship and materials used display a blend of “native” details with the needs
of a modern palace.
• In plan it follows the traditional sections of public spaces and separate living quarters for
the maharaja and the zenana.
• The Indo-Saracenic architectural style contains Hindu, Mughal, Jain and Gothic elements.
162
The prince of Wales Museum, Bombay
• The British excelled in museum design. The foundation stone of this museum was laid in
1905 by the Prince of Wales (future George V).
• It was modeled on the basic of Gol Gumbaz of Bijapur and designed by George wittet.
• The museum was built of blue basalt and yellow sandstone.
• It has a immense concrete dome in the center with domelets all around.
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The National Art Gallery, Madras
• Designed by Henry Irwin, the

National Art Gallery in Madras is
modeled on the basis of Buland
Darwaza of Fatehpur Sikri.
• Made of prink sandstone, the
gallery is more Indian in
architectural style than colonial.
Indo Colonial Architecture-Characteristics:
Architects:
Robert Fellowes Chisholm, Charles Mant, Henry Irwin, William Emerson, George Wittet and
Frederick Stevens
Typologies:
Buildings built in this style were usually grand public buildings such as clock towers, courthouses
civic and municipal buildings, government colleges, town halls, railway stations, museums and art
galleries.
Robert Fellowes Chisholm (1840-1915):
• He worked briefly for the Bengal Public Works Department before he was appointed
head of the school of Industrial Arts in Madras in 1850’s.
• When he won the competition for the design for Presidency College in the city, he was
appointed by Lord Napier the Governor as consulting architect to the Government of
Madras (1865-80).
• He moved on to Baroda in 1889 as consulting architect to the Maharaja working there to
return to England in 1902.
• Chisholm took some of the ideas developed in India to England-his design for the never
constructed Indian Museum London, was an Indic style.
Early work was primarily Gothic and Romanesque:
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• The Government Arts & Crafts College Madras 1855

• PWD Headquarters, Madras 1868
• Nilgiri Library 1865
• Presidency College Madras University 1870
Napier Museum 1872, Thiruvanathapuram & Victoria Jubilee Town Hall
Influenced by roof forms, projecting eaves, balconies and brackets of Padmanabhapuram palace
Napier Museum 1872, Thiruvanathapuram Victoria Jubilee Town Hall
• As Consulting architect to the Government of Madras ha was commissioned to extend

the Chepauk palace and modify it into the Board of Revenue Office 1866
• He used tall minaret like tower to unite the palace and extension
• He also designed the Senate house 1879 Redesigned the Central Station 1890’s
combining Italianate with Hindu overtones
• Chisholm was largely responsible for transforming Madras from a Classical city in to an
Indo Saracenic metropolis.
• The unity of the whole area along the sea front remains an outstanding example of civic
design where similarity off the parts creates a whole that transcends the quality of
individual buildings.
• After Chisholm’s departure to Baroda in 1881, Henry Irwin continued the Indo Saracenic
movement in Madras.
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Other places – Indo Saracenic – Hyderabad, Mysore, Bombay, Lucknow, Lahore
1. Hyderabad – Vincent Each

• High court, City College, Osmania General Hospital, Railway station
• A adopted sharply pointed arches and domes of the Out Shari tombs with narrowed neck
and lotus petal rings
• Town Hall & State Archaeological Museum
• Majority of Hyderabad’s public buildings Indo arsenic.
Other places – Indo Saracenic – Hyderabad, Mysore, Bombay, Lucknow, Lahore
2. Mysore
• Amba Vilas place, Public Offices, Modern Hindu Hotel, Landsdowne Market, Janata
Bazaar, Silver Jubilee Clock tower, Rajendra Vilas Palace
• The Janata Bazaar – mixture of Roman arches with Tuscan, Ionic capitals and chhattris –
Bengali Rajasthani touch
3. Bombay
• The Indo Saracenic in Bombay is overshadowed by the Neo gothic.
• The GPO – central dome offset by 2 turreted domes draws on Gol Gumbaz & Humayun’s
towb. Public space lies beneath dome. Service facilities are in the annexe
• Prince of Wales Museum – George Willet – storey building constructed of basalt & Kurla
stone and capped by a dome. The façade is heavily decorated, with arched openings and
weighty brackets. The entrance portico has a Banglardar roof with jaalis in the openings.
Influence of Bijapur.
• Gateway of India – George Willet best known indo saracenic architectural composition.
Bears a resemblance to Rani Rupmati’s mosque and Jami Masjid Ahmedabad
The Gateway of India, Bombay
The Gateway of India was built as a triumphal arch under which George V and Queen
Mary would pass when they disembarked at Bombay on their way to Delhi for the
Coronation Durbar in 1911.
Designed by George Witter, it is built at the place where a 19th century iron gazebo
had earlier stood, welcoming new comers a cross the seas to the empire in India.
The side chambers of the triple arched gateway were to serve as reception rooms.
The semi octagonal pilasters on either side of the main arch extend upwards and are
capped with domed chatters, joined together by a high parapet.
Eaves supported on carved corbels accentuate the horizontal lines.
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INDO SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE IN BARODA I VADODARA I KOLHAPUR
Major Charles Mants’s – Town, Hall, General library Albert Hospital, High school
• HedevelopedindoSaracenic from Venetian Gothic to a more pure form Chisholm

