ore eee IN Pere n | BY i FORREST M. MIMS, IL FIRST PRINTING — 1983 SECOND PRINTING — 1984 THIRD PRINTING — 1985 FOURTH PRINTING —1986 FIFTH PRINTING ~1987 SIXTH PRINTING —1987 SEVENTH PRINTING -—1988 EIGHTH PRINTING —1991 NINTH PRINTING — 1991 TENTH PRINTING — 1992, a ELEVENTH PRINTING — 1993 i TWELFTH PRINTING — 1994 COPYRIGHT © 1983..BY FORREST M. MIMS, TL see ALL. R\GHTS RESERVED PRINTED INTHE. UNITED STATES OF AMERICAOF. AND. ANY. Le ING JAC KI A, THIS... OOK CIILDREN. HAPPY. TD. SUGGESTIONS... IS FORTHE. ENTERTAINMENT AMD EDIEICATION _ ITS... READERS... WHILE REASONABLE CARE HAS BEEN. at EXERCISED.w. ITH RESPECT TD.WITS ACCURACY, THE AUTHOR RADIO... SHACK ASSUME NO. RESPONSIBICLTY... FOR... ERRORS, JOKUSSIONS. OR APPLICATION. SUITABILITY _O& _ITS_CONTENTS.....FORANY. NEITHER Do__we_ASSUME_ANY_LIAB/LITY..FOR. DAMAGES RESULTING FROM USE __OF __INFoRHMATION._IN. THIS. BOOK... USE.,....MANUFACTURE.. OR SALE _OF INCORPORATES, PATENTS, CAUTION +. THIS. ELECTRICAL _SAFETY WHICH MUST _BE JESSENTIAC THAT. CAREFUL SUPERVISION WORKING WITH LINE = Powe RED. CIRCUITS... AND... SOLDERING. DYE TO. THE. MANY. CUSTOMER... RADIO SHACK To ANSWER Coustom. ¢iRcuIT DESIGNS, TECHNICAL ADVICE ASSISTANCE, ETC.) 4. NOWLEDGE THANKS IM ADVANCE. IBuT PLease. PERSONAL COPYRIGHTS.....OR.OTHER... RIGHTS. RECEWvE ANY. IT _1$__YOuR RESPONSIBILITY. __TO__ DETERMINE. ANY DEVIC THAT JN. FORMATIONL....N.THIS. BOOK _IM FRINGES ANY. BOOK. IN CLUDES... SEVERAL... REFERENCES.._TO. HEEDED.. ITU: BE GIVEN... ELECTRONIC IRONS. ___ INQUIRIES. RECEIVED By _ ANDTHE AUTHOR, —_IT_1S_IMPOSS1BLE REQUESTS —_£OR ADDITIONAL ._INFORMATION..... TROUBLE SHOOT=..... GuT__THOUGH _WE__cANNoT INQUIRIES, WE wide BE. IMPRESSIONS.OR.__ INDWLDUAL —1D._THOSE of You wo. waite! REMEMBER WE ARE UNAZLE TO Give You. REPLY.—-|GETING__STARTED. IN ELECT. (1. ELECTRICITY. SEE aea eee eseeEEe eee PUTTING... ELECTRICITY TQ_WwORK BACK...1O.. BASICS. |. STATIC. eceerReiTy ae LECTRICAL CURRENT. ——| pire _-MEASURING AC. AND.00.. ELECTRICAL. c1RWITS PULSES, WAVES. SIGNALS...AND_.NOISE.. ——j2 ELECTRONIC... COMPONENTS. _WIRS_AND. CABLE. SWITCHES RELAYS MOVING. COI. METERS MMICROPHONES...AND.SPEAMERS RESISTORS é CAPACITORS. RESISTOR.AND. CAPACITOR APPLICATIONS. Pee TRANS FORMERS |S. SEMICONDUCT. a SLC ON. = JAE .DLeDE —--THE...TRANSISTOR... BIPOLAR. TRANSISTORS. F\ELO-EFECT... TRANSISTORS UNISUNCTION. TRANSISTOR... THYRISTOR... -SILLCON= CONTROLLED... RECTIFIERS. TRIACS. 4, PHOTONIC. ~SEMICONBUCTORS AGHT.. OPTICAL. COMPONENTS KOW._CONVEX... LENSES. | .--SEMICONDUCTOR.._ LIGHT. SouRCES _ GAT... EMITTING plopes.. SEMICONDUCTOR... LIGHT. DETECTORS. PAOTORESISTIVE LIGHT DETECTORS. PN. TUNCTION LIGHT DETECTORS __. PHOTODIODESIS. INTEGRATED. CIRCINTS 6. DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS. MECHANICAL... Swit... GATES. __THE_.BINARY.. CONNECTION DIODE... ATES. RANSIS TOR. GATES. GATE. SYMBoLs DATA _AIGAWAYS How... GATESARE USED COMGINATIONAL LOGIC. CIRCUITS. SEQUENTIAL .LOGIC CIRCUITS. A COMBINATIONAL= SEQUENTIAL. LOGIC._SYSTEM DIGITAL _T¢__ FAMILIES IZLINEAR INTEGRATED. CIRCUITS THE BASIC. LINEAR..CLRCUIT. z OPERATIONAL... AMPLIFIERS. __-TIMERS. FUNCTION. GENERATORS. VOLTAGE... REGULATORS. OTHER. LINEAR T0*s B. CIRCUIT. ASSEMBLY “TIPS. TEMPORARY... C1RCWITS PERMANENT... CIRCUITS HOW... 7. SOLDER. ee POWERING ELECTRONIC...CIREVITS.__ 9.100 ELECTRONIC. CIRGHINS. ——-DIODE.._ciRewiTS__ SMALL SIGHAL DIODES. AND RECTIELERS. ZENER...DIODE... CIRCUITS. |... TRANSISTOR.....CIRCVITS : non B\POLAR.... TRANSISTOR... CARCUITS IDNCTION. FET AND POWER MOSFET. CIRCUITS. __UN\TUNSTION..TRANSISTOR..cIReWITS. TAYRISTOR CIRCUITS. 2 SCR_cuReuITS. TRIAG. CIRCUITS. PROTONIC..ciRCUITS. co GAT. EMITTING. DIGITAL E60. CIROVITS TT CUR CUITS.. — CMDS...cIRQUITS. LINEAR..1.c...c1ReuITs. 7 [oper aTionaL.. AMPLIFIER Cop=Anie) ciRCUITS. COMPARATOR CREDITS... VOLTAGE REGULATOR TIMER _ciReuiT s_ -SIRCUITS, _- SEMACONDUETOR...LIGHT DETECTOR. ciRouiITs 11 “0 1b. {er t17_. 118-121. ai ggseeeees 122-123.— {GETTING STARTED IN ELECTRONICS es WELCOME...TO THE... WORLD...OF ELECTRONICS, ONE..OF THE .FALTEST. -|@ROWING OF TODAY'S" HIGH= TECH" FIELDS AND AN EDUCATIONAL - JAND ENTERTAINING... OBEY. THIS. ROOK wILt TAKE YoU.EROM STATIC. ELECTRICITY. TO. S0cID= STATE ELECTRONICS. ALONG. 3HE WAY. WE'L COVER ELECTRICITY, ELECTRONIC COMPONENITS...AND..INTEGRATED. ——lcineurrs _(re’s). CHAPTERS 3-7 SHOW HOW COMPONENTS.AMD..IC's [ARE USED To _FORM. ELECTRONIC... CIRCUITS.._CHAPTER...9. GIVES PLANS. FOR 100. CIRCUITS... EACH.OF WHICH. TIVE. GUILT._AND...TESTED..."PRGE JARRow Ss” (EBD) THROUGHOUT...TAE B0OK..REFER..YOU..1DRELATED. TOPICS... IN FUTURE CHAPTERS. CLIKE. WORKING...VERSIONS...0F AMY... EXAMPLE. é [CiRCUITS IN CHAPTERS 3-7)..T HOPE You.FiND THIS 200K USEFUL, Hee __|E0UCATIONAL.ANO, EsPeciALey,.FUA! Feet M. Mint, 1D : GOING. ELIRTHER IN ELECTRONICS. —-}L_-HoPE.This_Book.ENCOURAGES...YoU..1D_GO. FURTHER IN. ELECTRONICS. ; BEGIN. .BY. GETTING RADIO..SHACK'S..\SEMICONDUCTOR. REFERENCE of ANDBOOK."..ANO..KENGINEERS MINI ~ NOTEBOOK" SERIES. READ ELECTRONICS MAGAZINES LIKE COMPUTERCRAET, RADIO“ ELECTRONICS, BYTE AND. QST. Nov. MAY. ALSO..WISH.7D READ." ELECTROMCS NOTEBOOK," A COLUMA) Z - RITE EACH MONTH FOR COMPUTERCRAET. MANY OF THESE COLUMNS - _.|WAVE BEEN COMPILED. IN A SERIES OF B00KS,. INCLUDING “THE {FORREST MIMS CIRCUIT..SCRAPBOOK” CMCGRAW- HILL, 1983) AND ——MEORREST MIMS! CIRCUIT SCRAPBOOK IL. CHOWARD. W. SAMS, 198.6). {ESE _B00ks..DESCRIGE IN DEIAIL. SEVERAL OF THE. CIRCUITS..IN..THIS |B 00K. AND__MANY..OTHER. CIRCUVITS..QUESTIONS.?. THIS .BOoK..WILL. RAISE —~|MANY.L.IE YOU..CANYT FIND. ANSWERS IAL THE REFERENCES. ABOVE, TRY. — |A.GOOD. LISRARY...FINDING...ANSWERS..MAY TAKE. TIME,.6UT.You'Lt LEARN. IMUCH.IN. TE. PROCESS. PERHAPS YOU'LL EVEN..CONSIDER,... FORMAL HRAINING. FORA. CAREER IN. ELECTRONICS... - —{A-SPECIAL NOTE. TO EDUCATORS BOOK CAN GIVE. YOUR STUDENTS ABASIC. .KNOWLEDGE.OF ELECTRONICS. YoU CAN ASSIGN..THE..B00K FOR OUTSIDE. READING... ——{AND_TEST STUDENTS _AS THEY. PROGRESS...OR__YOU...CAN. DEVELOP. faa COURSE... COMPLETE..WITH. DEMONSTRATIONS... EXPERIMENTS... JAND..LECTURES... THANKS. TD. RADIO SHACK'S . SOLDERLESS... MODULAR mem [SockETS,..YOU_AND..YOUR... STUDENTS SHOULD .8£ ABLE...TO__ ASSEMBLE. i EST. VERSIONS OF VIRTUALLY EVERY. CIRCUIT. IN. CHAPTER... - [(X100_ SLecTRONIC.ciRcuITS"),. INCIDENTALLY, VOLUME. BUYERS .CAN.... : RECEIVE A PRICE. DISCOUNT._FROM RADIO. SHACK...ON THIS. ..B00K..AND. {ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS... SEE THE LATEST RADIO. SHACK..CATALOG {FOR DETAUS.