COLLEGE OF EDUCATION-PHYSICAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

MODULE 1 TITLE: Elements and Concepts of Music

Overview: This module

aims to provide you with
knowledge on the basic
musical elements and
COURSE OUTCOME 1: concepts and develops
your skills in musical
Exhibit mastery of the basic elements and concepts through pieces composition.
performing, creating, and responding, aimed towards the
development of appreciation of music and acquisition of
basic knowledge and skills.

LESSON 1

“Basic Elements and Concepts of Music”

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOME:

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

 Explain the basic elements and concepts of music.

ACTIVATE:

Buenos Dias! May our good Lord keep you. To start this module, kindly study
the musical piece below and name each musical symbol. Write them on the
space provided.

Write Here!!

1
 ACQUIRE:

Did the activity set your mood to read? I hope it did. Now read
and understand the textual information below.

Musical symbols are marks and symbols used since about the 13th century in musical
notation of musical scores. Some are used to notate pitch, tempo, metre, duration,
and articulation of a note or a passage of music. In some cases, symbols provide information
about the form of a piece (e.g., how many repeats of a section) or about how to play the note (e.g.,
with violin family instruments, a note may be bowed or plucked). Some symbols are instrument-
specific notation giving the performer information about which finger, hand or foot to use.

Lines
Staff/Stave
The staff is the fundamental latticework of music notation, on which symbols
are placed. The five staff lines and four intervening spaces correspond to
pitches of the diatonic scale; which pitch is meant by a given line or space is
defined by the clef. In British usage, the word "stave" is often used.

Ledger or leger lines

These extend the staff to pitches that fall above or below it. Such ledger lines
are placed behind the note heads, and extend a small distance to each side.
Multiple ledger lines can be used when necessary to notate pitches even
farther above or below the staff.
 Bar line
These separate measures (see time signatures below for an explanation
of measures). Also used for changes in time signature. Bar lines are
extended to connect multiple staves in certain types of music, such as for
keyboard or harp, and in conductor scores, but such extensions are not used
for other types of music, such as vocal scores.

Double bar line, Double barline

These separate two sections of music, or are placed before a change in key
signature and/or time signature.

Bold double bar line, Bold double barline

These indicate the conclusion of a movement or an entire composition.

Dotted bar line, Dotted barline

Subdivides long measures of complex meter into shorter segments for ease
of reading, usually according to natural rhythmic subdivisions.

Bracket
Connects two or more lines of music that sound simultaneously. In general
contemporary usage the bracket usually connects the staves of separate
instruments (e.g., flute and clarinet; two trumpets; etc.) or multiple vocal parts
in a choir or ensemble, whereas the brace connects multiple parts for
a single instrument (e.g., the right-hand and left-hand staves of a piano or
harp part).

Brace
Connects two or more lines of music that are played simultaneously in piano,
keyboard, harp, or some pitched percussion music. Depending on the
instruments playing, the brace (occasionally called an accolade in some old
texts) varies in design and style.

Clefs
Clefs define the pitch range, or tessitura, of the staff on which it is placed. A clef is usually
the leftmost symbol on a staff. Additional clefs may appear in the middle of a staff to indicate a
change in register for instruments with a wide range. In early music, clefs could be placed on any
of several lines on a staff.

G clef (Treble clef)

The centre of the spiral assigns the second line from the bottom to the pitch
G above middle C.[2] The treble clef is the most commonly encountered clef
in modern notation, and is used for most modern vocal music. Middle C is the
first ledger line below the staff here.

C clef (Alto, and Tenor clefs)

These clefs point to the line representing middle C. As illustrated here, it
makes the center line on the staff middle C, and is referred to as the "alto
clef". This clef is used in modern notation for the viola and some other
instruments. While all clefs can be placed anywhere on the staff to indicate
various tessitura, the C clef is most often considered a "movable" clef: it is
frequently seen pointing instead to the fourth line (counting from the bottom)
and called a "tenor clef". This clef is used very often in music written
for bassoon, cello, trombone, and double bass; it replaces the bass clef when
 the number of ledger lines above the bass staff hinders easy reading.

F clef (Bass clef)

The line between the dots in this clef denotes F below middle C.[2]
Positioned here, it makes the second line from the top of the staff F below
middle C, and is called a "bass clef". This clef appears nearly as often as the
treble clef, especially in choral music, where it represents the bass and
baritone voices. Middle C is the first ledger line above the staff here. In old
music, particularly vocal scores, this clef is sometimes encountered centered
on the third staff line, in which position it is referred to as a baritone clef; this
usage has essentially become obsolete.
Neutral clef
Used for pitchless instruments, such as some of those used for percussion.
Each line can represent a specific percussion instrument within a set, such as
in a drum set. Two different styles of neutral clefs are pictured here. It may
also be drawn with a separate single-line staff for each untuned percussion
instrument.

Octave clef
Treble and bass clefs can also be modified by octave numbers. An eight or
fifteen above a clef raises the intended pitch range by one or two octaves
respectively. Similarly, an eight or fifteen below a clef lowers the pitch range
by one or two octaves respectively. A treble clef with an eight below is the
most commonly used, typically used for guitar and similar instruments, as
well as for tenor parts in choral music.

Notes and rests

Main article: Note value
Musical note and rest values are not absolutely defined, but are proportional in duration to all other
note and rest values. The whole note is the reference value, and the other notes are named (in
American usage) in comparison; i.e., a quarter note is a quarter of the length of a whole note.
Note British name / American name Rest

Large (Latin: Maxima) / Octuple whole note[3]

Long / Quadruple whole note[3]

Breve / Double whole note

Semibreve / Whole note

Minim / Half note

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION-PHYSICAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

Crotchet / Quarter note[4][5]

Quaver / Eighth note

For notes of this length and shorter, the note
has the same number of flags (or hooks) as the rest has
branches.

Semiquaver / Sixteenth note

Demisemiquaver / Thirty-second note

Hemidemisemiquaver / Sixty-fourth note

Semihemidemisemiquaver /
Quasihemidemisemiquaver / Hundred twenty-eighth
note[6][7]

Demisemihemidemisemiquaver / Two hundred fifty-

sixth note[3]

Beamed notes
Beams connect eighth notes (quavers) and notes of shorter value and are
equivalent in value to flags. In metered music, beams reflect the rhythmic
grouping of notes. They may also group short phrases of notes of the same
value, regardless of the meter; this is more common in ametrical passages. In
older printings of vocal music, beams are often only used when several notes
are to be sung on one syllable of the text – melismatic singing; modern
notation encourages the use of beaming in a consistent manner with
instrumental engraving, and the presence of beams or flags no longer informs
the singer about the lyrics. Today, due to the body of music in which
traditional metric states are not always assumed, beaming is at the discretion
of composers and arrangers, who often use irregular beams to emphasize a
particular rhythmic pattern.
 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION-PHYSICAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

Dotted note
Placing a dot to the right of a notehead lengthens the note's duration by one-
half. Additional dots lengthen the previous dot instead of the original note,
thus a note with one dot is one and one half its original value, a note with two
dots is one and three quarters, a note with three dots is one and seven
eighths, and so on. Rests can be dotted in the same manner as notes. In
other words, n dots lengthen the note's or rest's original duration d to d × (2
− 2−n).

Ghost note
A note with a rhythmic value, but no discernible pitch when played. It is
represented by a (saltire) cross (similar to the letter x) for a note head instead
of an oval. Composers will primarily use this notation to represent percussive
pitches. This notation is also used in parts where spoken words are used.

Multi-measure rest
Indicates the number of measures in a resting part without a change in meter
to conserve space and to simplify notation. Also called gathered
rest or multi-bar rest.

Breaks
Breath mark
This symbol tells the performer to take a breath (or make a slight pause for
non-wind instruments). This pause usually does not affect the overall tempo.
For bowed instruments, it indicates to lift the bow and play the next note with
a downward (or upward, if marked) bow.

Caesura
A pause during which time is not counted.

Accidentals and key signatures

Main articles: Accidental (music), Key signature, and Circle of fifths
Common accidentals
Accidentals modify the pitch of the notes that follow them on the same staff position within a
measure, unless canceled by an additional accidental.

Flat
Lowers the pitch of a note by one semitone.

Sharp
Raises the pitch of a note by one semitone.
 Natural
Cancels a previous accidental, or modifies the pitch of a sharp or flat as
defined by the prevailing key signature (such as F-sharp in the key of G
major, for example).

Double flat
Lowers the pitch of a note by two chromatic semitones. Usually used when
the note to modify is already flatted by the key signature.

Double sharp
Raises the pitch of a note by two chromatic semitones. Usually used when
the note to modify is already sharpened by the key signature.

Key signatures
Key signatures define the prevailing key of the music that follows, thus avoiding the use of
accidentals for many notes. If no key signature appears, the key is assumed to be C major/A
minor, but can also signify a neutral key, employing individual accidentals as required for each
note. The key signature examples shown here are described as they would appear on a treble
staff.
Flat key signature
Lowers by a semitone the pitch of notes on the corresponding line or space,
and all octaves thereof, thus defining the prevailing major or minor key.
Different keys are defined by the number of flats in the key signature, starting
with the leftmost, i.e., B♭, and proceeding to the right; for example, if only
the first two flats are used, the key is B♭ major/G minor, and all B's and E's
are "flatted" (US) or "flattened" (UK), i.e., lowered to B♭ and E♭.
Sharp key signature
Raises by a semitone the pitch of notes on the corresponding line or space,
and all octaves thereof, thus defining the prevailing major or minor key.
Different keys are defined by the number of sharps in the key signature, also
proceeding from left to right; for example, if only the first four sharps are
used, the key is E major/C♯ minor, and the corresponding pitches are raised.

Quarter tones
There is no universally accepted notation for microtonal music, with varying systems being used
depending on the situation. A common notation for quarter tones involves writing the
fraction 1⁄4 next to an arrow pointing up or down. Below are other forms of notation:

Demiflat
Lowers the pitch of a note by one quarter tone. (Another notation for the
demiflat is a flat with a diagonal slash through its stem. In systems where
pitches are divided into intervals smaller than a quarter tone, the slashed flat
represents a lower note than the reversed flat.)
 Flat-and-a-half (sesquiflat)
Lowers the pitch of a note by three quarter tones. As with a demiflat, a
slashed double-flat symbol is also used.

Demisharp
Raises the pitch of a note by one quarter tone.

Sharp-and-a-half (sesquisharp)
Raises the pitch of a note by three quarter tones. Occasionally represented
with two vertical and three diagonal bars instead.

A symbol with one vertical and three diagonal bars indicates a sharp with some form of alternate
tuning.
In 19 equal temperament, where a whole tone is divided into three steps instead of two, music is
typically notated in a way that flats and sharps are not usually enharmonic (thus a C♯ represents a
third of a step lower than D♭); this has the advantage of not requiring any nonstandard notation.