completed the Lakshmi Vilas Palace begun by Mant.
• Nyay mandir, Baroda Museum and Art Gallery, Khanderao market and the complex that
houses the Faculty of Arts of the Maharaja Sayaji Rao University.
• The Arts College has a huge Islamic dome over the central hall surrounded by a cluster of
smaller domes.
• The main arch I a triple arch of stone capped with finials – Buddhist & use of carved
elephants are column capitals.
SIR SWINTON JACOB
“Jeypore portfolio of Architectural Details 1890”

6 volumes of 600 drawings – copings, plinths, jails, mosques, tombs, forts, temples and
palaces, facades of buildings.
The plans and spatial organization continued to be British but the façade – hybrid.
Particularly appropriate for school and college buildings.
SIR WELLIAM EMERSON
Factors which led to the city planning:
• RedevelopmentofIndiancities.
• Building of railways caused disruption in the city.
• Growth in population and changes in military technology led to the demolition of old city
walls.
• New institution and buildings were introduced – urban renewal projects.
• In the suburbs – bungalows, villas and housing societies were built.
• Exodus of middle class to the suburbs.
• Delhi devastated by both economic development and planning procedures.
• Extensive area around Red Fort demolished.
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• Chandini Chowk lost its character.

• Extensive cantonment for the army and a civil line area (primarily British residents) for
civil servants and business people.
BUILDING OF NEW DELHI SHOWCASING IMPERIAL POWER
King George proclaimed the transfer of the capital form Calcutta to Delhi at the climax of
the 1911 Imperial Durbar.
New Delhi was inaugurated early in 1931. Like Calcutta, it was stamped with the
hallmark of authority and like most other seats of British power in India it stood apart
from its Indian predecessors. This was contrary to the original intention.
The prevailing enthusiasm of Anglo – Indian imperial designers for the synthesis of
eastern and western styles quailed before the problem of assimilating an urban order.
Devised in accordance with the principles of the Modern English Garden City, and the
vital chaos of Shahjahanabad: the latter seemed to be the very embodiment of all the
evils of laissez – faire growth that the formulators of the Garden City movement
specifically deplored.
BUILDING OF NEW DELHI SHOWCASING IMPERIAL POWER
1914 – Classical Revival
The plan of New Delhi was actually designed by “The New Delhi Planning Committee” but was
influenced by Sir Edwin Lutyens
Planning of New Delhi 1914 CITY OF NEW DELHI BY LUTYE
• NEW DELHI WAS LAID OUT ON THE GARDEN CITY PATTERN IN 1912 BY EDWIN LUTYENS.
• LUTYENS’ PLAN WAS TO LANDSCAPE A VAST EXPANCE JOINING THE RIVER YAMUNA &
THE ARAVALI RIDER YAMUNA & THE ARAVALI RIDGE NEW DELHI WAS LAID ON THE
GEOMENTRIC PATTERN OVER A TRIANGULAR BASE.
• LUTYENS VISUALISED THAT THE CENTRAL VISTA WOULD HAVE A GRAND VISION
HILIGHTING THE SUPREMACY OF THE BRITISH RULE.
• THUS, VICEROY’S PALACE ON THE RAISINA HILL WITH THE TWO SECRETARIET BUILDINGS
ON ELTHER SIDE OF IT OCCUPED THE HIGHEST LAND OF THE HILL & WOULD DOMINATE
THE SKYLINE OF NEW DELHI.
• THE MAIN FEATURE OF NEW DELHI IS THE BROAD PROCESSIONAL AVENUE RAJPATH.
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Planning of New Delhi 1914 – “Classical Revival capital complex”VICEROY’S GARDEN, NEW
DELHI:
THE MAIN FEATURES OF VICERORY’S GARDEN ARE:
INTRODUCTION OF LAWN
USE OF FOUNTAINS IN CORTYAEDS, EVEN OF THE ROOF
GRAND AVENUES
STRAIGHT & BROAD PATH WAYS
32 BROAD STEPS LEADING UP TO THE PORTICO.
169
Planning of New Delhi 1914 – “Classical Revival capital complex”
Planning of New Delhi 1914
• Planning inspiration came from other imperial models and new capital cities: the Paris
and Champs – Elysees of Baron Haussmann,
• Wren’s unbuilt plan for London, as well as L’Enfant’s plan for Washing ton DC.
• Other planning ideas came from contemporary British experiments in urbanism:
• The Circus at Bath for Connaught Place, and Hampstead Garden City for the residential
suburbs of New Delhi.
New Delhi’s plan is based on 2 crossing axes
• The King’s way – Raj Path