«.... CPRICE..DISCOUNTS_ARE OPTIONAL AT. RAQIO_.SHACK. DEALERS... AND. FRANCHISE. STORES.)I. ELECTRICITY. TAE_ONLY. DIFFERENCE. BETWEEN. A folr oF. : AGATNING ANO THE —|SPARK BETWEEN. YOUR. H-FINGER..AND..A.OOOR - KNOB..ON.....A....ORY...DAY. 1S. QRANTITY,... Be wane TO. THOSE... WHO. FLY... ARE ELEeTRIGITY..... ee BRITE INTHE. RAIN, BEN TAMIN... FRANKLIN... FIRST. You... BETTER...5AY "BYE!" ON EIR MED. TNIS WTA AIS Denuse...iT'S... WOT VERY. SANE. FAMOUS... KITE. EXPERIMENT, (x... NEON, OE hae, TD... METAL, Z z DOORKNOB...OR : : oe WATER....P/PE. HERE'S A NEAT WAY TO"See" ELEarRICITY. WITHOUT. BEING ZAPPED! GRASP._ONE LEAD... FROM. A...NEON LAMP, WALK ALROSS. A... CARPET. WHE WEARING. HARO. SOLED. .SHOES. AND TOUCH. THE... SECond. LEAD.FROM THE LAMP. To. A. .METAL OBIECT. THE. LAMP. wild FLASH. (UNLESS...THE.. RELATIVE. HUMIDITY. 13. HIGH)s OF COURSE... You... cawnoT.."See". Eceereicity! You. SEE. ITS. EEERCT. UPON. AIR. AND. THE. NEON IN THE LAMP. THE. EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY..WHICH. CAN... 6E__SEEN ARE MANY, HERE ARE. SOME __ MORE + aie| PUTTING. ELECTRICITY. TO WORK ace ——LAkk. MATTER..HAS.. ELECTRICAL. PROPERTIES. THATS WHY SCIENTISTS. OVER THE. PAST. FEW. CENTURIES HAVE —_-| BEEN ABLE. TO.INVENT. HUN OREDS..OF GADGETS _ THAT. | GENERATE... STORE, CONTROL AND. SWITCH. ELECTRICITY. THESE. DEVICES. HAVE. COMBINED TO. CARRY. US INTO eae HN. Je. THE Youre PAGES. = —. ANKLOUS. JTHAT FOLLOW TO..GET Youle FIND STARTED —}OUT..Kow. WORKING WITH THESE. AND. ELECTRONIC... PARTS. OTHER ELECTRONIC _AnLD..CIRCUITS,.SKIP.. : PARTS. WORK, AND. = AMEAD TO CHAPTER. ; You'ee LEARN... How & TWO. WHEN. YOU BAVE TD. USE. THEM. IN TIME, GE SURE TO. ; GO... OVER.THE. REST. = WOE TAS CHAPTER. u —YOUTeG LEARN. SOME, ae —BASIC._FACTS.. ABOUT. i __|WORKING ELECTRONIC. [SIGHT FLASHERS 4 TIMERS, a eiRcviTs. Like, AMPLIFIERS, DIGITAL. L0G. -ELECTRIGITY.THAT...wikt : ICiRCuITS,..PawER... SUPPLIES, SOUND. GENERATORS... AND G1VE.YOU...A.. SOLID. | MANY....OTHERS... AFTER FOUNDATION... FOR. FURTHER. [You CommeTe ms 800k, \e ~~ LEARNING... AND_..YOU'LL. a |Your 66. ABLE..7E FIMD...OUT.. HOW... IDENTIFY. AMO... USE. ALL CREATE... AYO. DETECT THE. COMPONENTS..5 How. ELECTRIC) TY..WITH JON. THIS... PAGE! THEY. -OROLNARY. HOUSEHOLD. ——-[uscLuee..A..TRANS FoR MER, MATERIALS. | DIsPes,. RESISTORS, CAPACITORS ,. ZENER _[Di09es, TRANSISTORS, [VOLTAGE REGULATORS. |ANO.INTEGRATEDBACK TO. BASICS - ELECTRICITY 1S AN ESSENTIAL... INGREDIENT __o: THE BEST. WAY..TO. UNDERSTAND. THE NATURE. OF. ELECTRICITY (S.7D. EXAMINE. THE. SMALLEST. COMPONENT._OF VERY ELEMENT, THE. ATOM. NUCLED S. THS.. (PROTONS AND... ATOM. NEUTRONS) SIMPLEST ATOM HYOROGEN AND HELIUM, _tITHWM ATOMS HAVE EN CIRCLE _OF....3... PROTONS. LITHIUM ATOM, __4_NEVTRONS @ ELectRons HAVE... A NEGATIVE LE CTRI. © PROTONS... HAVE... POSITIVE ELECTRICAL CHARS, © NEUTRONS. HAVE...NO.. ELECTRICAL... CHARGE. CL IONS — Nog macey..AM. ATOM. HAS...AN EQUAL. NUMBER OF ELECTRONS. AND... PROTONS. THE CHARGES. CANCEL... : GIVE THE. ATOM. ..NQ.. NET. ELECTRICAL... CHARGE. IT'S OSSIBLE......TO. DISLODGE. ONE. RR MoRE. ELECTRONS. FROM. [MOST ATOMS. THIS... CAUSES. |e ATOM ..TO_HAVE..A_ NET. | POSITIVE... CHARGE... IT'S THEN. ALLED. A. POSITIVE JQM... ME ja. STRAY. ELECTRON....COMEINES. WITH. A. NORMAL. ATOM, THE. ATOM. HAS A NET...NESATIVE ae CHARGE...ANO..1S, CALLED. A POSITIVE. EON oa NESATIVE. JON. CD ELECTRONS — FREE ELECTRONS. CAN. MOvEAT "HIGH... SPEED. THROUGH... METALS, GASES. AND A VACUUM... OR. THEY. CAN REST. ON...A. SURFACE. 8I] MORE ABOUT FREE ELECTRONS — MANY. TRILLIONS lof ELectRonS can RESTON A... SURFACE... OR. TRAVEC ITHROUGH SPACE OR MATTER AT. NEAR. THE... SPEED lor. tigur (1c, 000 miLes. PER Second)! nen POOOOAE fotcictelcicteloyaal ELECTRONS — A_.GROUP...OF.. NEGATIVE... ELECTRONS. eel A_-SURFACE CAUSES THE... SUREACE...T0..... BE.NEGATIVELY. __[ CHARGED. SINCE _.THE ELECTRONS. ARE_NOT.... MOVING y.... THE —_[sureace CAN _BE__SAID.TD_HAVE.A. NEGATIVE STATIC | ELECTRICAL CHARGE. |] MOVING ELECTRONS —. A... STREAM OF... MOVING... ELECTRONS. [is CALLED... AN. ELECTRICAL CURRENT... RESTING... ELECTRONS loan Quickly FORM. AN ECECTRICALCURREWT....IF_... PLACED NCAR. A CLUSTER....OF_Pos/TIVE JON S,.... THE... POSITIVELY. CHARGED JONS WILL. AT-TRACT.....THE ELECTRONS... WHICH ee RUS INTO THE MOLES OR. VOIDS _BY_._THE __ MISSING ELECTRONS. “<> ELECTRON MECHANICAL. FRICTION,.... LIGHT, HEAT OR A CHEMICAL. May. REMOVE... ELECTRONS... FROM “A_SURFACE.,..THIS...._CAUSES...THE.... SURFACE... TO. BE Posi~ [TIVELY CHARGED... SINCE THE. POSITIVELY... CHARGED... ATOMS __| ARe.AT. REST, THE SURFACE ..CAW..6E....SAID...TO.. HAVE. ___|A_. posite serie ELECTRICAL... CHARGE. POSITIVE. TONS Wid. PoSLTIVE STATIC ELEC* TRICAG CHARGE. qSTATIC... ELECTRICITY. YOU GENERATE. STATIC ELECTRICITY. EVERY... TIME You... WALK ACROSS A CARPET, PULC__TAPE _FROM..A.. ROLL... REMovE YouR CLOTHING. OR....DRY. LOTHES.IN. A DRIER, MUCH OF THE TIME..YOU._DOM'T. EVEN... REALIZE IT_UNLESS THE AIRS. ORY. AND THE STATIC. CHARGE SUDDENLY ICRACKLES.,....POPS__ AND. FLASHES ITS... WAY..TD__A__NEW HOME. THESE STATIC CHARGES ARE CAUSED... BY. MECHANICAG FRICTION. BACK IW G00...B.0..4... THALES... OF GREECE... EXPE IMENTED. WITH THE ___STATIC. ELECTRICITY PRODUCED... WHEA). AMGER. IS RUBBED __WITH...WooL., DCAMSER— once UPON A mime BAP. FLOWING FROM. TREES MARDENED. INTO. CLEAR_GOLDEN. INODULES...WHICH_WERE._EVENTUALLY. BURIEO._IN_THE EARTH... SOMETIMES, BEFORE..ITRARDENED. INTO. AMSER, THE... STICKY... SAP. ENTOMBED. SITS OF... PLANT. MATTER, INSECTS IAND...EVEN. DROMETS oF waTER! JA. KINO. OF NATURAL... CASTING. PLASTIC, AMSER..IS_EASILY ELECTRIFIED..BY FRICTION, IT THEN... ATTRACTS....BITSOF PAPER. FAMous FACT: THE EveeTRon| IS NAMED. AFTER THE GREEK| WORO FOR AMBER | O ELECTRIFIED. PLASTIC... AND GLASS.