Time signatures
Main article: Time signature
Time signatures define the meter of the music. Music is "marked off" in uniform sections called
bars or measures, and time signatures establish the number of beats in each. This does not
necessarily indicate which beats to emphasize, however, so a time signature that conveys
information about the way the piece actually sounds is thus chosen. Time signatures tend
to suggest prevailing groupings of beats or pulses.
Specific time – simple time signatures
The bottom number represents the note value of the basic
pulse of the music (in this case the 4 represents the crotchet or
quarter-note). The top number indicates how many of these
note values appear in each measure. This example announces
that each measure is the equivalent length of three crotchets
(quarter-notes). For example, 3
4 is pronounced as "three-four time" or "three-quarter time".
Specific time – compound time signatures
The bottom number represents the note value of
the subdivisions of the basic pulse of the music (in this case the
8 represents the quaver or eighth-note). The top number
indicates how many of these subdivisions appear in each
measure. Usually each beat is composed of three subdivisions.
To derive the unit of the basic pulse in compound meters,
double this value and add a dot, and divide the top number by
3 to determine how many of these pulses there are each
measure. This example announces that each measure is the
equivalent length of two dotted crotchets (dotted quarter-notes).
This is pronounced as "Six-Eight Time".
 Common time
This symbol represents 4
4 time. It derives from the broken circle that represented
"imperfect" duple meter in fourteenth-century mensural time
signatures.

Alla breve or Cut time

This symbol represents 2
2 time, indicating two minim (or half-note) beats per measure.
Here, a crotchet (or quarter note) would get half a beat.

Metronome mark
Written at the start of a score, and at any significant change of
tempo, this symbol precisely defines the tempo of the music by
assigning absolute durations to all note values within the score.
In this particular example, the performer is told that 120
crotchets, or quarter notes, fit into one minute of time. Many
publishers precede the marking with letters "M.M.", referring
to Maelzel's Metronome.

Note relationships

Tie
Indicates that the two (or more) notes joined together are to be played as one
note with the time values added together. To be a tie, the notes must be
identical – that is, they must be on the same line or the same space.
Otherwise, it is a slur (see below).

Slur
Indicates to play two or more notes in one physical stroke, one uninterrupted
breath, or (on instruments with neither breath nor bow) connected into a
phrase as if played in a single breath. In certain contexts, a slur may only
indicate to play the notes legato. In this case, rearticulation is permitted.
Slurs and ties are similar in appearance. A tie is distinguishable because it
always joins two immediately adjacent notes of the same pitch, whereas a
slur may join any number of notes of varying pitches. In vocal music a slur
normally indicates that notes grouped together by the slur should be sung to
a single syllable.
A phrase mark (or less commonly, ligature) is a mark that is visually identical
to a slur, but connects a passage of music over several measures. A phrase
mark indicates a musical phrase and may not necessarily require that the
music be slurred.
Glissando or Portamento
A continuous, unbroken glide from one note to the next that includes the
pitches between. Some instruments, such as the trombone, timpani, non-
fretted string instruments, electronic instruments, and the human voice can
make this glide continuously (portamento), while other instruments such as
the piano or mallet instruments blur the discrete pitches between the start
and end notes to mimic a continuous slide (glissando).
Tuplet
A number of notes of irregular duration are performed within the duration of a
given number of notes of regular time value; e.g., five notes played in the
normal duration of four notes; seven notes played in the normal duration of
two; three notes played in the normal duration of four. Tuplets are named
according to the number of irregular notes; e.g., duplets, triplets, quadruplets,
etc.
 Chord
Several notes sounded simultaneously ("solid" or "block"), or in succession
("broken"). Two-note chords are called a dyad or an interval; three-note
chords built from generic third intervals are called triads. A chord may
contain any number of notes.

Arpeggiated chord
A chord with notes played in rapid succession, usually ascending, each note
being sustained as the others are played. It is also called a "broken chord" or
"rolled chord".

Dynamics
Main article: Dynamics (music)
Dynamics are indicators of the relative intensity or volume of a musical line.
Pianississimo
Extremely soft. Very infrequently does one see softer dynamics than this,
which are specified with additional ps.
Pianissimo
Very soft. Usually the softest indication in a piece of music, though softer
dynamics are often specified with additional ps.
Piano
Soft; louder than pianissimo.
Mezzo piano
Moderately soft; louder than piano.
Mezzo forte
Moderately loud; softer than forte. If no dynamic appears, mezzo-forte is
assumed to be the prevailing dynamic level.
Forte
Loud. Used as often as piano to indicate contrast.
Fortissimo
Very loud. Usually the loudest indication in a piece, though louder dynamics
are often specified with additional fs (such as fortississimo – seen below).
Fortississimo
Extremely loud. Very infrequently does one see louder dynamics than this,
which are specified with additional fs.
Sforzando
Literally "forced", denotes an abrupt, fierce accent on a single sound or
chord. When written out in full, it applies to the sequence of sounds or chords
under or over which it is placed.
Crescendo
A gradual increase in volume.
Can be extended under many notes to indicate that the volume steadily
increases during the passage.
Diminuendo
Also decrescendo
A gradual decrease in volume. Can be extended in the same manner as
crescendo.

1. ^ Jump up to:a b Dynamics with 3 letters (i.e., ppp and fff) are often referred to by adding
an extra "iss" (pianissimo to pianississimo). This is improper Italian and would translate
literally to "softestest" in English, but acceptable as a musical term; such a dynamic can

10
 also be described as molto pianissimo, piano pianissimo or molto fortissimo and forte
fortissimo in somewhat more proper Italian.
Other commonly used dynamics build upon these values. For example, "pianississimo"
(represented as ppp) means "so softly as to be almost inaudible", and "fortississimo" (fff) means
"extremely loud". Dynamics are relative, and the meaning of each level is at the discretion of the
performer or, in the case of ensembles, the conductor. However, modern legislation to curb high
noise levels in the workplace in an effort to prevent damage to musicians' hearing has posed a
challenge to the interpretation of very loud dynamics in some large orchestral works, as noise
levels within the orchestra itself can easily exceed safe levels when all instruments are playing at
full volume.
A small s in front of the dynamic notations means subito (meaning "suddenly" in Italian), and
means that the dynamic is to change to the new notation rapidly. Subito is commonly used with
sforzandos, but can appear with all other dynamic notations, most commonly
as sff (subitofortissimo) or spp (subitopianissimo).
Forte-piano
A section of music in which the music should initially be played loudly (forte),
then immediately softly (piano).

Another value that rarely appears is niente or n, which means "nothing". This may be used at the
end of a diminuendo to indicate "fade out to nothing".

Articulation marks
Articulations (or accents) specify how to perform individual notes within a phrase or passage.
They can be fine-tuned by combining more than one such symbol over or under a note. They may
also appear in conjunction with phrasing marks listed above.

Staccato
This indicates the musician should play the note shorter than notated, usually
half the value; the rest of the metric value is then silent. Staccato marks may
appear on notes of any value, shortening their performed duration without
speeding the music itself.

Staccatissimo or Spiccato
Indicates a longer silence after the note (as described above), making the
note very short. Usually applied to quarter notes or shorter. (In the past, this
marking’s meaning was more ambiguous: it sometimes was used
interchangeably with staccato, and sometimes indicated an accent and not
staccato. These usages are now almost defunct, but still appear in some
scores.) In string instruments this indicates a bowing technique in which the
bow bounces lightly upon the string.

Accent
Play the note louder, or with a harder attack than surrounding unaccented
notes. May appear on notes of any duration.

Tenuto
This symbol indicates play the note at its full value, or slightly longer. It can
also indicate a degree of emphasis, especially when combined with dynamic
markings to indicate a change in loudness, or combined with a staccato dot to
indicate a slight detachment (portato or mezzo staccato).
 Marcato
Play the note somewhat louder or more forcefully than a note with a regular
accent mark (open horizontal wedge). In organ notation, this means play a
pedal note with the toe. Above the note, use the right foot; below the note,
use the left foot.

Fermata (Pause)
A note, chord, or rest sustained longer than its customary value. Usually
appears over all parts at the same metrical location in a piece, to show a halt
in tempo. It can be placed above or below the note. The fermata is held for as
long as the performer or conductor desires, but is often set as twice the
original value of the designated notes.

Ornaments
Ornaments modify the pitch pattern of individual notes.

Trill
A rapid alternation between the specified note and the next higher
note (according to key signature) within its duration, also called a
"shake". When followed by a wavy horizontal line, this symbol
indicates an extended, or running, trill. In modern music the trill
begins on the main note and ends with the lower auxiliary
note then the main note, which requires a triplet immediately
before the turn. In music up to the time of Haydn or Mozart the trill
begins on the upper auxiliary note and there is no triplet.[11] In
percussion notation, a trill is sometimes used to indicate a tremolo.
In French baroque notation, the trill, or tremblement, was notated
as a small cross above or beside the note.

Upper mordent
Rapidly play the principal note, the next higher note (according to
key signature) then return to the principal note for the remaining
duration. In most music, the mordent begins on the auxiliary note,
and the alternation between the two notes may be extended.
In handbells, this symbol is a "shake" and indicates the rapid
shaking of the bells for the duration of the note.

Lower mordent (inverted)

Rapidly play the principal note, the note below it, then return to the
principal note for the remaining duration. In much music, the
mordent begins on the auxiliary note, and the alternation between
the two notes may be extended.

Turn
When placed directly above the note, the turn (also known as
a gruppetto) indicates a sequence of upper auxiliary note, principal
note, lower auxiliary note, and a return to the principal note. When
placed to the right of the note, the principal note is played first,
followed by the above pattern. Placing a vertical line through the
turn symbol or inverting it, it indicates an inverted turn, in which the
order of the auxiliary notes is reversed.

Appoggiatura
The first half of the principal note's duration has the pitch of the
grace note (the first two-thirds if the principal note is a dotted note).
 Acciaccatura
The acciaccatura is of very brief duration, as though brushed on
the way to the principal note, which receives virtually all of its
notated duration. In percussion notation, the acciaccatura symbol
denotes the flam rudiment, the miniature note still positioned
behind the main note but on the same line or space of the staff.
The flam note is usually played just before the natural durational
subdivision the main note is played on, with the timing and
duration of the main note remaining unchanged. Also known by the
English translation of the Italian term, crushed note, and in
German as Zusammenschlag (simultaneous stroke).

Octave signs

Ottava
8va (pronounced ottava alta) is placed above the staff (as shown) to tell the
musician to play the passage one octave higher.
When this sign (or in recent notation practice, an 8vb – both signs
reading ottava bassa) is placed below the staff, it indicates to play the
passage one octave lower.

Quindicesima
The 15ma sign is placed above the staff (as shown) to mean play the passage
two octaves higher. A 15ma sign below the staff indicates play the passage
two octaves lower.