• The Queen’s way – Jan Path
And radiating axes, one which links the council house through the Connaught place to old Delhi
At the head of the King’s way on a hillock – Viceroy’s House – Rashtrapathi Bhavan
• A adjacent to it is the Secretariat

• At the other end of the King’s way are the ruins of the Purana qila
• A rise in the topography of the Raj path towards Rashtrapathi Bhavan obscures the lower
portion of the building as one approaches
• Baker designed the Council house – Parliament building
• The building sits on a previously executed plan, symbolizing subservient nature, in the
eyes of the Raj – notes by Nehru and Corbusier prior to the building of Chandigarh – 1952
Secretariat building, Delhi. The Secretariat building in Delhi, one of a set of two buildings
designed by British architect Sir Herbert Baker to accompany the Rashtrapati Bhavan ( the official
residence of the President of India). Built between 1912 to 1931 in a combination of Mughal and
Rajputana architectural styles
ALL INDIA WAR MEMORIAL ARCH, DELHI
Also called India Gate, the All India War Memorial Arch was completed in 1931.
It was built after World War I as a memorial to Indian soldiers who died for the imperial
cause in this and along with the British, in the Afghan War of 1919.
Designed by sir Edwin Lutyens, the arch stands symbolically along the focal ceremonial
170
driveway, Raj Path.

The Arch is a colossal, honey-colored structure, 43 meters high, with delicately
sculptured panels of stone work relief.
PLANNING & ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
An equilateral triangle is defined by the ceremonial, administrative and commercial centers of

the new Metropolis.
The commercial centre (CONNAUGHT PLACE) in the north forms the apex.
Rajpath, the east-west axis of power, provides their base.
The north-east diagonal serves the Law; the north-west diagonal by passes the cathedral
and the originally unforeseen parliament.
Rajpath is aligned with the entrance to the Purana Ouila.
It runs through the India Gate War Memorial and the portal buildings of Baker’s
secretariat, from the Chattri in which the city’s founder, the king-Emperor, stood in
imperial majesty to the durbar hall of the house where his Viceroy sat.
Centered on the great circular durbar hall, the Viceroy’s House is clearly a revision of its
Calcutta predecessor.
PLANNING & ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
Lutyen’s imperial eclecticism ranged from Wren’s St. Stephen’s Wall brook (for the
Viceroy’s library) to the Mahastupa at Sanchi (for the central cupola) and the chahar
bagh.
INDO SARACENIC – On the way he took in the ubiquitous Indian chattri and chadya, cross
fertilized acan thus and volute with padma and bell for his Order and tethered Indian
elephants at salient portal corners where the great ancient Mesopotamian monarchies
had ceremonial syncretic winged monsters.
INDO SARACENIC
Baker was equally liberal with his Indian motifs in the Secretariats and the massive,
strangely unassertive, circular parliament building, but Lutyens thought him singularly
insensitive to the spirit of the scheme as a whole in the angle at which he set Rajpath’s
ascent between the Secretariats to the plane of the Viceroy’s house.
Some of the symbolism Lutyens choses:
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The exterior dome of the Viceroy’s Palace – Buddhist stupa – Sanchi