— RUN. A. PLASTIC_comg — THROUGH..YOUR.HAIR._ON._A.DRY...DAY....AND. YOU'LL TRANSFER ELECTRONS FROM YOUR. HAIR. TO... THE... COMB. RUB A.GLASS. soe ROD. WITH SILK...OR_ THE... SYNTHETIC... FIBERS OF A PAINT. BRUSH. = ANO.YOU'LL REMOVE ELECTRONS... FROM. THE 6245S. GOTH... THE. : NEGATIVELY... CHARGED... COMB....AND..THE..... POSITIVELY... CHARGED. GLASS..ROD. WIkk.4 LIKE. AMBER, ATTRACT. ....BITS..OF.. PAPER. You. Can ELEOTRIFY...OR. CHARGE. MANY... MATERIALS. 6Y._RUBBING ~|THEM... WITH FUR... WO0b,..ETC,.. METAL? .NO, THE CHARGE LEAKS. AWAY. COMB (AFTER. STROKMG HAIR) GLASS ROD (auseed Wim Sik). SA Positive 2 ___CHARGE, e_|THE....COMB.. AND. GLASS. AND. prvcikE CHARGES. | 70... DETECT. AND. MEASURE... STATIC... ELECTRICITY. 1 OPPOSITE. AND LIKE CHARGES. =-HOW Do WE KsoWw ROD. HAVE OPPOSITE CHARGES? ELECTRICITY iS LIKE. FUNDAMENTAL... RULE_OF IThaT.PRovES.. THE. RULE. NO. CHARGE USE FOAM..PLAST.IC. PACKING. MATERIAL. [REMEMBER : UNLIKE CHARGES ATTRACT — LIKE... CHARGES REPEL — “|G THe ececTRoscoPe — THE FIRST__INSTRUMENT. DESIGNED WAS THE ELECTROSCOPE... YOU. CAN. EASILY... MAKE. ONE. “Pies, BOT TUE. ALUMINUM, FM. BE SURE THE FOLDED... Fol... STRIP.1S. CLEAN. AND ORY... You...TOUCH... A... CHARGED. OBJECT TO_.THE....UIRE» HALVES.OF. THE OW STRIP Wie. BE GVEA... AND. Wile. THEREFORE FLY APART...DC CONDUCTORS AND INSULATOR You. CAN USE. lyour... ELECTROSCOPE..TD. PROVE THAT ELECTRONS TRAVEL _ ITHROVGA.... SOME MATERIALS BUT __NoT OTHERS. HINT i_TRY THIS..ON...A.QRY DAY! ELECTRONS CAN TRAVEL THROUGH _ MOIST... AIR__SD__THE CHARGE ON _YouR ELECT ROSCOPE. WIL QUICKLY. LEAK AWAY. ON HUMID DAYS. SHARGED. PLASTIC... ROD TOUCH. THE CHARGED. --ROD__TO_THE WIRE -ANO._THE _ELECTROW SCOPE WILE. RESPOND. _ CHARGED. _-PLASTIG..ROP.. ie -BLECTROSCOPE. oo WILL... OT.. RESPOND —-Rop._TRucHES THE NYLON CORD, THIS. DEMONSTRATION sHows —-_|THROUGA_.._ SOME _mATERIALS TAROUGH. WHICH ELECTRONS... MATERIACS._ THROUGH.{ELECT RICAL. CURRENT A REGION OF HIGH. OR POTENTIAL To ———[ewares_Flows_ [THROUGH _A__coA [AS AN ELECTRICAL > ENT.IT THEN RESUMES. S its STATIC. STATE ON THE. {O)__TH AGNETAC | FLOWING... THROUGH. _-AROUND.THE WIRE. THE..FIELD,—-BUT_Yo. OBSERVE ITS. EEE CT. ORIENT..A__ COMPASS. So. _[irs__NEEWE PoNTs TO. TRE NORTH CN). MARK, PLACE..A cope R WIRE OVER. AND. PARALLEL. = TO. THE NEEDLE. THE OonNE CT. A FLASHLIGHT... CELL. ACROSS. THE _WiRe - : TRE NEEDLE. WILL MOVE AWAY FROM.....ITS...NORTH= Sour __ ORIENTATION... (LEAVE THE _WiRE. CONNECTED... FOR..ONLY._ AN ISSTANT...TO_ PREVENT... THE..CELL. FROM. OVERHEATING!) THE PHYSICAL (OR MECHANICAL) = z MAGNETIC _ a __|comeass._NEEOLE_IN.A__MAGNETL [oF __curRENT __FLowin 6. iz JS._.THE._BASIS..OF | WiR. THIS. THE MOVING..COle CURRENT METER USED.IN..THE. ANALOG MUCTIMETER.. {TO PROVIDE. HIGH... SENSITIVITY, THE. IWIRE_IS..WRAPPED.AS..A COIL,DIRECT. CURRENT ELECTRICITY a NT a OF TWO PLONS. THROUGH 16 IT. FLOW NL ———_PNLY__ONE DIRECTION, WHETHER STEADILY OR IN PULSES, ——_}IT'S_cAUED_DIRECT CURRENT (oc). IT's IMPORTANT ro ——_—_}8£__-ABLE.__ID SPECIFY THE QUANTITY AND. POWER OF A ——___{DIRECT._CURRENT, WERE. ARE THE KEY TERMS + —_|O current (nr) = “current is THE QuaNTITY oF ELecTRONS PASSING. A GIVEN POINT. THE _UsNT. OF CURRENT is orHE ——_—AMPERE. __ONE _AMPERE 1S 6,280,000, 000,000, 000, 000 (o28-%10'%) SiecTRONS PASSING A’ POINT IN ONE SECOND. Ce VOLTAGE CV og E) == VOLTAGE 1S EcecTRicaL PRESSURE oR JFORCE. VOLTAGE. 1S SOMETIMES REFERRED To AS. POTENT I Ab. [THE TWO ENDS Of A CONDUCTOR. THROUGH WHICH CURRENT 1S FLOWING, -1SCALLED POWER. THE UNIT of PowEeR IS THE WATE. THE PoweR OF A DIRECT CURRENT ISIS VOLTAGE PrIMES ITS CURRENT, eee ESIST.TO. SOME DEGREE THE FLOW_OF. JNIT..OF RESISTANCE 1S THE OHM (2). DIEFERENCE OF ONE VOLT WILL FoRce. A CURRENT. OF ONE. AMPERETNAOUGH A RESISTANCE OF ONE OHM. THE RESIS=_ ANCE OF A. CONDUCTOR IS ITS. VOLTAGE DROP. DIVIDED BY AIK. CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH THE CONDUCTOR. N_PIsumminG.up—= THis 1s TAE_"WATER ANALOGY" + LATERL USING. TRICITY. 3: _|CONNECTED ae TALS | QUuALIEIEs. DICTIONARY. LGM. ONE. ERY» AN ay WILL BECOME A._MAGNET WNTH THE POWER. SOME. MAGNETISM.) DIRECT CURRENT THERE ARE SO MANY USES _FOR._QIRECT. CURRENT NOSINGLE._ROOK GAN DESC RIRE. z HERE'S. A PAGE OF SEVERAL DESIGNED... AROUND. A_ SINGLE... ——|wige cars. __../EASIAY.. MAKE.FROM._A In¥a 7. B=INCH._SECTION OF __A_ SODA... AT__LEAST....30> FEST oF AUse LACQUER — COATED WIRE... —— You. CAM. STRAW (iT BATTERY CONTACTS. ELE GAN. UNDER... a ALUMINUM. Fo! ASSIGNMENT EXPLAIN. IN. 2S_ WORDS OR LESS. How. THIS THING ACTUALLY. WORKS.MAKING... DIRECT. CURRENT ELECTRICITY. A SURPRISING. NUMGER OF... WAYS. EXIST FOR PRODUCING DIRECT. CURRENT... _HERE...ARE. THE SIGGIES. OC CHEMICAL... GENERATORS. SOLUTION S___THAT_CONTAIN.....MANYJONS FOR. EXAMPLE, DISSOLVE. TABLE SALT.IN WATER AND THE SALT wit BREAK DOWN... INTO. POSITIVE... SoDlUM..IONS.. AND... NEGATIVE CHLORINE IONS. 1F_TWO..DISSIMUAR.. METAL PLATES. ARE IMMERSED INTHE SALT. SOLUTION, THE POSITIVE .LONS. TowarRo. ONE. PLATE _AND..THE NEGATIVE. GRATE TOWARO..THE_oTHER.._IE CONNECTED... TOGE THER BY A ComducTOR, A CURRENT Witt. FLOW... THROUGH__..THE__. SOLUTION. (ASJONS). THE... CONDUCTOR. CAS. ELECTRONS). GENERATOR. 1S CALLED... A .WEX cede. ces THE. ELECTROLYTE 1S. ABSORBED..BYPAPER.OR FORMED INTO. A PASTE ARE CALLED....ORY... CELLS, MERE ARE SOME CHEMICAL... GENERATORS. YOU. CAN MARE. HAVE euwy. COPPER. = FOUt 08 — Pe__oARo Mee ZING OR MAGwEsIUM* “= copren.. ro * i Sact paper ( Paper |OK..TO...DRY. TOWEL +. SALT. WATER) PAPER. AND ACTIVATE WITH WATER wu. CONNECT Two ORE CELLS IN ERIES TO. FORM A BATTERY. WITH LIAGE EQUAL TO. SUM. OF. CELL. VOLTAGES. 