Repetition and codas

Tremolo
A rapidly repeated note. If the tremolo is between two notes, then they are
played in rapid alternation. The number of slashes through the stem (or
number of diagonal bars between two notes) indicates the frequency to
repeat (or alternate) the note. As shown here, the note is to be repeated at a
demisemiquaver (thirty-second note) rate, but it is a common convention for
three slashes to be interpreted as "as fast as possible", or at any rate at a
speed to be left to the player's judgment.
In percussion notation, tremolos indicate rolls, diddles, and drags. Typically, a
single tremolo line on a sufficiently short note (such as a sixteenth) is played
as a drag, and a combination of three stem and tremolo lines indicates
a double-stroke roll (or a single-stroke roll, in the case of timpani, mallet
percussion and some untuned percussion instruments such
as triangle and bass drum) for a period equivalent to the duration of the note.
In other cases, the interpretation of tremolos is highly variable, and should be
examined by the director and performers.
The tremolo symbol also represents flutter-tonguing.
Repeat signs
Enclose a passage that is to be played more than once. If there is no left
repeat sign, the right repeat sign sends the performer back to the start of the
piece or the nearest double bar.
Simile marks
Denote that preceding groups of beats or measures are to be repeated. In the
examples here, the first usually means to repeat the previous measure, and
the second usually means to repeat the previous two measures.
 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION-PHYSICAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

Volta brackets (1st and 2nd endings, or 1st- and 2nd-time bars)
A repeated passage is to be played with different endings on different
playings; it is possible to have more than two endings (1st, 2nd, 3rd ...).

Da capo
(lit. "From top") Tells the performer to repeat playing of the music from its
beginning. This is usually followed by al fine (lit. "to the end"), which means to
repeat to the word fine and stop, or al coda (lit. "to the coda (sign)"), which
means repeat to the coda sign and then jump forward.
Dal segno
(lit. "From the sign") Tells the performer to repeat playing of the music starting
at the nearest segno. This is followed by al fine or al coda just as with da
capo.

Segno
Mark used with dal segno.

Coda
Indicates a forward jump in the music to its ending passage, marked with the
same sign. Only used after playing through a D.S. al coda (Dal segno al
coda) or D.C. al coda (Da capo al coda).

KEY SIGNATURES - Key signatures must be typed in using the names of the articles themselves
on keys. Note that there is no visual difference between the major and minor key signatures, but
the alt text is different.

LINK: https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Template:Music_symbols/doc

Sharp s/Key
Flats
signature (major) TemplatKey
e signature (minor) Templat e
Template text Template text
result result

{{music symbols|c-shar p major}} {{music

7♯ C♯ major
{{music symbols|f-sharp major}} A♯ minor symbols|a-sharp
minor}}
{{music symbols|b major}}
{{music symbols|e major}} {{music
{{music symbols|a major}} symbols|d-sharp
6♯ F♯ major D♯ minor minor}}
{{music
symbols|g-sharp
5♯ B major G♯ minor minor}}
{{music
symbols|c-sharp
minor}}
4♯ E major C♯ minor
{{music
symbols|f-sharp
minor}}
3♯ A major F♯ minor
 {{music {{music
symbols|d
2♯ D major B minor symbols|b
major}} minor}}

{{music {{music
1♯ G major symbols|g E minor symbols|e
major}} minor}}

{{music {{music
0 C major symbols|c A minor symbols|a
major}} minor}}

{{music {{music
1♭ F major symbols|f D minor symbols|d
major}} minor}}

{{music {{music
2♭ B♭ majo r symbols|b-flat G minor symbols|g
major}} minor}}

{{music {{music
3♭ E♭ majo r symbols|e-flat C minor symbols|c
major}} minor}}

{{music {{music
4♭ A♭ majo r symbols|a-flat F minor symbols|f
major}} minor}}

{{music {{music
5♭ D♭ majo r symbols|d-flat B♭ mino r symbols|b-flat
major}} minor}}

{{music {{music
6♭ G♭ majo r symbols|g-flat E♭ minor symbols|e-flat
major}} minor}}

{{music {{music
7♭ C♭ majo r symbols|c-flat A♭ mino r symbols|a-flat
major}} minor}}

How to Read Key Signatures

Key signatures are important when reading music. You must understand how to read key
signatures in order to know how to play the notes the way the composer intended. The
key signature is a grouping of symbols (sharps [#] and flats [b]) that tell you to always
play certain notes one semitone (half-step) higher or lower. The key signature is typically
placed after the clef at the beginning of the music or after a double bar.

Take a look at the diagram below

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To figure out how many sharps are in each key signature, count clockwise on the Circle
of Fifths from C major. The number of sharps in each successive key goes up by one in
that key’s key signature. So, if there is one sharp in the key signature, then move one
“stop” from C Major, which gets you to G major (or e minor); if there are two sharps in the
key signature, move two stops away from C, landing you at D major (or b minor).
Therefore, to play a song in the key of B major — five stops away from C major on the
circle — you know there will be five sharps in that key.

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Therefore, to play a song in the key of B major — five stops away from C major on the
circle of fifths — you know there will be five sharps in that key. Sharps appear in a
specific order as you go around the Circle clockwise: F#, C#, G#, D#, A#, E#, and B#
(remember: Fat Cats Go Down Alleys Eating Birds).
For major scales that have flats, you go counter-clockwise around the circle of fifths. The
flats appear in a specific order in every key as you go around the circle counter-
clockwise: Bb, Eb, Ab, Db, Gb, Cb, and Fb (remember: Battle Ends, And Down Goes
Charles’ Father). Therefore, if the key signature shows one flat (Bb), you would move
counter-clockwise one stop away from C major, landing you at F major (or d minor).

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So, for example, Gb, which is six steps away from C major on the circle, has six flats in
its key signature. Recalling your mnemonic (Battle Ends, And Down Goes Charles’s
Father), you know that those flats are Bb, Eb, Ab, Db, Gb, and Cb. Bb major, which is
two steps away, has two flats, and now you know those flats have to be Bb and Eb.

The Pitch Names: The pitch names of lines and spaces in the musical staff.
 APPLY

Your effort in reading is quite impressive. Now, let us

concretize what you have acquired by doing this activity. In a
table below, draw the different symbols used in the
composition, name them and explain their functions.

Musical Symbols Used Names Functions

 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION-PHYSICAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

ASSESS

That’s it exactly! This time, make a simple musical composition

using the following steps suggested below. You may refer to the
text above for your guide. Write your output on the space provided.

A. Make 4 staff then divide each staff into 4 measures.

B. First, draw a clef on the left side of your staff, followed by the
other symbols
C. Divide the staff into measures and draw notes and rest in the staff.
D. Label the notes with so-fa syllables.
E. Add other symbols if necessary.
F. Name each symbols then explain each function.
Write Here!!

20
 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION-PHYSICAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

LESSON 2: “Rhythmic Patterns, Time Signatures and other Concepts

Used for Musical Piece”
SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Apply rhythmic patterns , time signatures and other concepts to create simple
musical piece.
2. Present the musical composition.

ACTIVATE:

Today is another brainteaser activities. I pray God overflows your

cup. In the previous lesson, you learned some musical symbols and
their functions. Now let’s deepen your knowledge with the correct
beating of each notes and rests according to the given time
signature. But
before that, let us study the “Animal Action Game” in the next page. Explain the
association of the animal action to the notes given. Write your explanation on the
space below.

WRITEHERE!!!!
Why does each animal action represent a specific note? Explain.

21
Source: Pinterest
 ACQUIRE

The journey of a lifetime starts with turning of a page

(Rachel Andes). Kindly study the following charts.

There are forms of this system which change the “ta” syllable to match the beat in
different time signatures. This is a beat-function form of the system similar to
Froseth’s “Du-de” syllables used in Conversational Solfege and other main methods.

The following rhythm values are commonly used as follows:

 Quarter note – ta
 Paired eighth notes – ti ti
 All rests – (no sound)
 Half notes – ta-ah or too
 Whole note – ta-a-a-ah or too-oo
 Sixteenth notes – tiri tiri or tika tika
 Eighth-quarter-eighth – syn-co-pa
 Dotted quarter-eighth – tam-ti
 Dotted eighth-sixteenth – tim-ka
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND METER
Each time signature can be classified into a certain meter. The term, duple, triple, and
quadruple refer to the number of beats in a measure. The term simple means that
each of these beats can be broken into two notes.

Example. 2 time is classified as simple duple. “Duple” refers to the two beats per
4
measure. Simple states that each of these beats can be divided into two notes.
See other examples of simple meter chart below.

3 time is classified as simple triple. “Triple” refers to the three beats per measure.
4
Again, simple states that each of these beats can be divided into two notes. See other
simple triple in the chart below.

4 time is classified as simple quadruple due to its four beats which can be divided
into 4
Two notes. See other simple quadruple meters in the chart.

Notice that a time signature in simple meter will always have a 2,3, or 4 for the top
number. While beats in simple meter are divided into two notes, beats in compound
meter are divided into three.

To demonstrate it, we will examine 6 time.

8
The six eighth note can either be grouped into two beats (compound duple) or three
beats (simple triple). Since the simple triple pattern already belongs to 3 time, 6 is
4 8
compound duple. Notice that each beat of 6 is a dotted quarter note, In fact, all
8
compound meters have some dotted note as its beat. (See the chart below). any time
signature with a 6 on top is compound duple. 6 and 6 are the most common used.
8 4
9 time is classified as compound triple. There are three beats (three dotted quarter
8
notes) thus, making the meter triple. Since each beat is made up of three notes, the
meter is compound. Any time signature with a 9 on top is compound triple. (see the
chart).

12 time is classified as compound quadruple. There are four beats, Thus, making the
8
meter quadruple. Since each beat is made up of three notes, the meter is compound.
Any time signature with a 12 on top is quadruple. See other examples in the chart.

Source: Pinterest
Kodaly Method Hand signs
Kodály added to Curwen's hand signs upward/downward movement, allowing children
to actually see the height or depth of the pitch. The signs are made in front of the body,
with do falling about at waist level and la at eye level. Their distance in space
corresponds with the size of the interval they represent.

LINK:
https://www.google.com/search?q=kodaly+method+hand+signs&source=lmns&
bih=512&biw=1083&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi1lN3zr7PrAhXGxIsBHbsIA3EQ_AUo
AHoECAEQAA
 APPLY

I appreciate your effort in studying the symbols above. It

is your job now to practice applying your learning.Play the
beat by clapping your hands following the given notes
above while saying the rhythmic names.

1. Study the musical piece then, identify the different notes and rests used and their
number of beats.

2. Group the notes according to your preferred time signatures.Write the time
signature on the space provided. Place bar lines to make measures.
3. Practice clapping your hands according to the given number of beats. Record your
practice and upload at our google classroom.

4. Make a two-staff musical composition for each simple time and compound time.
Place the notes on lines or spaces of your choice. Write your output in the space
provided.Then, practice reading through correct rhythm while performing the hand
signs.
ASSESS

Choose your favorite Bible verse in the Book of Psalms.