More concerned with geometry than symbolic reference
Materials are sandstone – attitudes Mughal –schme British
Lutyens a dapted Indian forms to a much greater degree than Baker
Achieved a partial synthesis of British & Indian forms
Indo Saracenic – more classical than Gothic
Both in New Delhi and other places – buildings – sloping, continuous overhangs, domes &
chhattris in Lutyen’s style, plinth with projecting thickness.
Viceroy’s palace – Rashtrapati Bhavan
Lutyens work in Delhi has had an impact on urban design schemes even today.
Eg. Darulshafa scheme in Lucknow by the PWD.
PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT
STARTED – 1760 by the BRITISH EAST INDIA COMPANY
FORMALISED – 1854 to 1855, divided into three presidencies
They developed a standardized form for all type of military and civil buildings.
As kipling said,
“along low wall pierced with round headed cavities, entirely without architectural sense of mass;
with no distinguishing features and no detail to speak of exept the cornic and the impost form
which it springs.”
From 1857 to 1858
The impetus was to economize on the redundant and potentially Counter Productive design
decision making in situations where skilled design professionals were few.
The tussle between engineer and architects to control the building design process has also been
an ongoing in India.
Thus in 19th century, several architects active role in PWD, in designing, some of the architects
include
172
• George wittet
• Ramchandra bullal
• Hayavadana
SPLIT BETWEEN ARCHITECTS AND ENGINEERS:
Thus, despite the increasing public recognition of architecture as an undertaking separate form
engineers, much building design remained in the hands of engineers;
A number of major buildings of the late 19th century were designed by military engineers.
There were several architects in this period who built structures to the Indian group despite the
problems faced by them.
Frederick William Stevens
(11 November 1847 -3 March 1900)
He was an English architectural engineer who worked for the British colonial government in India.
Stevens most notable design was the Victoria railway station (later known as the chatranathi
sivaij terminus in Mumbai.
VICTORIA TERMINUS
Victoria Terminus, Mumbai was completed in 1888 and was named after Queen Victoria on
Jubilee Day, 1887.
It took ten years to complete and was named “Victoria Terminus” in honour of the queen and
Empress Victoria; it was opened on the date of her Golden Jubilee in 1887. This famous
architectural landmark in Gothic style was built as the headquarters of the great Indian
Peninsular Railway. Since then the station came to be known as Bombay VT.
The station was designed by Frederick William Stevens, a consulting architect in 1887 – 1888. He
received as payment 16.14 lake rupees. Stevens earned the commission to construct the station
after a masterpiece watercolour sketch by draughtsman Axel Haig. The final design bears some
resemblance to St .Pancras Station in London.
173
• The station building was designed in the Victorian Gothic style of architecture. The
building exhibits a fusion of influences from Victorian Italianate Gothic Revival
architecture and traditional Indian architecture. He British used European styles such as
classical and gothic for their pre colonial buildings by the mid – nineteenth century some
new buildings types were designed in the then fashionable high Victorian gothic style
• There are also open arcades, staircases and galleries to provide air and shade, and much
of carved ornaments was by local craftsmen and depicted local flora and fauna
• There are four gateways to the main entrance and the rectangular yard in front,
maintains an ornamental garden on one side
• The station building was designed in the Victorian gothic style of architecture. The
building exhibits a fusion of influences form Victorian Italianate Gothic Revival
architecture and traditional Indian architecture. He British used European styles such as
classical and gothic for their pre colonial buildings by the mid – nineteenth century some
new buildings types were designed in the then fashionable high Victorian gothic style
• Internally, the wood carving, tiles, ornamental iron and brass railings, grills for the ticket
offices, the balustrades for the grand staircases and other ornaments were the work of
students at the Bombay School of Art
• There is a clock on the tower with a diameter of 3.19 meters
• The frontage of the terminus is symmetrical with a massive central dome and a number
of smaller domes and conical towers on the wings on either side
• The central dome bears a thirteen feet solid statue of a woman (progress) with a flaming
torch in her right arm raised towards the sky and a spoked wheel low in her left hand, by
Thomas Fam, and architectural carver
• A life – size statue of Queen Victoria is placed in front of the central façade. The other
statures include one representing ‘Agriculture’ on the central gable (triangular upper part
of a wall at the end of a ridged roof) on the south side and on each of the two gables in
the wings of the west façade representing ‘Engineering & Science’ and ‘Shipping &
Commerce’
• He also carved the Imperial lion and the Indian tiger on the gate piers in the front.
Beneath this dome are the stairs to each floor
• The wood carving, tiles, ornamental iron and brass railings, grills for the ticket offices, the
balustrades for the grand staircases and other ornaments etc were the work of students
at the Bombay School of Art. The cantilevered staircase that leads to the dome, the large
174
spacious booking hall with its pointed arcades, glazed tiles, stained glass and wooden
vaulted ceilings all look simply stunning
The stained glass detail which showcases the gothic influence not only brings in natural light to
the place but also has an added advantage in terms of beautifying the place.
Glass windows that are rich in primary Colours
The grills, balustrades have been designed so as to respond with every detail.
• Ornamented panels displaying peacocks, monkeys, elephants and British lions are mixed
up among the buttresses, domes, turrets, Spires and stained…