16|THE... com_TO_. DESIGNED. | A___SMALL___D@___MoToR, ——|wie.._B& PRODUCED | WRAPPED | STEEL ——_| HEATED _By. MATCH. TUNeT on s_. ——_| Gom.sTAN TAN PRODI |C]_ ELECTROMAGNETIC THROUGH. A. CONDUCTOR -FIELD._ AROUND. | Bor WAYS. So. ComoveroR WHICH. LELELD.....YOU..CAN, | ELECTROMAGNETIC __ GENERATION WITH loo _oF.. WIRE __AND A SMALL. MAGNET... (THE Cole SHOWN. ON PAGE 15 works LFINE.) CONN Ecr.. JTHE LEADS A METER _ \TO__SENs: : MICROAMPE RES. INSERT. A STEEL NA z THROUGA..THE._¢otd. eee = [AND STROKE..THE... HAGNET....... BACK. AND. FORTH. ACROSS... THE THE METER Widé..._ INDICATE... FEW..MICRO AMPERES THE... POLARITY... (DIRECTION) OF .THE...CURRENT. BACK... STROKES... WANT... MADE GENERATOR? SUST._ROTATE...THE _SHAET OF “Plastic. STRAW |MOST SUCH. MOTORS. _ DISSIMILAR CURRENT. wiRe AROUND....THE ENDO A. Nfld... Witt... GENERATE... FEw. THOUSAND THS. OF... A VOLT... WHEN. THE. FLAME. OF A... (KE. 1 ROM AND. SE. MUCH. HIGHER_BACK.AT. THE "GEwERaToR ” MAGNET. 1S. STROKED. }COIL,.... ELECTRONS IN. TH DIRECTION... AND A |THE... BACKSTROKE, AWAY FROM._THE COIL, Flow. 1s. STROKED _-HOME! ON __THE. INLE, ~BACK __AND- CORRENT._WHIGH. ALTERN IS___PRODUCED._ ALTERNATIN. ROTATING. CURRENT. CAC). Ao IN A OUTPUT ROTATING Cold MO SINE WAVE. MeAsuREMEN: AC VoLTAGE__is..usuALLY._ -|SPECIELEO AT OA vAcue EQUAL. ALTERNATING CURRENT_.ELECTRICITY PRECEEDING, IN_ reer —THE. REVERSED, THEREFORE + ORTH. “ALONG. it’s ¢ALCED. AN TO.THE._O¢ _vorAce._. MADE COLAND. PAGE... ONE... DIRECTION. WIRE BRE MOVED IN. ONE GURRENT IS. PRODUCED. ON SS__THE___ MAGNET__1S_ DIRECTION...OF. IF THE TH Colby A. IN)... DIRECTION...OR. ALTERNATING. CURRENT. JS...USUALLY PRODUCED BY. MAGNETIC. FIELO, MAGNET WHEN THE —ALOWG.THE E ATES. TALS S.A. (518 WAVE. L 1 VouTAGE r i L 1 t + 90° 180°. AG... SINE. WAVE VOLTAGE. VOLTAGE... PEAK RMS. = —}CAPARCE. OF. DOIN.G_._THE. SAME. WORK... FOR. A. SINE, WAVE THIS. VALUE. 1S. 0.707. TIMES. — THE PEAK. VoLTAGE...IT's. a Hate eacceo... THE _RMS..CROOT > MEAN.= SQUARE) VOCTAGE.. THE PEAK = —_ VOMTAGE. (OR CURRENT). JS..1.41 TIMES. THE. RMS. VALVE. - {HOUSEHOLD LINE. VOLTAGE... IS SPECIFIED ACCORDING. TO... 1TS_. RMS... VALUE...THEREFORE.,.. A HOUSEHOLD... VOLTAGE..OF120-VTS CORRES PONDS...TD.A. PEAK. VOLTAGE..OF...120..& 4.41. OR Io4.2- VETS. a OWHY.AC_iS USED — ACIS ZETTER SUITED. THAN_DC FOR. {TRANS MISSION WIRE CARRYING. -|WIRE. THIS 1S 18 THROUGH... AC will, THE PRINGIELE. Lo. inoue NG..DISTANCE. POWER. _LIWES. A. CE... A. CURRENT.._IN _A__NEARBY BEHIND THE. TRANS FORMER...__ [MEASURING AC. AND DC Ov... CAN... EASILY. _ -MEASURE...AC AND. DC. _ MOLTAGE...AND. CURRENT. WITH. AN. INSTRUMENT. ~~ CALLED THE MULTIMETER. = ANALOG. MUCTIMETERS cee coon USER MOVING... COIL : ; WL METER... DIGITAL..MuETIn e MErERs...HAVE.AvigiTAL.|& £ = —REAQOUT,..THE _MULTIMETER, |e S. g [8.8 SiNéLe Most io ° A) IMPORTAMT... ELECTRON IS, © a _ TEST... INSTRUMENT. —-[C_ANALOG.MULTIMETER —.. D_DIGITAL... MULTIMETER — LESS. EXPENSIVE, SOMEWHAT. HIGHLY. ACCURATE... AND. LESS... PRECISE. THAN....DIG/TAL, EASIER....TD.. READ. THAN. TYPES. BEST.._BY..FAR.. FOR. ANALOG... TYPES. BEST. FOR ——-LOBSERYIN.G....THE.TRENE.OF..A. FINDING... THE... PRECISE. VAWE | SLOWLY... CHANGING... VOLTAGE gon OF A VOLTAGE 4... CURRENT. QURREWT.OR..RESISTAN CE. vn OR... RESIS TANCE, Ica. NG UP... MULTIMETERS. — THEY'RE INDISPENSABLE | EVEN IF You. HAVE..ONLY...A... PASSING INTEREST. You... SHOULD COMSIDER BUYING. ONE... BECAUSE. IT HAS... MANY USES. in. te Home, 0n HE SOB. AND... WEA. WORKING WITH. APPLIANCES, | Ans MOTOR... VEHICLES... IF... YOURE... SERIOUS... ABOUT ELE CTROMICS, ONSIDER...... BUYING.....A. QUALITY... HIGH TPE DANCE MULTIMETER. THAT WILE. HAVE AITTLE.. OR, NO. EFFECT ON THE... DEVICE...oR. | CIR QUIT. You RE... MEASURING. IDEAUY,. YOU. SHOULD HAVE. GOTH. |THE. AMA LOG. AMD O1GITAL.. TYRES. eee ECTRICAL SAFETY = GAN Kibel IF, You ~|Want.To 22. AROUND. LONG [ENOUGH TD... ENIDY...EXPERL = MENTING... WITH..ELECTROMCS, ~TREAT.._ ELECTRICITY. THE._RESPECT iT. WE'LL LOOK. AGAIN. LATER. Se Face Nu of rN FORMER EXPERIMENTERELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AN _ECECTRicac. cI RCUUT 1S. ANY ARRANGE MENTTHAT PERMITS _ JAN ELECTRICAL..CURRENT..TO. FLOW... A CIRCUIT. CAN. BE AS SIMPLE. AS...A_ BATTERY. CONNECTED.TO.A LAMP OR : AS _COMPLICATED....AS.A.DIG/TAL.....COMPUTER. QA BASIC... CIRCUIT =. mis BASIC. CIRCUIT... CONSISTS OF A... SOURCE... OF ELECTRICAL CURRENT. (A_BATTERY),A.LAMP_AND... TWO CONNECTION. WIRES. THE PART OFA.CIRCUIT..WHICH PERFORMS -WORK.1S CALLED. THE. LOAD. HERE. THE LOAD. 18 THE. LAMP. —AN..oTHER _CiRCUIT S... THE LOAD. CAN..6E..A. MOTOR,..A.. HEATING. ----ELEMENT.,... AN. ELECTROMAGNET, ETC. i IO.A..SERIES CIRCUIT =A. ciReuIT...MAY.INCLUDE. MORE oT ARM..ONE.... COMPONENT. — CSWATCH,.LAMP,. MOTOR, ETC). AW SERIES CiRculT 1S. FORMED. WHEN CURRENT. FLOWING. THROUGH... ONE... COMPONENT. FIRST... FLOWS. THROUGH. ANOTHER. (ARROWS. SHow. is DIRECTION..OF ELECTRON. FLOW.) PARALLEL CiRcuIT. IS FORMED WHEN. TWO OR. More COMPONENTS..ARE. CON NECTED... $0. CURRENT. CAN..FLOW. THROUGH. ONE... COMPONENT. WITH= OUT. RAMINGQFIRST TDF LOML..TH.RO.UGH ANOTHER. [QA SERIES = CARAMEL. cincuT — MANY. evectRicAL = nate CIRCUITS. acer BoTH SERIES ANDPARALLEL, Ale. Proving... ComeLere PAT SE TWEEN._THe C1REUIT_AND. 17: PoweR SUPPLY,Dcigcuit_DIAGRAMS =. THUS FAR THE. ELECTRICAL. cIRCWITS. | SHOWA is THIS 800K... HAVE... BEEN ILLUSTRATED IN PICTORIAL. [FORM. PICTORIAL... VERSIONS..OF..CIRCWIT S Wikh. BE USED INTHE. NEXT... SEVERAL CHAPTERS. AS WELL. __ LATER IN IRE BOOK... THE. PICTORIALS.._wied..._ BE _REPLACED..BY CIRCUIT. IDAGLAMS. IN. A. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM PICTORIAL VIEWS..OF- COMPONENTS ARE REMACED BY COMPONENT... SYMBOLS... SERIES PARALLEL. cigcur WIRE... OR... OTHER ~-CONNECTIONS.OF._A EvecreicaL | CONDUCTOR 1S. —-|COMPONENT.».... SURRENT INTHE. 1 feiRcuir.._May. SHOR’ THROUGH THE CONDUCTOR. swear! ciacwts. This. ARE USUALLY. UNDE SIRABLE [AT BEST... THEY CAUSE... BATTERIES TO. RAPIDLY. ose. THEIR _AND.....THEY._CAN).CAUSE... DAMAGE, TO__WIRING.. ow COMPONENT. S....'SHORT" CIRCUITS... CAN. [EvEN Cause. ENOUGA.HEAT...TO._16NiTE THE. INSULATION. on. A wire! CAUTION: THE HUMAN. Boby.CONDUCTS i ELECTRICITY... THERE FORE... CARELESSLY.... TOUCHING... AN. {ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT... MAY... CAUSE MSHORT. CIRCUIT... - [Lee voLTAGE AND. CURRENT.._ARE HIGH. ENOUGH... YOU. - MAY. RECEIVE A. DANGEROUS...OR EVEN LETHAL. SHOCK. ELECTRICAL ROUND. ONE OF THE .WIRES.Of THE. - -—}KCINE 1S. CONNECTED 1D. 2ARTH.