Compose a melody out of the verse. Write your composition on
the space provided. Do the reading of notes while clapping the
hands and hand sign. Present your composition through a record
or video presentation. Look at the rubric in the next page for your
reference.
RUBRIC

30
 OVERVIEW: This module will enable students to demonstrate understanding of salient features of mus

COURSE OUTCOME 2:

Demonstrate understanding of salient features of

music of the Philippines and the world, through
appreciation, analysis, and performance for self
development, the celebration of the Filipino cultural
identity and diversity, and the expansion of one’s world
vision.

LESSON 1 TITLE:
“Features of Philippine and Foreign Music”

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOME:

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Compare and contrast the features of Philippine and foreign music.

ACTIVATE:

Howdy singers! Study the two folk songs in the next page. Focus on
the notation and rhythm and write their similarities and differences in
the Venn Diagram provided.
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION-PHYSICAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

32
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION-PHYSICAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
 ACQUIRE

He that loves reading has everything within his reach.

(William Godwin). Please read the text below.

1. The Philippine Historical Overview:

Philippine music, three main divisions are apparent: (1) an old Asian influenced
music referred to as the indigenous; (2) a religious and secular music influenced by
Spanish and European forms; and (3) an American/European inspired classical, semi-
classical, and popular music.

The Indigenous Traditions

The music in the Philippines before the arrival of Magellan in 1521, subsequent
reports made by friars, civil servants and travelers include descriptions of instrumental
and vocal music–sometimes mentioned in passing, other times in greater detail. From
these documents, various kinds of interments made of bronze, bamboo, or wood are cited.
These include gongs of various kinds of size and shapes, drums, flutes of different types,
zithers, lutes, clappers, and buzzers. Vocal genres include epics relating genealogies and
exploits of heroes and gods; work songs related to planting, harvesting, fishing; ritual
songs to drive away evil spirits or to invoke blessings from the good spirits; songs to
celebrate festive occasions particularly marriage, birth, victory at war, or the settling of
tribal disputes; mourning songs for the dead; courting songs; and children’s game songs.
It is this type of music that is still practiced today by the indigenous groups.

The Spanish-European Influenced Traditions

With the coming of the Spaniards the Filipino’s music underwent a transformation
with the influx of western influences, particularly the Spanish-European culture prevalent
during the 17th to the 19th centuries. The Hispanization during the succeeding three
centuries after 1521 was tied up with religious conversion. It effected a change in the
people’s musical thinking and what emerged was a hybrid expression tinged with
Hispanic flavor. It produced a religious music connected to and outside the Catholic
liturgy and a European-inspired secular music adapted by the Filipinos and reflected in
their folk songs and instrumental music.
The American Influenced Traditions
The American regime lasted from 1898 to 1946 during which time Philippine music
underwent another process of transformation. In the newly established public school
system, music was included in the curriculum at the elementary and later at the high
school levels. Music conservatories and colleges were established at the tertiary level.
Graduates from these institutions included the first generation of Filipino composers
whose works were written in western idioms and forms. Their works and those of the
succeeding generations of Filipino composers represent the classical art music tradition
which continues to flourish today.
Side by side with this classical art music tradition was a lighter type of music. This
semi-classical repertoire includes stylized folk songs, theater music, and instrumental
music. The sarswela tradition produced a large body of music consisting of songs
patterned after opera arias of the day as well as short instrumental overtures and
interludes.
The strong band tradition in the Philippines, which began during the previous
Spanish period and which continues to this day, produced outstanding musicians,
composers and performers. Another popular instrumental ensemble was
the rondalla which superceded an earlier type of ensemble called the cumparsa. The
latter was an adaptation of similar instrumental groups, the murza of Mexico and the
estudiantina of Spain.
American lifestyle and pop culture gave rise to music created by Filipinos using
western pop forms. Referred to as Pinoy pop it includes a wide range of forms: folk
songs, dance tunes, ballads, Broadway type songs, rock’ n’ roll, disco, jazz, and rap.
These three main streams of Philippine music– indigenous, Spanish influenced
religious and secular music, American/European influenced classical, semi-classical, and
popular music comprise what we refer to today as Philippine music.(Corazon Canave-
Dioquino.2008)

1. Asian Music History

Asian music history offers multiplicity of instruments, performing arts, well documented
events and desires of people with diversified styles.
The asian music history comprises of Music of Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia,
Uzbekistan (Central Asia), China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan (East Asia), Bangladesh, India,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka (South Asia), Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines
(South East Asia), Arabia, Cyprus, Iran, Israel, Turkey (West Asia)

Musical Instruments
The peculiarity of Central Asian Music is its instruments which include flutes like
Sybyzgy, Choor; flutes like Tar, tanbur and Rawap; fiddles like Kyrgyz and Ghijak; drums
like dayra, kettle drums and framedrums; Jews' harp, stringed instruments like Rubab,
Komuz, Dutar, and Bombra.
It is believed that the string instruments were first used by the nomads who created music
instruments with the help of snake skin and horsetail. Who can think of tuning the sounds
of birds with pipes made of bamboo? Well, the legend Ling Lun of China did which
marked the history of music in China in West Asian Music History. Historians have traced
West Asian Music history even in 1122 BC. The roots of western Asian music history can
be traced to Qin dynasty, tang dynasty, Han dynasty etc. Music was given utmost
importance in ancient china where kings examined the popular will by sending officials to
collect songs from the people.

Types of Music
South Asian music history particularly of India is an assortment of Folk, popular and
classical music. The traditional Indian music encompasses Hindustani and Carnatic music
which claim their origins to the Vedas. Purandara Dasa, the profounder of Carnatic music
is accredited as the "Sangeeta Pitamaha" (Grandfather of Carnatic Music). The folk music
history which covers Bhangra, dandiya, Bauls, ganasangeet, Qawwali, Rabindra Sangeet,
Lavani etc., are popular even today.
The culture of West Asia and South East Asia is different and so is their music history.
While the west Asians invented the ghazals a mixture of European and latin American
styles can be found in South East Asian music history. The Arabic poetry gave birth to
music in Arabia and the slaves and the female harem in Arabia has given a large
contribution towards Arabian music.
The Thai traditional music is very much similar to that of Laos and the thai instruments
klong thap, klong jin, jhake and klong kaek are greatly influenced by other asian countries
like India, Persia, China and Indonesia.