• Carvings of gargoyles, and animals like elephants, peacocks, monkeys, and lions
intermingle with the domes, ramparts, spires turrets, and stained glass windows
• Thus the terminus looks more like a cathedral than a terminus.
The main structure is built with light brown sandstone and limestone whereas the decorative
elements are carved on to high quality Italian marble.
The ground floor of the North Wing, also known as the Star Chamber is floored with Italian
marble along with polished Indian Blue stone.
Charles Wyatt
He was an English architect, and nephew to the architects James Wyatt & Samuel Wyatt. He
entered the army in 1780 as a cadet, sailing for India aboard the ship Mount Stewart on the 27th
June of the same year, but the ship was captured by the French & Spanish fleets and returned to
England. His second attempt to reach India was successful, arriving in 1782. He joined the
Bengal Engineers, eventually being promoted to Captain in 1800 and Commander of Police. In
June 1803 he was made Superindent of Public works.
RajBhavan or “Government House”
The structure was built in pre – Independence times (1803). Once the residence of the
Viceroy of India, and called the GovernmentHouse, the palatial house is now the
residence of the GovernorofWestBengal.
The design of Government House, Calcutta, is an adaptation of the plan of Kedleston Hall
in Derbyshire which was built for Lord Curzon of Kedleston, in the Years 1759 -1770 by
the renowned architect Robert Adam.
175
The scheme of a great central pile with curving corridors radiating from its four angles to
detached wings, each constituting a house in itself, was admirably adapted to a climate
where every quarter must be seized.
Difference between govt. house and kedleston hall
• Government House resembles Kedleston Hall in the broad external Features of shape,
designed orientation, in the extreme dimensions form East to West, in the concentration
of the main State rooms in the middle pile, in the placing there of a great marble hall
supported by columns and in the superimposition of a dome above the Southern façade.
• Kedkeston is built mainly of a grey or yellowish sandstone and only partly of brick while
Government House is built entirely of brick covered over with white plaster which is color
– washed every year.
• They differ also in completeness of construction, only two of the projecting wings having
been finished at Kedleston, whereas Government House has all four Government House
also has a semi – circular projecting portico and colonnade on the South front which
Kedleston lacks.
• The curved corridors at Government House are two Story’s high and so their roof line is
level with that of the wings and of the main building, whereas at Kedleston the corridors
are only one storey high so that the wings stand up higher than the curving corridors
which join them to the central pile.
Structure and Interiors:
• While the basic features of Kedleston such as the Palladian Front, the Dome etc. have
been faithfully copied, the Government House is a much larger, three storeved structure.
• The main entrance to the government house is through the north, which has a grand
entrances staircase, which is supported by 6 doric columns in the front, which suggests
the roman influence.
• This leads to the central space which comprises of the breakfast hall, marble hall and the
throne room respectively, these spaces lead to the four main suites.
176
• The Prince of Wales suite in the north – west wing of the first floor is the suite where the
President, Vice – President and the Prime Minister of India reside when visiting the state
of West Bengal. The Wellesley suite is located on the second floor in the north – eastern
wing. The Duffer in suite is on the second floor of north – west wing. The fourth site is
the Anderson suite.
• There is a gun mounted on a dragon towards the north gate. Around the main gun there
are ten guns that were taken from the Chinese, in commemoration of the peace initiated
by the Naval and Military forces of England and India.
• Government House in addition has spacious verandahs on the Southern face, there also
exist a big dome supported by Doric columns which further adds beauty to the southern
façade.
• Government House there are four comparatively small staircases at the four angles of the
central pile which are very much better suited for the arrangements which have to be
made for the coming and going of public entrée and private entrée guests at large
functions.
• Occasional public meetings by the Governor are held in the magnificent marble hall in the
ground floor. The Council Chamber used to be the meeting place of Executive Council of
the Governor General.
• The Brown Dining Room was used as the breakfast room, while the adjoining Blue
Drawing Room is the room is the room where the Governor meets guests. It is
completely furnished with wood, including the walls, ceilings and the floor.
• It is located in the first floor, on the south eastern side.
• The two fine full – length portraits of Louis le Bien Amie and his queen, together with the
chandeliers and twelve busts of the Caesars in the aisles of the Marble Hall, are said to
have been taken form a French ship.
• Coffered wooden slabs for the ceiling and wooden flooring is being used in almost all the
rooms through the buildings
• The Throne Room is like a Durbar where princes were welcomed and durbars held.
• The ball rooms are all well lit with crystal chandeliers, coffered wooden roofing,
supported by Doric columns. The flooring is made of chipped slate in black which further
enhances the interiors.
• Doric columns are used to signify the separation of the spaces.
TOWN HALL, CALCUTTA
JOHN Garstin was the chief engineer of Bengal and erected on the esplanade, beside
Wellesley’s government house, a town hall of considerable size.
The funds necessary for the construction were collected from the public with the help of
lotteries.
In 1807 the cost estimation were approved and the construction work was commenced
in December of the same year.
In 1813 the town hall was finished.
In the following year certain annexes were built and a iron fence was erected on the
177
south side facing the esplanade.