@Y..A._METAL...R0D..... METAL __ENCLOSURES._OF._ ELECTRICALLY PowERED._DEVICES ARE. CONNECTED. ——-}IDTHIS GROUND WIRE. THIS _PREVENTS...A... SHOCK HAZARD. SHOULD. —[a_mon=6 ROUNDED. WIRE _MAKE..CONTACT_WITH..THE. METAL. ENCLOSURE. hwtHour.. THE GROUNO CONNECTION, A PERSON. TOUCHING. .THE DEVICE. RA_WET... FLOOR... MIGHT. ——|WHILE_STANDING ON THE _GRoUN! ——RECEWE A. DANGEROUS SHOCK. —-GRound. Also REFERS TD THE ———-|POINT._IN_A_CIRCUIT._AT._ZE8.2 SF VOLTAGE, WHETHER OR. THIS1S. GROUND -CONMECTED To.GROUND. (O-vours)_. wit RESPECT.TO INSTANCE, THE MINUS. a SIDE__DE_THE BATTERY ——HN_THE..CiRcUITS ABOVE AND ——[on._THE._PRECEEDING._PAGE. 4\V2.V_ANo.= Seu. a SyMeou, i tTPULSES , WAVES, SIGNALS AND NOISE. ELECTRONICS Is. THE STUDY AND _APAICATION. Of ELECTRON THEIR BEHAVIOUR....AWD. THEIR. EFFECTS. THE simplest AP-” PLICATIONS... FOR. ELECTRONS ARE... STRAIGHT.EORWARD. AC AnD DC. gIRGWITS IN WHICH A CURRENT. IS useD 1D... Power LAMPS... ELECTROMAGNETS,.... MOTORS. SOLENOIDS... ANP. SIAR DEVICES... WHAT _TARES... ELECTRONICS FAR. BEYOND THESE BASIC... APPLICATIONS. IS..THE._ EASE. wiTA._wHicH... STREAMS OF... ELECTRONS... CAN... BE CONTROLLED ANID... MANIPULATED, THIS. SIMPLE.CiReuIT....15... REALLY. MORE... USEFUL THAN IT F1@ST. APPEARS. BECAUSE..ITCAA__SEND.INEORMATION BY. VERTING A PLANNED... SEQUENCE._.OF.. SWITCH. FLASHES....OF LIGHT... THE FLASHES OFTHE LAMP PATIERNS..OF.FLASHES..oR pULsES. COMPLEX... INFORMATION..LIKE. SPEECA.” OR SPEECH CAN BE TRANS= FORMED INTO. PROPORTIONAL. VARIATION S..IN.THE BRIGHTNESS OF A LAMP... HERE'S... A... SIMPLE._WAY TO SEMD. VO/CE OVER A BEAM OF. REFLECTED... LIGHT: “atop oe ‘weal (3 ae CAN. “Nave SIGNAL 22I). PULSES — A_ Pulse is. A Suppen, BRIE! [DECREASE Inf. CURRENT Frou }w.ducD. HAVE._AN INSTANTANEOUS. RISE AN O_ |REAC PULSES... ARE THPICAL, I. waves — A. wave. A_P2R10010. FLUCTUATION A. CURRENT. oR. VOLTAGE». WAVES MAY HAVE A ‘SM. GLE. | Powakity..¢ De) OR... BOTH. POSITIVE._AND.. NEGATIVE. COMPOME: E THERE ARE MANY KIS. OF __WAVES.... HERE ARE _ CONVEYS. INFORMATION... | WAVEFORM. 1S CALLED. MODULATIONS OR AC RIDING ON A. DG.CEVEL. THEIR ENEMY...15. ALL ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND ce Isrsane,.Renoor | CURRENTS... WHEN THESE... CURRENTS. |ARE UNWANTED... ALLEO..NOISE. NOISE CAN. ALSO. ENTER ELECTRONIC. C1RCUITS .BY..NEAMS of THE ELECTROMAGNETIC. L WAVES AvTOMmOBLE _IGNLTION...SYSTEMS, ELECTRIC... Mor oo OSE MAY... HAVE. |B. LEVEL..0f ONLY.A FEW. MILliC 8. VOLT.0R_AMPERE y IT_MAY.. EASILY... OBSCURE AN EQUALLY. Low) LEVEL SIGNAL...2. ELECTRONIC...COMPONENTS DOZEN S...OF.. DIFFERENT... FAMILIES OF PARTS. AND COMPONENTS BLOCK, CARRY, CONTROL, SELECT 4... STEER, — SWITCH... STORE....._MANIPULATE 4. REPLICATE... MODULATE AND... ExPlorT AN... ELECTRICAL. CURRENT... THOSE._THAT USE. SEMICONDUCTING...CRYSTALS_ARE.. SO... IMPORTANT. WE'LL DEVOTE..... AN. ENTIRE. CHAPTER. TO. THEM. You'tL. FIND. Tost... ABOUT Abb... THE... REMAINING PARTS YOU... SHOULD. KNOW. ABOUT IN. TALS... CHAPTER. WIRE. AND CABLE. USED... TO_CARRY__ ELECTRICAL. CuRRE: AS, MACE FROM._A__ Low RESISTANCE. ETAL... LIKE. [coprer. SOLO. WIRE IS. A SINGLE... CONDUCTOR, : STRANDED. WIRE IS. TWO..OR._MORE_. TWISTED... OR... RAIDED BARE __CoNOUCTORS... MOST..WIRE...1S_ PROTECTED. .B INSULATING... COVERING....OF PLASTIC, RUBBER OR LACQUER. WIRE WHICH. HAS..BEENTINWED.../S.. EASIER... TD... SOLDER. SPECIFICATIONS FOR BARE COPPER WIRE. GAUGE | DIAMETER CincHes)| Soup ea ; A te | JACKET. 18. 20 22. STRANDED. 24. 26 28 — BO. CARES. HAVE ONE. OR MORE CONDUCTORS. AND. MORE. J! SULATION. THAN. ORDINARY. WIRE... COAXIAL CABLE CAN CARRY... HIGH. FREQUENCY... SIGNALS C LIKE TELE VISION) CAUTION! ALWAYS USE. WIRE RATED... FOR. THE. CURRENT. = ITS. TO.. CARRY. LFA WIRES MOT....TD.... THE... TOUCH Be IT?S. CARRYING. TRO__MUGH. CURRENT..._USE. A HEAVIER GAUGE... WIRE. OR REDUCE. THE: CURRENT»... OTHERWISE 01. gfe bh 46 Cony (as ia AS IE 24 citiSWITCHES MECHANICAL SWITCHES PERMIT _OR _/NTERRUPT_THE _FLow..OF. CURRENT. __THEY.ARE ALSO. USED. TR. DIRECT... CURRENT. z ——}TR__VAR tous PoInTS. SIC KNIFE SWITCH. — THE SIMMEST SWITCH... MARIOUS. Swatch 7 SYMBOLS... ee WALLED...AM.... SPST..CSINGLE~POLE,.. SINGLE = THROW) SWITCH. DLMUCTIPLE. CONTACT. SWITCHES — HERE ARE SymsoLs FOR THE... MATOR. KIND St POT = oe -SPDT.=. SINGLE POLe,.DOUBLE = THREW. (THE DASHED 4/NE. MEANS. DOST — DOUBLE-POLE,. SINGLE=THROW. BOTH... SIDES... Move... TOGETHER)... POT. DOUBLE ~ POLE, PoUBLE ~THROW. SWITCHES — Comer. _ PUSHBUT-TON)....USUALLY. SPST, NORMALLY. OPEN (NO) OR NORMALLY. -GLOSED..CNC) a ee Tab AO ROADRB. iu No- —o o— ne ale ROTARY, WAFER LIKE. Wi7i__ ONE POLE... AND... 2.OR MORE CONTACTS. WAFERS... CAN... BE... STACKED... TD... PROVIDE... PORE —POLES.___MAMY...VARLATIONS....... ARE... POSSIBLE. MERCURY. MERCURY... BLOG. CLOSES. SWITCH, POSITION... SENSITIVE. OTHER.....MANY KINDS OF. TOGGLE, ROCKER, LEVER, SLIDE, PUSH=ON/. PUSH=.OFF.4 ILLUMINATED...AND. OTHER. SWITCHES ARE AVAILARCE. Z - _ 25|RELAYS A RELAY 1S__AN ELECTROMAGNETIC SWITCH, _A SMALL CURRENT. FLOWING THROUGH CREATES. _-MAGNETIC__FIELD CONTACT. AGAINST oR THAT PULLS _ONE__swiTcH AWAY._FROM ANOTHER. MOVABLE... CONTACT. <——ReTuRN. sPRing ceEAD OF_.CON.TACTS CAN. DPST.,.DPRT._ AND. OTHER SwiTCH. EGAY.. SYM 60L — THE... ARRANGE/EN: - PRoviog.__SPST.,.._SPDT, OPERATIONS. THIS._1S. THE S¥s606. FORA. RELAY..WITH.. COwTACTS. ENCLOSED G4ASS_.TUBE CLOSELY. SPACED SWITCH. COM TACT: A_..MAGNET IC. [THe col. THIS. ISTHE PRineipee JOE THE MOVING Col. METER.[of THE FOLLow ING MEANS 2. EAKERS SOUND. WAVE... VARIATION,S....INTO WAN... ELECTRICAL CURRENT, ARE FIRST CONVERTED. OFA FLEXIBLE. FILM. THESE...... MOVEMENTS....THEN ELECTRICAL CURRENT....6Y__ANY DIAPHRAGM. CHANGES THE PRESSURE. OF CARBON... PARTICLES. THIS... CAUSES. INTHE RESISTANCE. OF THE CAP SUE. [APPLIED 1D A CAPSULE. 