2. Western Music History

Western Music started more of an art form with the advances in music notation and
more focus on secular themes that happened in the Renaissance period. there is no clear
dividing point of when the Middle Ages ended and the Renaissance era began. the
Renaissance in music happened at different times in different places. So for convenience,
we will use 1400 A.D. as the start of the Renaissance. We then have spread out of range
and complexity as we move into the Baroque era. The Classical era gives us the
emotional power related with such composers as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
Romanticism then transforms the rigid styles and forms of the Classical era into more
individualistic style. Tonality was at its peak during this period, and then Impressionist
music paved the way to the use of extreme discordance in the music of the Modern era.
This process continued into the current Contemporary period of music. Although
"Western" and "classical" are inexact terms, they do name a reasonably coherent musical
tradition that stretches from the Dark Ages to the present day.
MEDIEVAL MUSIC: The Medieval period dates approximately from 476 A.D. to 1400
A.D. 37 All segments of society felt the power of the Roman Catholic Church because
Christianity had risen in Western Europe to fill the power vacuum left by the demise of the
Roman Empire around the fourth century. During this time European society was rigidly
divided into three social classes: the nobility, consisting of kings, queens, barons, princes
and lords; serfs and peasants; and thirdly, the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church.
Many musicians were priests or members (predominantly of minor orders) of the clergy,
and as such liturgical singing played an important role in worship.
It is thought that the church discouraged the use of musical instruments although we
can infer from period paintings and literary descriptions that instruments were played.
Rome at the beginning of the medieval period was still a distributive base of regional
information and a central hub of European learning. It was also the cumulative center of
Christian liturgical musical life. It is thought that instruments were used when good singers
were not available. The instruments would then either replace the vocal part or help the
voice stay in tune. The church discouraged instruments because it was the desire of the
church leaders to keep the congregation's focus on the words that were being sung.
Anything that would detract from that was considered at odds with the holy purpose of the
music.
By the era of Charlemagne in the early 9th century, Gregorian chant was a mostly
unified body of music throughout Western Europe. For over 1000 years, the official music
of the Roman Catholic Church was the Gregorian chant, which was named after Pope
Gregory I. He began the task of organizing and codifying the chants in the 6th century
used by the church. With Gregorian chant, there is no definite sense of rhythm, the timing
is very flexible and there is no sense of beat. This creates a floating, improvisational
quality to the music. The chant essentially consists of a Melody, set to a sacred Latin text,
sung unaccompanied which moves by stepwise motion within a narrow range of pitches.
It may be either Syllabic - one note for each syllable or, Melismatic - many notes to one
syllable. The composers of the chants were anonymous, and the chants were based on
church modes (Ionian, Dorian etc...). Limited in pitch range and monophonic (i.e.,
composed of a single melody with no accompaniment), plainchant was sung largely by
monks, nuns, and clerics rather than by professional singers. Plainchant was sung in the
Divine Offices, eight daily prayer services using Old Testament texts, and in the Mass, a
midmorning celebration of the life and death of Jesus Christ. The Alleluia reproduced here
was a chant of jubilation ("Alleluia" = "Hallelujah"), sung as part of the Mass.
Medieval music consisting of Gregorian chant and one or more melodic lines moving
in parallel motion are called Organum. During the period of 700 A.D. to 900 A.D.
Polyphony was developed, where the chant melody was duplicated at an interval of a 4th
or a 5th. The voices moved in parallel motion with the actual chant being sung by the
bottom voice. From 900 A.D. to 1200 A.D Organum became truly polyphonic, with the
melodic lines becoming independent and each line had its own rhythm and own melody.
Generally, the chant in the bottom voice was sung in very long, drawn out notes, while the
added melody on top moved in shorter note values. Early polyphony was still quite
rhythmically free.
The Notre Dame School was a significant school of composers in the medieval
period between 1170 A.D. to 1200 A.D. It developed rhythmic innovations. The leading
composers at the school were Leonin and Perotin, who used measured rhythm with
definite time values and a clearly defined meter. The newly developed notation indicated
precise rhythms and pitches. However, the beat could only be subdivided into threes,
which was symbolic of the Trinity. Few triads were used, resulting in medieval polyphony
sounding very hollow, thin and stark to the modern ear. The interval of a 3rd was hardly
ever used as it was considered to sound dissonant.
Leonin (c. 1135- c. 1200) wrote polyphonic settings of the texts sung on the most
important occasions of the Christian year, such as Christmas and Easter. He did this by
greatly slowing down an existing plainchant, and adding to it a new, more rapidly flowing
musical line at a higher pitch. This technique was called Organum; the slowed-down
plainchant was called the tenor. Some sections of Leonin's polyphony were sped up and
rhythmicized; later composers added the words of devotional poems to Leonin's notes.
This example uses the Alleluia pascha nostrum plainchant as its tenor; it was sung as part
of Easter services at the spectacular Gothic cathedral Notre Dame of Paris.
The earliest major repertory of Western secular (non-religious) music which has
come down to us is that of the Troubadours and Trouveres, French poet-musicians of the
Middle Ages who set their own poems to music. Bernart de Ventadorn (c. 1140- c. 1200)
was one of the greatest of the troubadours. His "La douza votz," written in the now-extinct
language Provencal, deals with the singer's rejection by the lady whom he has long
served.
Secular songs also appear in Italy, Spain, England and Germany. They use a regular
beat, unlike the Gregorian chant. Instruments used included: Harps; Fiddles, Recorders;
Lutes; Flutes; Shawms; and Bagpipes. The majority of the resulting songs were about
love, often the fictionalized, abstracted "courtly love" of a male character for a
noblewoman above his social level. Because troubadour songs were notated as simple
rows of pitches without rhythm, the rhythms and instrumental accompaniments of modern
performances are based on conjecture; images of troubadours in medieval manuscripts
have offered hints as to what instruments were played.
Ars Nova or new art began in the 14th century as a result of a conscious effort to
write music in a new style. An essay entitled “Ars Nova”, by Phillipe de Vitry (a musical
theorist), was published describing the new characteristics of style in music. A significant
development in rhythm which occurred during this period was that the beat could now be
subdivided into two equal parts. Syncopation was introduced and polyphonic
compositions became increasingly complex and sophisticated. One important form of
music was the Mass, consisting of the PROPER and the ORDINARY. Composers set the
ordinary to music which contained five sung prayers: Kyrie; Gloria; Credo; Sanctus;
Agnus Dei. Guillaume de Machaut (1300 – 1377 AD) was arguably one of the most
important composers of Medieval Music. He was a poet and musician born in France who
wrote in the Ars Nova style. He mainly composed secular music and worked for various
royal families. He travelled extensively and his output consisted mainly of love songs for
two voices and instrumental accompaniment. He is most famous for his ‘Missa Notra
Dame’ (Notre Dame Mass), which is one of the finest compositions of the 14th century. It
was the first polyphonic setting of the Mass Ordinary and was written for four voices –
possibly doubled by instruments.
Hildegard (1098 – 1179 AD) was a female German composer, born the last of ten
children. She was given to the church as a tithe, as it was custom to give the Roman
Catholic Church one tenth of a family's possessions. She became known for having
diverse occupations, such as composer, musician, playwright, and poet, among others.
She was a master of the Gregorian chant, a craft that began as early as the 5th century.
The Italian Landini (1325 – 1397 AD), like Hildegard, fits the characteristics of a
Renaissance man. He was a composer, singer, organist, instrument maker, and poet. He
was a master of the trecento. Though considered a medieval composer by most
musicologists, his music paved the way for the musical quattrocento and the early
Renaissance, both of which began around 1400. Agnus Dei movement Arranged for four
voices – one soprano, two altos and one tenor. It made use of triple meter – symbol of the
Trinity - and consisted of complex rhythms and syncopation. The two upper parts are
rhythmically active while the two lower parts move in longer note values and play a
supportive role. The movement includes dissonances and triads which sounds fuller than
previous Organum.
RENAISSANCE MUSIC The Renaissance was predominantly a period of exploration,
for example, the voyages of Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama occurred during
this period. The Renaissance Period spans from the period 1400 A.D. to 1600 A.D. The
word 'Renaissance' is of French origin and means "a rebirth of interests", especially in the
arts of ancient Greece and Rome (i.e.: antiquity). This renewed interests’ stems from the
fact that a large amount of art work from antiquity was discovered during the Renaissance
period.
The Renaissance was also an age of individualism and curiosity, the pre dominate
example is seen in the life of Leonardo da Vinci. Education in the Renaissance was
encyclopedic in nature. The people of the time believed in educating themselves in a vast
number of fields, from art to science to history to architecture. Renaissance vocal music
was more important than instrumental music. Nevertheless, many songs were
accompanied by instruments. These instruments were commonly members of the Lute,
Organ, Recorder, or Viol families. Musicians worked for the church, courts and towns.
Church choirs grew in size, and the church remained an important patron of music.
However, musical activity shifted to the courts. Kings and princes competed for the finest
composers. Around 1450 A.D. the printing press was invented. This widened the
circulation of music. This helped music to play an increasingly important role in daily life.
Many leading important composers came from Holland, Belgium and Northern
France, called the ‘Franco-Flemish’ composers. They held important positions throughout
Europe, especially in Italy. Other countries with vibrant musical lives include Germany,
England and Spain. There was a close relationship between the words and the music.
Composers wanted to enhance the meaning and emotion of the text, and did so by
means of ‘word painting’ - trying to project poetic imagery through link between music and
words.
As vocal music was more important, most music was sung a cappella. Two basic
textures existed. Firstly Homophonic, where parts move in step with one another (like a
hymn) – rhythms are the same. Secondly Polyphonic, where each voice is of equal
importance and contrapuntal imitation was an important procedure. The bass register was
now used for the first time, producing richer harmonies, and extending the range of the
voices. There was a change from successive to simultaneous writing in music. That is,
from linear, voice-by-voice to ‘cyclical’, considering all voices at once whilst writing.
In Renaissance music, there is a gentle flow, moving away from sharply defined
beats. Melodies are easy to sing as they move along a scale with few leaps. This is called
conjunct motion. However, Melodies were still modal. Two main forms of sacred music
existed. Firstly, the motet; a short, polyphonic, choral work set to a sacred Latin text. The
motet was performed as a short religious ritual such as the communion. Secondly the
Mass; a longer work, comprising of all five movements of the Ordinary. With humanism
gaining influence during the Renaissance, musicians began using their intuition to
determine consonance and dissonance. Fourths became considered dissonant, while
thirds and sixths became considered consonant. Humanists thought that consonance and
dissonance should be determined by the human ear, not by mathematics as many older
thinkers, such as Pythagoras, believed. In the middle ages, intervals of seconds, thirds,
sixths, and sevenths were thought to be dissonant, as per mathematics. Fourths, fifths,
and octaves were considered consonant. Composers of the Renaissance began
exhibiting this new classification of intervals in their works. This new style was first
popular with English composers, particularly John Dunstable. From there it moved to
continental Europe. The French poet Martin le Franc dubbed this new style the
"Contenance Angloise" meaning "English Guise." The musical Renaissance began in
northern Italy around 1400. One of the prominent groups that were very influential in
shaping the early Renaissance was the Florentine School in Florence, Italy. The Quattro
cento, which might have begun slightly earlier than 1400, overlaps the late Medieval and
early Renaissance periods. Nevertheless, it is generally considered to be part of the early
Renaissance. Notable composers include the following: Zacara da Teramo (c. 1350-c.
1413) Paolo
da Firenze (c. 1355-c. 1436) Giovanni Mazzuoli (1360-1426) Bartolomeo da Bologna
(fl. 1405-1427) Antonio da Cividale (fl. 1392-1421) Antonius Romanus (fl. 1400-1432)
Cristoforo de Monte (1383-?) Nicolaus Zacharie (c. 1400 – 1466) Johannes de
Quadris (c. 1410 – c. 1457) Guglielmo Ebreo da Pesaro (c. 1420 – 1484).
Music became important for leisure purposes, with every educated person being
expected to play an instrument. Music was generally written for solo voices with
instrumental accompaniment. However, with the rise of printing, instrumental music was
becoming more important, with wide variety of instruments being used. These included
recorders, viols, keyboard instruments and woodwinds. The invention of the printing press
helped to spread popular music. Thousands of song collections became available. This
led to a rise in more national genres. These included the Parisian Chanson, the Italian
Frottola, the Italian Madrigal, the English Madrigal, and the English Lute Song 14.
During Renaissance, secular vocal music became increasingly popular. Music was
set to poems in various languages, including Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, German,
Dutch and English. The Venetian School, as the name suggests was based in Venice. It
was the center of instrumental and vocal music. It was also a thriving commercial center,
responsible for much trade between Venice and the East. The Venetian School operated
out of St. Marks’ Cathedral, with Willaert and Gabrielli as its music directors. Willaert and
Gabrielli directed the orchestra and choir for the church. Venetian composers wrote
Polychoral music (for many choirs), with the choir always accompanied by instruments.
Their music tended to be more homophonic in texture 15 . Some of the notable
composers of the Renaissance include; John Dunstable (1390 – 1453 AD), Guillaume
Dufay (1397 – 1474 AD), Gilles Binchois (1400 – 1460 AD), Josquin Desprez (1450 –
1521 AD) and William Byrd (1540 – 1623 AD)
Dufay was a Franco-Flemish composer and the central figure of the Burgundian
School. He was ordained a priest but composed both sacred and secular music. He
learned his craft from cathedral authorities, and he spent a chunk of his life in Italy, where
he stayed intermittently and met the composers Hugo and Arnold de Lantins. One of his
most famous compositions is the motet Nuper rosarum flores (1436), which incorporates
both the old rhythmic style and the new contrapuntal style. Dunstable was an English
composer, renowned during his lifetime and influential throughout Europe. A
contemporary of Leonel Power (an English composer probably born slightly before
Dunstable), his music bridges the late Medieval and early Renaissance styles. He also
helped develop the style of the early Renaissance Burgundian School. Byrd is one of the
most famous English composers of the Renaissance. Although he never made the
transition to the new Baroque style, his keyboard music is said to have marked the
beginning of the Baroque organ and harpsichord style. Little is known about his early life.
However, he is known to have composed many masses, motets, psalms, sonnets, and
songs, in addition to his keyboard works.
Contemporary English composers include Thomas Tallis, John Bull, John Dowland,
Thomas Weelkes, and Orlando Gibbons. Josquin was an important composer of
Renaissance music. He was a contemporary of Christopher Columbus and Leonardo Da
Vinci, and considered a master of Renaissance music. He had an international career,
being born in Belgium and spending most of his life in Italy, serving Dukes and Popes.
Later he worked for King Louis XII of France. His output includes masses, motets and
secular vocal pieces, and he strongly influenced other composers. He has many
published volumes of music devoted exclusively to him. This was testimony to his skills as
a composer as only a select few were chosen to have their works published. Ave Marie
written by him was a Latin prayer to the Virgin Mary, written as a four voiced motet. It
opens with strict, contrapuntal / polyphonic imitation. It is an example of true polyphonic
writing, as each phrase has a different melody. There is overlapping, which creates a
continuous flow. However this makes it difficult to understand text, but creates continuity
in the music. There is varied texture, as he uses imitation for three and four voices, then
paired imitation for two voices. This variation of texture was introduced by Josquin. Two
voices sing together, and then they are imitated by another two voices. In bar of this piece
we see a move to homophony, where the voices are singing in step with one another.
There is then a change in meter from duple to triple, with the use of thirds.
BAROQUE MUSIC (1600 TO 1750 AD) The Baroque Period spans from 1600 to
1750. During this time there were increases in commercial activity, leading to an increase
of power in the middle class, which ultimately lead to the Industrial Revolution. The
Baroque era is sub-divided into Early Baroque, Middle Baroque and Late Baroque. The
Early Baroque period was between about 1600 and 1660. During this period came the
invention of opera – a drama sung to an orchestral accompaniment - and homophonic
texture was favored. The Middle Baroque period dates from about 1660 to 1710. Here
church modes give way to major and minor chords. Instrumental music becomes very
important, and the fully fledged orchestra is now developed.
The Late Baroque begins about 1710 and ends circa 1750. Polyphony once more
flourishes, most notably of all in the works of Bach. Opera was now emerging for the first
time, with many opera houses being built. The two 'giants' of the Baroque era were Bach
and Handel. Bach's death in 1750 marked the end of the Baroque period. Other main
composers of this period were Monteverdi, Purcell, Vivaldi, Corelli, Telemann, and
Rameau. Music was the main source of entertainment/diversion in the Baroque era.
Aristocrats surrounded themselves with concert halls etc…. Music directors were
employed by the aristocracy to oversee orchestras, choirs, instruments, music libraries
etc… They were highly paid and prestigious positions in Baroque society.
Music was a craft passed down over generations, a musician teaching the craft to his
son, and he to his son. Commercial opera houses were about and flourishing. A Baroque
piece expresses only one basic mood, and follows what is termed the ‘doctrine of affect’.
Composers used musical language to depict particular affective states, specific rhythms
and melodic patterns being associated with each. Word-painting was especially used to
associate what one was playing to certain texts of music, for example, "Primavera" (spring)
within Vivaldi's "Four Seasons." The sonnet that precedes each movement describes
what the music will be representing (i.e. violins emulating birds, thunderstorms, dogs, etc).
Unity is achieved through rhythmic continuity. The same rhythmic patterns are repeated
throughout a Baroque piece of music. Some might think that this repetition would become
tedious, but this, however, has the opposite effect, propelling the music forward. The beat
is emphasized very strongly, which is a huge leap from the rhythmically free nature of the
Medieval Gregorian Chant.
The Baroque melodies also create a feeling of continuity. The melody was also
repeated in the same way as the rhythm. A gradual unraveling, unwinding and expansion
of the melody was gradually created as the piece goes along. As a result, melodies of this
era tend to lack the kind of symmetry and balance associated with Classical era melodies.
Baroque music uses terraced dynamics. This means that the volume stays the same for a
period of time, and then there is a sudden shift to a different dynamic level. There are no
gradual changes in dynamics (such as a crescendo or decrescendo). Terraced dynamics
were used as the main keyboard instrument was 46 the harpsichord, which could only be
played in two modes, either loud (forte) or soft (piano), precluding the ability to accomplish
crescendos or decrescendos.
Textures used in the Baroque period, especially in the early part (c. 1600-1660),
were predominantly homophonic, or melody with basso continuo, typical of Baroque
music. In the late Baroque era, German composers such as Telemann, Bach, and Handel
experimented with counterpoint and helped to create, in no small degree, Baroque
polyphonic music. The orchestra was based on the string instruments, and usually
consisted of 10 to 40 instruments. However, there was a very flexible arrangement of
instruments. At its nucleus were the basso continuo and upper strings. The use of
woodwinds, brass and percussion was variable. Compositions include sets of
movements/pieces.
A movement is considered an independent piece. The musical genres used during
the Baroque era include: Opera, Oratorio, Cantata, Suite, Sonata, Mass, Concerto and
Chords became increasingly important in the Baroque period. Before then, composers