With its Palladian beastly portico, this building was raised from public funds collected by
lottery.
It was used for the meetings of merchants or other classes of society, for the traction of
mercantile affairs or other business, and for public entertainment on great occasions.
The building have two storey shaped like a solid block with protruding porticoes. The one
to the north serving as a gateway for carriages.
The elegant façade facing the maiden consists when analyzed of a double sub structure a
low plinth supports the arcade of the ground floor and the latter in its turn supports the
piano no bile through the corners of both storey run high pilasters and above the centre
section is a standard Palladian hex style portico the order is Tuscan Doric and the
entablature is continued to form a heavy horizontal through out the entire structure.
Once opened the Governor General in Council dictated on 22 March 1814 that the use of
the Town Hall:-
‘’… shall be reserved for authorized general meetings of the inhabitants of Calcutta, or for
meetings of merchants or other classes of society, for the transaction of mercantile
affairs or other business, and for public entertainments on great occasions…’’
TOWN HALL, BOMBAY
ColonelThomasCowper prepared the drawings and commenced construction work after

his death in 1825, the building was completed (in 1833), by other officers of Bombay
engineers.
This structure seems to be strikingly neo classical. Palladian features are entirely lacking.
The building conveys an impression of might and mass.
Greek order with sturdy fluted columns and a solid entablature.
The plinth is of normal height and its arcades indicate a considerable wall thickness. The
steps in the centre are divided in to broad platforms; the long façade has the room for
three porticos. The one in the middle, above the flight of steps and the main entrance, is
like the whole Doric order form Parthenon in Athens.
Entrances, through the portico on north side there is a vestibule and a windings staircase
to the room above, shaped to produce dramatic effects. There is a Greek characteristic
detail of palmettos which fill the space between the mutual’s at the angles of the cornice
and the lion’s masks of gargoyles.
178
The Greek frontages are placed high up and against heavy walls. Tall windows are
inserted in between the columns. The Cornice above these Are not enough to protect
against the sun.
It has porticos on its return walls which is the less significant.
The staircases which form large ellipse in the floor are illuminated form above by a
skylight. The corners of the room lie in semi darkness and in the niche commemorative
statues of civil servants.
The entrance into an adjoining room is flanked by columns and here light is thrown down
in a white cone form a skylight. In the outer parts of the room also discern white marble
heads and a dark window and door moldings. Adjacent to the room is a large hall with
columns of the Corinthian order.
The library interiors with Doric columns running along the curved profile of the rooms.
DALHOUSIE POST OFFICE
Dalhousie square is located just south of Howrah bridge (neo classical style)
It was built by architect Walter L.B. Granville who also acted as the consulting architect to
the government of India from 1863 to 1868.
When Kolkata was the administrative centre for British India, BBD bath was the centre of
power and now where the GPO stands was the first citadel of the British.
Dalhousie Square, named after Lord Dalhousie who appointed Governor – General in
1847, was the main administrative area of Kolkata. This place is bustling with activity
from morning till evening and is the commercial nerve of the city.
The square also housed the headquarters of the East India Company known as the
Writer’s Building, the currency office, and the General Post Office. Near the fort was the
infamous black hole where Sire UP Doula put 146 people in a small room and only 23
were alive in the morning now only those memories haunt the mind and nothing else.
Dalhousie Square has been renamed BBD Bagh after three Indian nationalists Renoy,
Badal, and Dinesh the three freedom fighters who were hung by the British during the
protest against the partition of Bengal in 1905.
It is a square area built around the old lal dighi tank which exist till date.
There are many historical buildings surrounding the square.
The post office is situated in B.B.D bagh on the North West corner built with Doric
columns.
As the capital of the British in India in the 19th century, Kolkata was endowed with many
buildings projecting appropriate grandeur. which is constructed in neo classical style
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180