1S MOVEO. THROUGH A. MAGNETIC THIS. CAUSES....A QURRENT...10. GE GENERATED. CO CoNDENSER— THE MavIANG DIAPHRAGM ALTERS _THE._DISTANICE |SETWEEN TWO METAL PLATES. THE RESULT.IS..A. PROPOR [TIONAL __CHANGE INTHE CAPA@ITANCE._OF THE PLATES. |. CRYSTAL — A WAFER OF PIEZOELECTRIC. MATERIAL (wMICH. PRODUCES. |AVOLTAGE.. WHEN... BENT__BY THE. PRESSURE Ce SOUND. WAVES). FORMS. THE .DIAPARAGM...OR 1S MECHANICALLY. LINKED. tO. THE DIAPHRAGM. _|K SPEAKER ConVERTS VARIATIONS INA CURRENT oR —|MOLTAGE iavep. SOUND. WAVES... THE. TULO. MOST. COMMON SPEAKERS ARE + [A MAGNETIC — SIMILAR. IN PRINCIPLE TDA OYNAMIC.M/eRO~ HONE.INFACT,.A. MAGNETIC... SPEAKER CAN. BE USED ASA MICROPHONE... EL CRYSTAL — SIMILAR IN PRINCIPLE TOA CRYSTAL MICRO- A__ CRYSTAL SPEAKER CAN. DouBee AS A. MICRO~ ~PLEZ0...cRYSTAL AND SUPPORTS. PAPER. cone Magwer r4 iy MOVING Cold Cvoiee coi) sega # genet MAGNETIC DIAPHRAGM __ SPEAKER 27 aoe eet 4 4[RESISTANCE CAN 8 CHANGED FROM ONE RESISTOR [TO THE NExT simpy BY CHANGING THE RATIO. [CARBON PARTICLES TD BINDER... MORE _caggon _GLVES. LESS RESISTANCE. YOURSELE RESISTORS. ALINE WITH A SOE 7 24,800, 000,” -5,Hb0, 000 OHM. 7 DoRESISTOR THEYRE KIND OF. PRETTY. MORE IMPORTANT. PURPOSE _ANQICATE...THE, | RESISTANCE OF. THE. RESISTOR. THEY. DECORATE... | HeRe’s Row + -COLOR code BANDS aes ee 3B (Monee) NOE _Somerines _ 20 nf THERE'S... FOURTH 100. }GAND. 4,000. 40,000. 100,000... ony 002,, 000. vul01000,.000. 102,090,000. (woe) Be. 2. 4. 2 3 ~ose LROKS COMPLICATED. THE FIRST TIM. LEARN. How. TO. USE IT. RESISTANCE OF A | VioleT_Ano_.RED ? FOR. EXAMPLE. 5... WHAT'S... THE, RESISTOR. COLOR. COPED. YELLOW... YEtbow..IS THE. FIRST... COLOR. SO. [5 As. VIOCET..S... THE. SECOND SECOND....UMBER 1ST. SINcé THE. RED). THE. MULTIPLIER IS ___1OO_« RESISTANCE. IS. 2%. 100... OR, CoLoR....BANO.. MEANS... THE. Is___4701 20 Ge 20% OF. THEREFORE, THE ACTUAL VALUE.IS. AND... 5440. OKMAS.. ACTUAL 4200 ETWEEN O SUBSTITUTING... RESISTORS —.WHAT.IF.You...NEED.. A. 46700 0HM... RESISTOR...6UT._CAN._ ONLY _FIND...A.GB00>.OKM You....CAN,..ALMOST. ALWAYS USE__ANY VALUE. WITHIN. : 20%._OF. THE REQUIRED... VALUE... S__GO._ AHEAD. AND. USE IT. _IE._B. PARTICULAR... CIRCUIT... RE.QUIRES...MORE ACCURACY. IT_Wwikh TELL You. .OF Cours... YOU... CAN... Bulk D._UP__CUSTOM. LRESISTANCES. ONNECTING..TWD.OR.MORE._ RESISTOR S. IN. SERIES 1 PARALLEL. MORE ABout. THAT LATER. iz Sees|G RESISTOR TION. PRECAUT! RESISTORS... THAT | CONDUCT... COTS...OF. IT__.CAN...BECOME..VERY HOT! [THERE PORE, ALWAYS USE RESISTORS HAVING THE PROPER... POWER... RATING... IE....A.PROTEST. YOU'RE BUILDING... DORSN'T..._SPECIEY... POWER... RATING EP Ac AUB UALLY.. OK. TO. USE V4 OR MR WATT. URUIT S 4 eee reece DESIGNATED... WITH. AK. ORM SUFFIX. LIKE 47K OR 10.M...K. MEANS. KILO, AFTER. THE GREEK WORD FOR ----} 1,000.4... THEREFORE, 47K MEANS. 42x 1,000. oR 47,000. | MIS. SHORT. FOR._.MEGOHM.OR.1,.000,.000.. OHMS... aes | THEREFORE. A_1m__ RESISTOR. HAS. A RESISTANCE OF _ 1X 1,000,000 oR 1,000, 000. OHMS... SUMMING UP 4. k= * 1,000 (47K = 47 1,000 = 47,000 on1mS) eee M=.% 1,000,000 (2.2 = 2.2 ¥ 1,000,000 = 2,200,000 OHMS) [OU OTHER KINDS. OF RES!STORS. —.. THE. CARBON. COMPOS IT.LON. RESISTOR. ISONLY. ONE..OF. SEVERAL MATOR. KANDS. OF. RESISTORS. HERE. ARE OTHERS +. METAL FILM. RESISTORS. VARIouS.... KINDS. CE RESISTORS VTHAT.USE A THINF/LM OF METAL oR A ETAL PARTICLE. MIXTURE TO ACHIEVE. VARIOUS. RESISTANCES. CARBON. Fim RESISTORS... THESE ARE MADE BY. DEPOSITING A CARBON.FILM..ON...A SMALL CER, A_.SPIRAL. GROQVE....CUT._INTO...THE a THECENGTA..OF. CARSON BETWEEN.THE __ LEADS... HENCE... THE RESISTANCE... WIRE. WOUND... RESISTORS... THESE... CONSIST._OF___A _ TUBULAR... FoR... WRAPPED... wT... COILS... OF. RESISTANCE WIRE... THEY. ARE very ACCURATE. -LOTS..OF. MEAT. ALSO..CALLED_.PHOTOCELLS.. FROM. ALIGHT. SENSITIVE... MATERIAL. LIKE. CADMIUM. ULFIPE....._INCREASING..THE... LIGHT LEVEL DECREASES. THE. RESISTANCE... MORE_.AgouT...THIS CATER. ____ PROTARESISTORS.. SHERMISTORS...THIS 1S A TEMPERATURE SENSITIVE RESISTOR. INCREASING THE TEMPERATURE. DECREASES RESISTANCE (in MosT CASES).10. VAR\ASLE RESISTORS — OFTEN _IT's__NECESSARY. _OF...A__RESISTOR. VARIABLE. 2OTENTIOMETERS, THEY _ ARE. VOLUME..OF A RADIO. CHANGE. Bb LAMP» _ADIUST._THE CALIBRATION. ARE __POTENTIOMETERS passe THUMBWHEEL OR A. SLOT. Ltt | }-EQwiPPEO With. | €OR A. SCREWDRWER BLADE, THEY ARE | OCCASIONAL... ADTUST MENT, [me oy _sesistance is | SIME. THE SUM OF THE. | INDIVIDUAL RESISTANCES.AGT OS eee eee THERE ARE MA) ALLO... THE. SAME. {Simplest __CAPAeTOR.__IS___TWo._ CONDUCTOR: | BY__AN__INSWATING MATERIAL CALLED SEPARATED. DIELECTRIC. THE DIELECTRIC. Can BE PAPER, PLASTIC. FILM, MICA, GLASS, CERAMIC, .AIR..OR. A VACUUM. THE PLATES CAN BE. Aluminum... DISCS, ALUmumuM. FOIL OR A THAD FILM. OF... METAL... APPLIED... OPPOSITE... SIDES _.OF A S04/D____ DIELECTRIC... THE. CONDUCTOR = DIELECTRIC — CondueTOR SANDWIA. CAM..BE..ROLLEO. ITD A OYLIAIDER.....OR.... LEFT... FLAT... MORE. ABOUT... TYPES OF CAPACITORS. LATER. How TO MAKE A Capac iToR a NOU...CAN.. MAKE... A__CAPAC\TOR... FROM _TWO__SHEETS___OF__ ALUMINUM... Poll. AND. ONE. SHEET.OF WAXED. PAPER. FOLD. TAE..PAPER.... AROUND....ONE. FOIL. SHEET... AND... STACK THE SHEETS | UKE TALS. _ - - THEN... FOLO... THE SHEETS VF, — so.ne A fe Foe PAPER ~ PER... I BE SURE. THE FOIL SHEETS....DON'T.roucu!| __ PRESS me COonTACTS OF A 9- VoLr @ATTERY BRIEFLY. TO THE. ExPosen ENDS. OFTHE. Fou SHEETS. _THEA__} {TOUCH THE... PROBES... OF A HIGH. MULTIMETER. TO... THE. FOIL. SHEETS. WILL INDICATE A SMALL. VOLTAGE SECONDS.DO CHARGING...A. CAPACITOR — THE. MINUS... SIDE_oF. OUR HOMEMADE... CAPACITOR, 13. CHARGER. .WITH... ELECTRONS ALMOST IMMEDIATELY. SINCE. RESISTORS, — Limit. CURRENT __ YOU.AN... SLOW... DOWN. THE... .CHARGING... TIME. BY. PLAC= HIG. A. RESISTOR BETWEEN... THE .CAPACITOR... AND TRE...A-VoeT... BATTERY i ® HERE'S A 8 = 5 vours GRAPH OF THE g z C. CHARGING TIME: 5 TIME. FLDISCHARGING. A. CAPACITOR ——. THE ELECTRONS.IN A CHARGED. CAPACITOR... WILL... GRADUALLY... LEAK... TAROUGEL THE DIELECTRIC. UNTIC, 0TH. PLATES, HAVE AN. EQuAL CHARGE, THE. CAPACITOR. IS... THEN... DISCHARGED. THE CAPACATOR. CAN... GE DISCHARGED. VERY. QUIcKLY_BY.CON = NECTING ITS. PLATES... TOGETHER. OR IT. CAN. BE [DISCHARGED MORE... SLOWLY. By. CONNECTING A RESISTOR... ACROSS..IT_2 HERE'S. A % GRAPH OF THE = a DISCHARGE TIME: & ohne (DO SPECIFYING CAPACITORS— THE AgiLiTY.. TD STORE, JELECTRONS IS KNown AS CAPACITANCE .. CAPACITANCE. IS. SPECIFIED IN FARADS .. A_4-FARAD. CAPACITOR CONNECTED. bE dee WOOT... su SUPAY WILL. STORE.....