40
were concerned with the individual beauty of melodic lines, rather than with chords.
Chords were previously a mere by-product of the motion of several simultaneously
sounding melodic lines. In Baroque, chords become significant in themselves, due to the
emphasis on the Bass Voice. The entire structure of the Baroque piece rested on the
Bass Voice. This new emphasis on chords and the Bass part results in the most
characteristic feature of all Baroque music – the Basso Continuo (alternatively translated
as Thoroughbass or Figured Bass).
The Basso Continuo consists of a bass part together with numbers below each note
which specify the chord to be played above it. It is played by at least two instruments,
usually the organ or harpsichord (to produce the chords) reinforced by a cello or bassoon.
The performer was given a great deal of freedom with regards the realization of the
figured bass. The Basso Continuo was also used in the early classical period, particularly
in some works by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach.
OPERA The Opera was invented in the Baroque era. It originated in the courts of
kings and princes, and does not deal with the ordinary and mundane, but rather deals with
the spectacular and the wonderful. "Opera" can be simply defined as a drama, set to an
orchestral accompaniment. An opera is the joint effort between a composer and a librettist
(dramatist). The Libretto is the text, which is set to music by composer(s). Some operas
are serious, comic or a mixture of both, and may contain spoken dialog, but most are sung
entirely. They can consist of one to five acts subdivided into scenes. The main attraction is
the Aria, which is a song for solo voice set to orchestral accompaniment. The Opera may
include recitatives, where the vocal line imitates the rhythms and pitch fluctuation of
speech. Words are sung quickly on repeated notes, and are not melodic. Also, duets,
trios, quintets etc, are used. The Chorus is important, as it generates atmosphere, and
makes comments on the actions. Dance may be included. Most operas open with an
overture or prelude, which is purely an orchestral composition. Opera was born in Italy.
Prepared by musical discussions between a group of nobles, poets and composers, which
met regularly in Florence around 1575, and were known as the Camerata (Translated:
“Fellowship” or “Committee”). They included Vincenzo Galilei, the father of Galileo. The
Camerata wanted a new vocal style based on the music of ancient Greek tragedy. These
Grecian dramas were sung in a style midway between melody and speech. They wanted
vocal lines to be speech-like. This speech-like style became known as recitative. The
earliest opera that has survived is “Euridice” by Jacopo Peri (1561-1633). The first-known
great opera is “Orfeo” by Monteverdi. It was written for the court of the Gonzago family in
Manua and based on Greek myth. The first commercial opera house, opened in Venice in
1637, which was one of the factors which caused Venice to become a major tourist
attraction.
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH (1685 – 1750 AD) Bach created masterpieces in every
Baroque genre except opera. Instrumental music - especially keyboard works. Bach wrote
fugues for solo instruments (mainly for keyboard instruments). The fugue is not a form,
but rather a compositional device, much like a canon or round. A fugue consists of two
items: a subject, or main theme, and an answer. The answer can be either an exact, or
real, repeat of the subject, or it can be a tonal repeat, in which the answer is modulated to
another key center (usually the dominant) and contains intervallic modifications in order to
make it fit into the new key.
It was also during the Baroque period that the public witnessed the emergence of
the orchestra. Bach used dense polyphonic textures and rich harmonies. His harmony
and counterpoint is still used as a model for music students today. Bach's most famous
Cantata: Cantata no 140 – “Wachet Auf”. It was based on a chorale tune, written 130
years earlier. This hymn has 3 movements. Bach uses hymn melody in 3 of the 7
movements. The Cantata was the principal means of musical expression of the Lutheran
service. Most usually it was written for chorus, vocal soloists, organ and small orchestra,
and set to a German religious text based on the bible. It was used to reinforce the
minister’s sermon, and was generally around minutes in length. It consists of several
movements, including choruses, chorales (hymns), recitatives (sections consisting of
melodically intoned narrative), arias and duets. Bach wrote a total of 295 cantatas in his
life time.
While the opera, which also blossomed during the Baroque era, was a dramatic
secular work employing an orchestra along with stage actors, the cantata featured all the
opera's elements except that the cantata was sacred. The main theme is always
presented by the tutti. It returns in different keys (possibly only fragments). Bach wrote
many Concerti Grossi, e.g., the six Brandenburg Concertos. The Concerto Grosso was a
very important genre in late Baroque in orchestral form. It was written for small groups of
soloists (between two and four) put against the orchestra – called the Tutti. It standard
comprises three movements: 1st: fast (dramatic); 2nd: slow (lyrical); 3rd: dance-like; 1st
and 3rd movements use ritornello form, which is based on alternation between tutti and
solo sections.
CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI (1567 – 1643 AD) 50 All of his works involve voices, and
include operas, madrigals and church music. He makes use of the basso continuo and
other instruments. Monteverdi was an Italian composer of the Early Baroque, who initially
worked for 21 years in the service of the Gonzagas, the ruling family of Mantua. He was
later positioned as the director of music at St. Marks in Venice. He is one of the key
composers in the transition from Renaissance to Baroque. Generally considered to be the
first large-scale opera ever composed, 'Orfeo' was written in 1607 by Monteverdi for the
Mantuan court. It was a lavish production, including soloists, dancers, chorus and large
orchestra of 40 players. Beginning with an orchestral overture, it uses recitatives, arias,
duets, choruses and instrumental interludes. He wrote 12 operas, of which only 3 are
preserved.
ANTONIO VIVALDI (1678 – 1741 AD) Vivaldi was an Italian composer born in
Venice. His father was a violinist in St. Marks’s cathedral. Vivaldi is best known for his 400
concerto grossi and solo concerti. In particular, he exploited the resources of the violin.
His solo concertos include instruments like piccolo, flute, cello, bassoon, and mandolin.
He also composed many operas, much of them lost. Despite being known for his concerti
today, in his own time he was known largely for his operas (indeed, he was the most
performed composer in Venetian theaters from 1713 to 1719). His most famous work is a
set of concertos for solo violin with string orchestra. Each concerto depicts a season, and
each concerto is prefaced by a sonnet. These concerti are programmatic / narrative in
nature. The “Spring” concerto is arguably the most famous of the Four Seasons. It
consists of three movements (fast | slow | fast), and makes use of terraced dynamics and
tone painting; e.g. high trills to imitate bird chirps, tremolos to depict thunder and lightning,
and soft running notes depict a stream. There is a Ritornello theme. Other noteworthy
composers of the Baroque era were; Jean Baptiste Lully, Henry Purcell, Francois
Couperin, Arcangelo Corelli, George Frideric Handel and Messiah.
CLASSICAL PERIOD (1750 – 1820 AD) The four great composers of the Classical
Period were Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert. The latter two made the transition
to the succeeding Romantic period. The first three were drawn to Vienna, and Schubert
born there. The Classical era occurred between 1750 and 1820. It was an age of
enlightenment, set in motion by the great philosophers Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau.
People of the Classical period believed in reason, moving away from custom. They
attacked the privileges of the aristocracy. Classical pieces contain a wealth of rhythmic
patterns, which make use of syncopations or stresses of the upbeat, changes in note
values etc… In a Baroque piece, few patterns are reiterated throughout. In Classical
pieces, there is constant rhythmical change.
The middle class was more powerful in the Classical era than before, now having
access to music, music lessons, printed music etc… which used to be a privilege of the
aristocracy. Public concerts were now given for the first time. There is a much greater
variety and contrast in mood, with lots of fluctuation. This is contrasted with Baroque
pieces, which convey a single mood according to the "Doctrine of Affection". There is now
an enormous flexibility of rhythm. Most Late Baroque music is polyphonic.
 Classical music moves back towards homophonic textures consisting of melody +
accompaniment. There is a widespread use of dynamics. With the invention of the piano
(pianoforte), crescendos and decrescendos come into widespread use. The music is not
restricted to the terraced dynamics typifying that of the Baroque era. The basso continuo
and the figured bass are abandoned in the Classical era, as there were many amateur
musicians who could not improvise from the figured bass. Another reason for this was that
composers wanted more control over their work. In contrast the relatively asymmetrical
and elaborate melodies of Baroque music, classical era melodies are generally balanced
and symmetrical, and often have a question-answer relationship in the cadences. Major-
minor tonality provides the structural framework for all musical forms and genres.
In Baroque music, the orchestra changes from piece to piece. In the Classical period,
there is a standard group of instruments constituting the orchestra: The Strings form the
most important group (and still are the foundation of the modern orchestra). The first
violins carry main melody. The lower strings play accompaniment. The purpose of the
Woodwind section is to add contrasting tone colors to the accompaniment and to provide
occasional melodic solos. The Brass gives power to the music and fills out the harmonies.
Timpani give rhythmic bite and emphasis. Various forms employed in the classical period
include: Binary (A | B), and Ternary (A | B | A). Ternary may be used in an individual
movement, and often the third movement in a symphony, string quartet, sonata, etc.
There was also the Minuet (A | Trio B | Minuet A), for example, the third movement of
Eine Kleine Nachtmusik (Mozart). The Rondo form was also employed (A | B | A | C | A,
etc.) For example: Mozart’s String Quartets only found in last movements. The Minuet
and Trio (A | B | A), where A – Minuet, B – Trio. Theme and Variation form (A | A1 | A2 |
A3 | etc… ) is basically the theme followed by variations, for example, Haydn’s Surprise
Symphony, 2nd movement.
Classical pieces consist of several movements that contrast each other in character
and in tempo. Forms carried over from the Baroque era include the Concerto, Opera and
Symphony. The new emerging forms in the Classical era are the String Quartet (four
movements - Fast; Slow; Dancelike; fast), The Sonata (four movements - Fast; Slow;
Dance-like; fast). The most important new form of the Classical period was sonata form. It
can be found in solo form, chamber music, concertos, and symphonies. Sonata form
divides a movement into three basic parts: 1. Exposition: The theme or themes of the
movement are introduced, often in different keys. 2. Development: The composer
experiments with his or her theme(s), changing their keys around or writing variations of
them. 3. Recapitulation: The themes are restated in more or less the original form, but are
now all in the tonic, i.e. the key of the piece. Sometimes a composer also uses a slower-
paced introduction or an extra concluding passage called a Coda.
One of the great contributions to the classical era is the symphony. Haydn wrote an
amazing 104 symphonies, Mozart wrote over 40, and Beethoven wrote 9 (the first two of
which best fit the 53 classical style). The classical symphony lasts between 20 and 45
minutes, consisting usually of four movements: 1st movement: Sonata form 2nd
movement: Slow. May use Sonata, Ternary or theme-and-variation form. 3rd movement:
Dance-like. Minuet and Trio form. 4th movement: Brilliant and heroic. May use Sonata,
Rondo or Sonata-rondo form.
The Concerto is a three-movement work for instrumental soloist (or occasionally two
or three soloists) and orchestra. The first movement is always in a lively, brisk tempo. A
Cadenza often appears near the end of the first movement, during which the orchestra is
silent and the soloist is given an opportunity to demonstrate technical ability. The second
movement is generally slow, and any form may be used. The third movement is
contrasted from the second and usually quite fast, usually employing rondo form. The
concerto uses a specialized sonata form containing two expositions, the first of which is
normally for the orchestra alone, the second for the soloist with the orchestra
accompanying. The concerto lasts between 20 and 45 minutes. The string quartet is for
two violins, viola and cello. It consists of four movements, using the same forms as used
in a symphony.
 CARL PHILIPP EMANUEL BACH (1714 – 1788 AD) He composed an immense
output consisting of Keyboard Sonatas, Concertos, Symphonies, Oratorios, Chamber
music, and more. One of his most well-known pieces is the "Solfeggietto in C minor".
During his lifetime, C.P.E. Bach was more famous than his father, Baroque master J.S.
Bach. He is regarded as a key founder of the Classical style and period, and most, if not,
all of his compositions have more simplistic techniques that use more emotional power, in
contrast to the ornamental Baroque music of his father.
JOSEPH HAYDN (1732 – 1809 AD) Haydn is referred to by many scholars as the
"Father of the Symphony". Haydn incorporates folk tunes in his music which his father
sang to him as a child. He was a pioneer in the development of the symphony and the
string quartet. Mozart and Beethoven influenced his style, even as did he theirs. He was a
master at developing themes, often using contrasts of key, mood, texture, rhythm,
dynamics and orchestration. His music contains unexpected pauses and tempo changes.
He wrote over 100 symphonies, 68 String quartets, Piano Sonatas, Concerti, Operas and
Masses. His last 12 symphonies are called his "London symphonies". The London
Symphonies each have a nickname, such as “Surprise”; “Clock”; “Military”; “Drum Roll”
etc. His Trumpet Concerto in E flat major was written on a different trumpet to what was
around before. It consists of three movements: Fast | Slow | Fast. The third movement
uses Rondo Form.
CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD VON GLUCK (1714 – 1787 AD) Gluck was a German
composer from Bavaria, known for his contributions to changes in operatic form of the
Classical period. Aside from writing opera, he also wrote ballet suites, chamber music,
orchestral music, and other genres, but is most well-known for his operatic reforms.
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART (1756 – 1791 AD) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
was born in Austria. He is one of the most versatile of composers in the entire history of
music. He wrote masterpieces in all musical forms. All his music has a ‘singing’ quality,