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SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

MEENAKSHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND

UNIT I- LEADING TO A NEW ARCHITECTURE

UNIT-I - LEADING TO A NEW ARCHITECTURE

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF ARCHITECTURE:-

NEO CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE AND ENLIGHTENMENT ARCHITECTS

ORIGINS OF NEO CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE:

FEATURES OF NEO CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE

2. TALL COLUMNS THAT RISE UP TO THE FULL HEIGHT OF THE BUILDING.

NEOCLASSICAL STYLE- ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE

• J.-G. SOUFFLOT: Recreated the LIGHTNESS,SPACIOUSNESS AND PROPORTION of Classical

BUILDINGS OF NEO CLASSICAL STYLE:

Arch of Constantine Rome

Boullee, Project for a cenotaph for Isaac Newton, 1785

CLAUDE NICOLAS LEDOUX.

IDEAL CITY OF CHAUX, 1804

Ledoux,Ideal city of Chaux,1804

KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL (1781-1841)

HENRI LABROUSTE (1801-1875)

Another main work of Labrouste is THE BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE IN PARIS (1862-1868).

• The structural Classicism of Labrouste,

UNIT-I –INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

1. Industrial revolution and its impact

IMPACT OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:-

CAUSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:-

The elements needed or preferred for the Industrial Revolution are:

• TRANSPORTATION FOR THE PRODUCT

KEY INNOVATIONS AND INVENTORS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

INVENTIONS IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

KEY INVENTIONS - TRANSPORT

IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ON ARCHITECTURE

TOWNSHIPS: - GROWTH OF CITIES

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE BUILDINGS – 19th CENTURY

• There IS NO SINGLE STYLE WHICH IS CHARACTERISTIC OF THE 19THCENTURY.Architects

NEW MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES

HISTORY OF METALS AND THEIR USAGE:

IRON AND STEEL

USE OF CAST IRON:

USE OF WROUGHT IRON:

Examples of modern structures of steel

1. The Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building

The Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building Wainwright Building

3. Tatlin’s Constructivist tower

Tatlin's Constructivist tower

History of Concrete in Architecture:

Use of Concrete –Building examples

USE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE –BUILDING EXAMPLES

Examples of early Concrete constructions

1. Rue Franklin apartments – Auguste Perret

Rue Franklin apartments – Auguste Perret Einstein Tower

Use of Glass – Building Examples

INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – 19TH CENTURY

1. The Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace (1851)

1. The Paris Exposition of 1855, Exposition Universelle (1855).

PARIS EXPOSITION - 1855

Exterior and Interior of the Paris Exposition – 1855

PARIS EXPOSITION – 1867

Exterior of the Paris Exposition - 1867

PARIS EXPOSITION UNIVERSELLE DE -1878

The Trocadero Palace constructed for the 1878

The Champ de Mars- 1878 Exposition Universelle