@, 280,000, 000, 000, 000, 000....(@.28*10'%), ELECTRONS.!...MOST...CAPACITORS HAVE... MUCH... SMALLER. VALUES. SMALL... CAPACITORS... ARE _SPECIFLED...IN...PICOFARADS. .CTRILLIOMITHS. OFA... FARAD). AND... LARGER..CAPACITORS... ARE... SPECIFIED. IN. MIGROPARADS...MILLIONTHS..OF... A. FARAD).. SUMMING...UP: d= Farap_= 16 L=.MicRoFARAD. Lak= 10% 0.000.004 F. 1- PICOFARAD F_=..0.. 000.000.000.001 F b >> a QO SUBSTITUTING CAPACITORS — THE. CAPACITANCE. SPECIFIED. FoR MosT.....CAPACITORS.... .MAY..@EFRom..5 TD. 100..%.. AWAY. FROMTHE. ACTUAL... VALUE... THEREFORE... YOU... CAN... OFTEN... SUBSTITUTE CLOSE... VALUES... FOR..A..... SPECIE IED... VALUE... GE. SvRE_, However. , TR..USB. A CAPACITOR. RATED. AT THE EXPECTED MAXIMUM vouTAce.. Levert!AUTION S —— You MusT THECAPAGITOR You... Putas TD. EXCEEDS THE __ REQUIRED _ OTHERWISE _ITS__DIECECTRIC_ @y..THE STORED. CHARGE. VDLTAGE..RATING..1S_ USUALLY _ PRINTED ON. THE CAPACITOR, _V_.MEANS..VOLTS.. WY 1S. WORKING. VOLT SC SAME..THING) DAPAC ITORS. — CapaciTORS._AREOFTEN LABELED __ Te. THER DIELECTRIC. THus..YouLe... SEE | REeEReNces.To.... CERAMIC, MICA... POLYSTYRENE AND... MANY... OTHERS. ALL. THESE... ARE. FIXED. VALUE CAPACITORS. [Sone _.CafaciTors......HAVE..A_ VARIAELE..... CARAS ITY AMD. A~-SPECIAL_CLASS......OF.... FIXED CAPACITORS... HAS PUCK MORE...CAPAC ITY... THAN... OTHER... CAPACITORS.» HERE'S _f10RE : www VARIABLE .CAPACITORS THESE... USUALLY. NOM = MOVING... PLATES. ANO.....ONE....OR THE... CAPACITANCE... 1S__ CHANGED BY... —AFEIXED....TD....ONE SID OF THE - MOUAGLE 7 AW. PLATES... Fixeo _-- PLATES. = TERMINALS. THIS... KINDIS...USEQ__TO__ TUNE. THIS... KIMD...1$..USED.....TD.. RADIO. RECEIVERS... AND...TRANS ~ TUNE... OSCILLATORS... LIKE. MITTERS..THE. DIELECTRIC... THOSE. USED.__.IA_ Dlg ITAL IS.USUACLY AIR. ~ WATCHES. ...THEY'RE.. ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS... UNIQUE IN. THAT...A.-THUW.. _ OXIDE... LAYER... FORMEO...ON.... ALUHINUM..OR__ TANTALUM. Folk IS. THE... DIELECTRIC. MUCH... HIGHER... TAAN NON - ELECTROLYT/C..TYPES... HAVE. MORE CAPACLTANCE...PER._.VOLU/E. IPE THAN. ALUMINUM... ELECTROLYTICS. QDST. MORE... MDST_... ELECTROLY TICS ARE. __ THEY MUST... BE CONNECTED_INTO...A CIRQusT. INTHE. PROPER... DIRECTION 1... POSITIVE Le ap._MusT .GQ..70. MOST... POSITIVE. CONNECTION POINT!CAPACLTORS.....CAN... STORE... A_.CHARGE FOR A CONSIDERABLE. TIME. AFTER... THE. POWER TD THEM. HAS... BEEN... SWITCHED... .OFE.. THIS... CHARGE... caN_.BE.. RANGERQUS L.A Laace ELECTROLYTIC... CHARGED. Te ONLY. BOR LO... MOLTS. CAN. MELT THE. TIP ot A SCREWDRIVER. PLACED. ACROSS, ITS... TERMINALS!.HIGH...VOLTAGE... CAPACITORS. LIKE... THOSE... USED..IN.. TELEVISION. SETS. AND... PROTOFLASH. UNITS... CAN... STORE..A. LETHAG. CHARGE |. NEVER TOUCH. THE LEADS”oF _SucH.A CAPACITOR... AT. THE. VERY..._LEAST. THE. TOLT CAN... THROW You. ACROSS... A...@00m | |HOW. CAPACITORS ARE. USED —jOL PARALLEL CIRQUIT — OFTEN... CAPACITORS ARE. CONNESTED...IN._ | PARALLEL LIKE. THIS 5 ISTHE. Sum.0F THE, INDIVID VAL... CAPACI TANCES. | THE TOTAL CAPACITANCE. | Cr SERIES. CIRCUIT — SOMETIMES CAPACITORS. ARE CoN — | NECTED IN. SERIES SKE THIS § TAS TOTAC.. capacitance eS 1S. THE. PRODUCT ...OF THE { CL x ce er —|mwe._CAPaciTAN CES y.8 | Divipge by THEIR. SUM. St ce : THREE...OR MORE. CAPACITORS JN SERIES? HERE?S mE. —[epamvea Bet Ss. irs Veet sescaees ARE SHOWN) NEXT +» (Dane mare = mere are Many omer ways —|caracrtors 4 SOME OF whicjoe _ REASONS... (FILTER). SUPPLY..__INTO | ALTERNATING. corre nT...CAC) SPIRE. MOMENTARILY. | CIRCUITS. BY... PLACING. RESISTOR AND. CAPACITOR... APPLICATIONS ES/STORS AND. CAPACITORS. ARE THE... MANY. ELECTRONIC SIROWITS.«. WAY OR. VICE VERSA... THIS... CAN. CAUSE. VERY. BRIEF. SUBSTANTIAL REQUCTIONS.../N.. POWER. APKLIED_TO... MEARE: THESEPOWER SPIKES. (OR LITOMES 5... AS. THEY... ARE. SOMETLOES. CALLED) CAN BE. BLUMIN ATED. INGREDIENTS. PucsaTINGvoeTace.....ROtH....A... POWER A STEADY... DIRECT CURRENT. ¢.DO).. TAA SE 6 ALTERED... ourpur VOLTAGE a : RECTIFIER (.oRE..cATER) REMOVER =. DIGITAL... LOGIC. CIRCUITS, WHICH _ FIND.OUT....WORE.... ABOUT... CATER, .CAN..USE_.60TS__OF CURRENT _ WHEN... THEY. SWITCH... FROM. OFF__T® _ON__ AL SrA Ath..C.0.4... ME)... CAPACITOR. ACROS. SIGNAL. WILE 1T!S._DARK i je A..CAPAGITOR, COMPLETELY. 36 THE... POWER... LEADS...OF. THE... L0G (0... CIRCUIT + — H ow H i VOLTAGE. + y ¥ WATH.......CRPACITOR. toate. a an circu, CAPACITOR... ACTS. &IKE_MIAMATURE BATTERY...THAT....SUPPLIES POWER OURING THE SPIKE... Cac- 0c “secective FILTER = OFTEN. AN ELECTRICAL — BE. RIDING... ATOP....A.STEADY_._DC__ SIGNAL. FoR... EXAMPLE.,...THE.. SIGNAL.FRoM.._A_ LIGHT WAVE COMMUNICA TION, SYSTEM. MAY. 400K. LIKE THIS. BUT___SUNLIGHT CAUSES. 10 Witt... PASS. THE __ FLUCTUATING... SIGNAL__AND_— BLOCK. THE... STEADY. DG. LEVEL.{OL Re eieoirs = two _cigevits THAT COMBINE A —-RESISTOR...C.R)_ AND _ CAPACITOR (Sc). ARE. VERY JM PoR~ ——{TaNT..___THEY.__ARE THE INTEGRATOR... AND DIFFERENTIATOR. ——|- Bom __THESE _ciReuiTs ARE used AN IN [CALLED me Be Tie ComSTanT. FoR .THE_CLRQUITS. RG TIME CONSTANT.CIN) SECONDS). BETWEEN : SPEEDED.UP, THE WAVEFORMS. COFTEN._ -A__SAW TOOTH) Wilt. NoT___REACH. THEIR Func AMPLITUDE) ....1TS EASY_TD._DESIGN__AN. IGNORES. WAVES.....WNTH LESS THAN AMPLITUDE « THEREFORE, THE INTEGRATOR PASSES._onty_ FREQUENCY. OUT PUT. WAVES. —wWiTHSHARP__PosiTIVE. AND NEGATIVE PEAKS. IT?S. ann GENERATORS. TEU! Vision RECEIVERS Ano TD... TRIGGER. DIGITAL OGIC CiROUITS DLMORE.. ABOUT. R-@ —You..Wike. OFTEN SEE REFERENCES —|TO THE. RO. _ TIME. GONSTANT...0F A CIRCUIT, IT'S THE [TIME IN. SECONDS. FOR A_ CHARGING OR DISCHARGING. CAPASITOR.TD__.GO._THROUGH.63.3% OF THE CHANGE. IN. CHARGE.