even his instrumental melodies seem to grow out of the human voice. His music conveys
a feeling of ease, grace, balance and perfect proportion. He created compositions with
ease (e.g., writing his last three symphonies in 6 weeks!). He wrote over 600
compositions, all of which were catalogued by Von Kochel (a botanist) in chronological
order. Thus, we refer to Mozart’s work by the “K” number, which indicates the
chronological position of the work in his output. Many of his concertos were among his
finest works; he wrote many for piano, several for violin and for horn, as well as two flute
concertos, one bassoon concerto, one clarinet concerto and one oboe concerto. He was a
master of opera, with most of his operas being comedies.
The Italian operas were sung throughout, whereas the German operas included
speech. Some of his better known operas were: The Marriage of Figaro “,” Don Giovanni
and "The Magic Flute". Additionally, Mozart wrote forty-one symphonies 36 . The Piano
Concerto No. 23 in ‘A’ major was written during a very productive stage in Mozart’s life. Its
three movements stress delicacy and lyricism, rather than orchestral power and virtuosity.
Trumpets and timpani are absent from the orchestral setting, whereas the clarinets, flutes
and bassoon are highlighted. The first movement has two expositions. The orchestra
presents the two themes, which are restated by the piano in the second exposition. The
development is based on a new theme, introduced by the orchestra. Towards the end of
the movement, there is a cadenza.
IV FRANZ SCHUBERT (1797 – 1828 AD) Schubert was a Viennese composer and
child prodigy. His earliest works, like that of his predecessor Beethoven, were in the
Classical style. His output consists of over 600 songs, nine Symphonies, eight completed
operas, six masses, and an abundance of piano music, string quartets and other chamber
works. His songs embrace a wide spectrum of moods, and his melodies range from
simple folk-like tunes to complex lines. He makes use of very rich harmonies and rich
accompaniments.
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN (1770 – 1827 AD) Ludwig van Beethoven's career has
3 phases. His first phase was between 1770 – 1802, during which his music was strongly
influenced by Mozart and Haydn. He wrote his first two piano concertos, first two
symphonies, string quartets Op.18 and first 10 piano sonatas all during this period. His
second phase was between 1802 – 1815. During this stage he was going deaf. He greatly
expanded upon existing forms, and infused his music with heroic expression. His works
include the Kreutzer Sonata for violin and piano; his only violin concerto; 3rd, 4th and 5th
piano concertos and some of his greatest piano sonatas including “Les adieux”,
“Waldstein” and “Appassionata”. His third phase was from 1815 – 1827. Now he was
totally deaf, leaving him completely isolated from society. He departs substantially from
established conventions, both in form and in style. His works include the 9th symphony,
the Missa Solemnis, the last piano sonatas and the late string quartets. There is an
enormous range of expression in his work: tempo, dynamic and expressive indications
are marked far more extensively in his scores than in those of his predecessors. Often he
had markings such as “< p”.
Beethoven believed that there was a moral force behind music. He revised and
refined his work repeatedly. He used classical forms and techniques but gave them new
power and intensity, creating a bridge between Classicism and Romanticism. His works
convey tension and excitement through syncopations and dissonances. Entailing many
contrasts in mood, tiny rhythmic ideas are repeated over and over to create momentum.
He uses extremes of pitch far more. He unified the movements of his symphonies,
sonatas and string quartets. Often, one movement leads directly into another without a
pause (attacca). There are also thematic inter-relationships between movements. Many of
his movements use sonata form, but the development section and the coda are greatly
expanded. He uses the Scherzo rather than the minuet for the 3rd movements of his
pieces. His scherzos have rapid movement with rhythmic drive. His most famous works
are his nine symphonies, which were conceived for large orchestras. In some of them he
adds Piccolos, Trombones and Contrabassoon. All instruments play difficult music, and
Beethoven was the first composer to make dynamic use of brass instruments within the
orchestra. Beethoven's odd numbered symphonies are more forceful, whereas the even
numbered symphonies are very calm and lyrical. His Symphony No. 9 is the first up to
that time in music history to use a choir, which we hear in the "Ode to Joy" finale
movement. He wrote 32 piano sonatas, 16 string quartets, five piano concertos, one
opera (“Fidelio”), two ballets, one violin concerto, and two masses. He incorporated
fugues extensively in his later works.
ROMANTIC ERA Nationalism becomes important during this era, where composers
created music using folk song, history and dances of their homelands. The Romantic era
spans from 1820 A.D. up until 1900 A.D. It can be characterized by the individuality of
style, where there is an emphasis of self-expression and individuality in compositional
style. The music is generally very programmatic, where the instrumental music depicts a
story, idea or a poem - e.g., Smetana’s “The Moldau” depicts scenes along the Moldau
River. The programmatic style can also be seen in the titles, which are usually very
descriptive. There is a variety of mood, atmosphere and tone color.
There are huge technological improvements in musical instruments which made
them more musically flexible and accurate. New sounds were now created /used in all
instruments. I.e. Flutes were required to play in the breathy, lower registers; violins were
asked to strike the strings with the wood of the bow – Col legno. All instruments were
required to play with more virtuosity. The orchestra expanded due to the growing size of
concert halls and opera houses, causing an increase in the power of the brass section.
The woodwind section takes on new tone colors, with the addition of the Contrabassoon,
Bass clarinet, Piccolo and the Cor anglais. Delayed resolution of dissonances gave an
increased feeling of angst. Extensive modulation was now used much more than
previously in the Classical era. Because of this extensive modulation, there is less tonal
gravity (the centration around one common key).
In Romanticism, a broader harmonic vocabulary was used, such as chromatic
harmonies, adding color to the music. Dissonant, unstable chords where also used more
freely. Composers wrote musical miniatures as well as monumental pieces. Some genres
are carried over from classicism, but are more greatly exploited, such as sonatas and
symphonies. Additionally, a few new forms are invented. Romantic music uses a wide
range of dynamics from fff (fortississimo: very, very loud) to ppp (pianississimo: very, very
soft). The range of pitch is expanded. Tempo becomes another tool in the hands of the
Romantic composers as indicated by the increased use of Accelerandos (speeding up)
and Ritardandos (slowing down), as well as extensive use of Rubato (the bending of
tempo/rhythm).
Art Song The best Art Song composers of the Romantic era include Schubert,
Schumann and Brahms. The Art Songs based on German texts tended to favour the
poets Heine and Goethe. The song composers interpret the poems, translating their
mood and atmosphere into music. Most songs have a piano introduction and in many
cases a postlude.
One of the forms of the Romantic Era is the Art Song. It is a standard composition for
solo voice and piano. The piano accompaniment is an integral element in the piece, and
serves as an interpretive partner to the voice, rather than a simplistic accompaniment.
Poetry and music are thus intimately fused. The Erl King 'The Erl King' is an Art Song
based on a ballad by Goethe. The Poem is in dialog throughout. The story is about a
father riding through a storm on horse-back with his sick child in his arms. The boy has
visions of the Erl King – a symbol of death. A through-composed setting is used to
capture the tension and excitement of the poem. The piano part has a triplet motion,
describing the galloping of the horse. The motif in the bass symbolizes the Erl King and
death. Schubert makes one singer portray several characters. The ‘boy’ is sung in the
high register in a minor key, often with dissonant harmonies (symbolic of his sickness),
whereas the ‘father’ sings in the low register, trying to reassure the boy. The ‘Erl King’
sings coy and enticing melodies in the major key. The highlight of the piece is its closing
recitative, announcing the father's discovery on reaching home of his son dead in his
arms.
Types of Art Songs: Strophic - The same music is used for each stanza. Like a hymn
in structure. Through-composed - New music is used for each stanza. Allows music to
reflect changing moods in the poem. Song Cycles - Contains several art songs, grouped
into a set. Often unified by a single story line. i.e.: Schubert's “The Winter Journey”.
SCHUMANN (1810 – 1856 AD) Schumann was a very conservative composer,
whose works are very autobiographical and programmatic in nature. He was the founder
of the first musical journal – “The New Journal of Music”. His most famous Art Song is
considered to be "In the Lovely Month of May", an example of an Art Song which makes
use of Strophic form. During the Romantic era, two groups of Symphony composers
arose. The first being the "Conservative" Group, comprising of Beethoven, Schubert,
Schumann, Mendelssohn, Tchaikovsky and Brahms. The second is known as the
"Revolutionary" Group, and consists of Berlioz, Liszt, Mahler, and Dvorak.
SCHUBERT (1797 – 1828 AD) Schubert was a Viennese composer and child
prodigy. His output consists of over 600 songs, nine Symphonies, eight completed operas,
six masses, and an abundance of piano music, string quartets and other chamber works.
His songs embrace a wide spectrum of moods, and his melodies range from simple folk-
like tunes to complex lines. He makes use of very rich harmonies and rich
accompaniments.
WAGNER (1813 – 1883 AD) Wagner was one of the few great composers who was
able to write his own librettos, which he based on legends and myths such as the story of
Tristan and Isolde and of the Norse gods. He called his works “music dramas” or
“Universal Art Works” (gesamtkunstwerk in German). Wagner shifted the musical gravity
from the voice to the orchestra, and so expands his orchestra, which is treated
symphonically. His orchestral interludes were used to describe the present scene. He
exploited the power of brass instruments fully and even invented a new instrument, the
Wagner tuba. He used leitmotifs, which are a recurring, short musical idea associated
with a person or object in the drama. He varied and transformed these leitmotifs to
convey changes of character, and these leitmotifs are what unify Wagner’s operas. He
uses chromatic and dissonant harmonies, and frequent modulation, but avoids resolution
of dissonances, leading to the breaking down of tonality. The Ring "The Ring" (AKA
Der
Ring des Nibelungen) is Wagner's most famous work. It is a widely performed sequence
of 4 operas /dramas, arranged in a gigantic cycle.
MODERN ERA ( 1900 – 1960 AD) Music after the Romantic era experienced a great
deal of experimentation and change as many of the old methods that had formed the
basis of classical music for centuries were challenged. Tonality, for example, was
discarded entirely by many composers in the 20th century. Notably, a number of distinct
movements in classical music developed as well.
IMPRESSIONISM Impressionism is the name given to a movement in painting that
emerged primarily in France during the latter part of the 19th Century. It featured visual
renderings that were intended more 61 for decoration than as records of the precise
appearance of people or objects. The invention of photography provided a faster, cheaper
means of recording appearances. Impressionism, instead, was a visual means of
recording supposed "impressions" of the subject matter--emphasizing selected features
while minimizing others.
In practical terms, impressionistic effects were achieved by reducing the detail in a
picture, eliminating subtle color mixtures, and exaggerating proportions and perspective
to convey motion or lassitude. The composer Debussy is said to have resisted the
comparisons of his music to the paintings of the Impressionists, but the vague melodic
and harmonic structures of works such as "L'aprèsmidi d'une faune", "Syrinx" (for Solo
Flute) and "Nuages" seem to be in much the same spirit as the blurred, sensuous visual
images of the painters with whom he would have been familiar.
Again in practical terms, Debussy was able to differentiate his compositions from
what had come before by deliberately writing music that was contrary to the norms that he
and every other young composer were taught at the Conservatoire. He abandoned the
major and minor scales for other combinations of pitches. He also abandoned 7-note
scales for groupings of five notes (pentatonic scales) and six notes (whole-tone scales).
Debussy's experiments with new ways of organizing music would not have been nearly as
successful if he had not possessed true genius. Even his most vigorous critics were
compelled to acknowledge his substantial talent. He continued to exploit this style of
music from 1891, when he introduced "L'après-midi d'une faun" until his death in 1917.
He made such thorough and brilliant use of the "impressionist" techniques that other
composers were hard pressed to successfully follow his lead. Debussy frequently based
his harmonies on so-called "parallel fifths." These were produced by simultaneous
melodies that were always exactly seven semitones apart, and they were strictly
forbidden by the common practice taught at the time.
Other notable composers who are usually categorized as impressionists include
Maurice Ravel and the American composer Charles Tomlinson Griffes. In the generation
that followed, Darius Milhaud, Selim Palmgren, and others were obviously influenced by
Debussy's music but found their own paths by incorporating American jazz or German
"expressionist" elements.
SERIALISM This style of composition was initially developed in Austria by Arnold
Schoenberg, and was further developed by students of his, including Anton Webern and
Alban Berg. Serialism, in its purest form, is a style of music in which each tone in the
twelve note chromatic scale is used exactly once in succession until all twelve are used,
at which time the cycle may be repeated using the same series of notes or a similar
series derived from the original. The twelve note series is sometimes referred to as a
"tone row". From this initial row of tones, a matrix can be calculated by inverting the
intervals of the row to form a column descending from the first note of the row and then
creating new rows by transcribing the intervals of the original row beginning on each of
the tones of the inversion. By aligning these rows and columns in a twelve by twelve grid,
one derives a total of 48 variations of the row by beginning at any point on the outside of
the grid and proceeding vertically or horizontally, as the case may be. A tone row from left
to right is referred to as "prime" as it is the initial set of intervals. A column from top to
bottom is referred to as an inversion. From right to left is called "retrograde".
 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION-PHYSICAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

Consequently, from bottom to top is "retrograde inversion". Any one of these 48 rows
may be used but only one row is typically used per part at any given time. However, two
parts playing simultaneously - voice and piano, for instance - can use completely
separate rows at the same time. At some time after the initial development of serialism
composers began using "subsets", or fragments of a row repeated. This allowed freedom
to create compositions that were more pleasing to the traditional ear.
CONTEMPORARY MUSIC (1945 AD TO PRESENT) Contemporary music is (in
general) based on originality. Then Contemporary artists use dissonances and tried to
disobey "the laws" that music had followed for many years. The Contemporary Music
period is the period following the Modern Music period. It is generally considered to have
lasted from 1945 A.D. to the present. Some general characteristics are (Do not apply for
all compositions, only commonly found.) 1. Fewer lyrical melodies than other periods. 2.
Dissonant Harmonies 3. Complex rhythms 4. Percussiveness 5. Greater use of
percussion, brass, and woodwind. 6. Uses synthetic and electronic sounds.
Contemporary music is divided into a lot of sub-categories like "minimalism", a style
that has been explored by many artists including Steve Reich, John Adams, and Philip
Glass. The Contemporary Era was formed during the last quarter of the nineteenth
century through a painting movement called Impressionism. Around 1870 a group of
French painters rejected the Romantic Era. Twentieth Century music reflects the
influences of art and literature mechanistic atomic age. The pleasant sounding
Impressionistic music led to experiments with twelve tone music. Some other experiments
are with Electronic music, Jazz, and more. Also different people from the romantic era
made variations of their songs so they could add Impressionism. Some these composers
include Bartok, Stravinsky, Prokofiev, Copland, Shostakovich, Barber, Gorecki. The music
also contains non-western melodies and leaves out Romanticism. The Contemporary also
introduces new scales (whole-tone, modes) and chord uses. The painting movement also
is called the others.
(https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/539a/7ba1f320bcdbe2296a74f6ac213b2763d5f5.pdf)

APPLY

God is with you in everything you do. I pray our reading activity
filled your brain with ideas. Now let us buckle up. Describe the similarities and
differences between the features of Philippine music and foreign music. Use the chart
below for your answers.

Features Philippine Music Foreign Music

Historical
Background

Music Theory
Genre

Others

ASSESS

Using Venn Diagram, compare and contrast the features of

Philippine Music and Foreign Music. Write your output on the
space below.

Source: www2.d125.org
RUBRIC

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