(CP.1S). CREATES. AN. EVEN... STRONGER FIELD. | Slow SQUARE WAVE — Lous . aie ELECTRONS. MOVING. THROUGH. A WIRE CAUSE. AN ELECTRO MAGNETIC. ElECD TD ENCIRGLE THE. WIRE ASYou..kNow.. FROM... CHAPTER..1,.PASSING.._A CURRENT _ THROUGH. A. .WIRE...THAT'S.... BEEN... WRAPPED... ASA. Cole __ —THIS__FLELD MAKES. POSSIBLE. SOLENOIDS... MOTORS... AND. ELECTROMAGNETS, Cos. HAVE. OTHER. (MPORTANT... ROLES... TOO.4 1. Cows RESIST. APIO. CHANGES....IN. THE..CURRENT... Flow) = ING. THROUGH. THEM WHICE FREELY. PASSING... STEADY. (dC)... CURRENT... HERE. ARE. SOME EXAMPLES +. Signar ts, Low out, — stow sine..waves.S LS IT DNS east sive wave ~ JUV a TOT STN east sauare wave - JUUUVUM We eee SOMETIMES....A... COIL... WILE... ADP... RINGING... D..A. SQUARE... WAVE PASSING... THROUGH IT. THIS... CAN. HAPPEN. WHER THE coon RESISTANCE OF. THE. EXTERNAL... CURRENT... PATH... THAT. CONMERTS. THE. BMDS OF THB COIL IS on HIGH sear wave SUL yy bos i 2. SOME.OF THE. ENERGY.IN THE... FIELD CAN... GE...INDUCED (TRANSFERRED)... INTD. Cole. TALS. IS. THE... PRINCIPLE OF. THE —IMPUT_.. SIDE...OF... THE... TRANSFORMERS CALLER THE. PRIMARY, THE... OUTPUT... SIDE..IS CALLED THE CORN eee SQ 0 -(EL TYPES OF CowS —= THERE ARE MANY DIFFERENT. TYPES._OF COMMS, HERE 7 ~ eM et SELECT A _DSSIRED.SIGNAL. TUNING cols WAVE —4___A__ SERIES. OF. TAPS. Ot A MOVABLE. CORE SO | THEIR... IMRUCTANCE™, HENCE... RESONANT. FREQUENSY, CAN BE. CHANGED. TUNING COL TYPICAL. TUNING. OFTEN _USe__A__BROADLy_ RADIO. SIGNALS. ANTENNA..dIL. RADIOS TUNED. Coil 7D. PICK UP TYPICAL | _._ ANTENNA Com Com, —7 CHOKE ..USED IN. MANY _CiRQUIT STi UPPRESS FLUCTUATING SIGNALS. WHILE__PASSING. _STEADY___CURRENT. _CHOKES ARE... AVAILABLE. IN... | MANY. SHAPES. AND... SIZE Si. SG ee : Senctosen colts. coll fe Cowinpines") TRANSFORMER, SO IMPORTANT. WELL COMPLETE. SECTION TOIT. —{DAPPLicaTion Ss FoR colts —| ALREADY DESCRIBED.» Cows ARE SELECTIVELY PASS __ SPEGIFIC. TION! A HIGH VOLTAGE... PULSE LIN. A__CHOKE __WHEA) THE CURREWT IS__INTERRUPTED, BE CAREFUL.AROUND LRON “LAMINATED CORE CURRENT... FLOWIN.G.... THROUGH... THE _PRIMARY._Colk FLUCTUATING... THEN... CURREN with BE IMDUCED THE... SECONDARY WINDING. STEADY._(D¢) Wil. NOT BE. TRANSFERRED. FROM. ONE Cou __ THER. | Mow... THEY... WORK. — TRANSFORMERS HAVE. THE ABKITY. 1D. TRANSFORM....... VOLTAGE... AND. CURRENT_TD_. HIGHER.._OR a LOWER LEVELS... THEY..DO.. NOT 4 OF CouRSE ,_ CREATE aS PowER. FROM... NOTHING... THEREFORE.,..IF___ A TRANSFORMER B00STS......THE. VOlrAGE.OF...A..... SIGNAL, IT REDUCES. CURRENT. AND... EIT... OUTS... THE. VOLTAGE OF —SISMAL 4. /T-RAISES ITS. CURRENT... IN OTHER WORDS... THE POWER FLOWING FROM... TRANSFORMER CANNOT... EXCEED..THE INCOMING POWER | IO TURNS. RATIO — THE RATIO. OF PRIMARY 7D SECONDARY RATIO nen TURNS... DETERMINES. A... TRANSFORMERS. VOLTAGE Aid RATIO“ : THE PRIMARY. VOLTAGE ANO CURRENT... ARE....TRANS= SIE FERRED... UNALTERED. TD. THE. SECONDARY, OFTEA CALLed. AN... ISOLATION TRANSEOR MER STEP> UP. wn = THE .VOLTAGE._1S._ INCREASED... GY. THE TURNS RAT. ale THUS A125 TURNS RATIO. Wikk.. A005 T= VOLTS. _AT.THE.. PRIMARY. INTO.2S~ voUTS AT. THE SECONDAR: STEP= DOWN. | aay) THE VOLTAGE 15 REDUCED... GY...THE... TURNS RATIO. B= THUS AS: Tews RATIO wie pRop__26 -vorTs_AT_ THE PRIMARY. To S-VOLT S__AT THE. SECONOARY.TAPPED PRIMARY __ oe AnD... SECONDARY. NOTE: LEADSOF TRANSFORMERS ARE cavor. WINDINGS. AUTOHOTIVE._IN. GASOLINE... ENGINES... IGNITION. ALSO... WSED.....TD_. POWER, DIFFERENT. OFA. C1RCUI’ _-T2__.PROVIDE.... PROTECTION. ROP. ELECTRICAL SHOCK. OFTEN..USED. TD._REDUCE, VOLTAGE....TR. ee bsAgLe...LEvEt... UTILITY... Spin iseiareeeeeiien 1-1) Yoo eee TRANSFORMER. SEO... PRODUCE IGNITION... PARKS. = TV...PICTURE.. TUBES. SOME LASERS, EON. LiGuTS, Ere... USE0._TD__.MATCH....THE JOPEDANCE™ of AN. AMPLIFLER....1D....THAT..oF A MICROPHONE. , SPEAKER : ae OR... OTHER DEVICE. arian “opposinion....10. THE. FLOW. OF i Seaaeeeees ALTERNATING. CURRENT. MINLATURE. OD0ED.. eee eeeeeeee[SILICON ATom Wie... | gp =~ Stkteon_.18 Mer. Me ose erNG AND Im PoRTANT ELECTRONIC loomPONENTS._ARE MADE FROM. GRYSTALS. CALLED [SEmeon0uCTORS, DEPENDING ON CERTAIN. CONDITIONS, A -SEMiCONOUCTOR _CAN.__ACT LIKE _A_ Compucr oR. FOUR... ELECTRONS. IN. IT.S_. OUTERMOST SHELL, Ru or. [WOULD LiKE 7D HAVE. lEIGHT. THEREFORE , DE...ATS. ~ UP wit. a SHARE ELECTROWS.3. MEIGHBORS... OUTER... ELECTRONS A. REGULAR. ARRANGED. CALLED. A cRysrét. SILICON... FORHS___27.7 %.._OF__THE__EARTH’?S___CRus: OXYGEN. IS ORE Common. _/T)S._. —fOuMp.. PURE STATE. WHEN SILICON AND... DIAMOND. SHARE. THE.. SAME CRYSTAL. STRUCTURE. AND. OTHER. \iity.. PROPERTIES.._BuT. —CRYSTALS..Ir's (ut _INTD.WAEERS FOR _ TRANSPARENT. 2ti fit LS. CALLE | ELECTRON DEFICIENT lor Swicon ATOMS EAVES A. D SILICON RECIPES — PURE Sii@on ISAT VERY USEFUC. THATS. WHY. SILICON) MAKERS SPICE UP THEIR... SILLCON. RECIPES WITHA PHOSPHORUS, BOROAL...OR __GOo01ES. THIS. 1S CALLED. THE ___S1LtGON, WHEN __ INTO. CRYSTALS, DOPED —-SILLCON... HAS VERY YSEEUL ELECTRONIC... PROPERTIES. fi E BORON... PHOSPHORUS... AAD Can Tus_with Sicicon_ ATOMS. TO HERS'S._ THE CATCH: A BORON... ATOM. HAS ONLY THREE ELECTROW JA) JTS ___ OUTER. SHELL. _ANO_ A. PHOSPHORUS. ATOM. HAS. EWE ELECTRONS IN ITS OUTER SHELL, SILIConL..WITH EXTRA PHOSPHORUS. ELECTROMS NS TYPE SILL. COW.(.N.2. NEGATIVE). SILICON WITH BORON...ATOMS.. IS CALLED. Rees |A_gofon. ATOM IN_A__CLUSTER VACANT ELECTRON OPENING 175. POssiBLe laces CAN Move THROUGH. | Sicicon (aust AS sussies Hose. {MOVE THROUGH WATER)... LHL LTTE LY lpowaTes AN ExTeA. ELECTRON...) THIS. EXTRA__ELECTRON. Be-BOTH TYPES IS DETERMINED Ry HOLES _O8 SuRMUS ELECTRONS, BY FORMING Some P-TYPE SILICON In) A CHIP OF N= [Tyee OM, ELECTRONS With FLOW THROUEM THE. SILICON JN_ONLY ONE RECT IOAL THIS 1S THE PRINCIPLE oF THE._DIODE . THE P-N. INTERFACE. |S CALLED THE PAL TUNCTION. OQ How THE Diope woRKS— HERE'S A SIMMIEIED. CONDUCTS. ELECTRICITY. _ | gi _uoutace _exceeos THE TUNGCTION._ THERE = |___ REPELS. HOLES ANO ELECTRONS TOWARO.THE JUNCTION, ELECTRONS AWAY FROM. O.G-VoLr (Sitcom), THEN. Fore, No nn ELECTRONS” WILL CRoss AN THE__SUNcTion AnD — j—-COMBIME..WITH HOueS, A_CURRENT THEN ELows._ BA Pic al piobe = Dione sane ODER S.A DARK BAND MARKS, — CURRENT. Lous WHEN ANODE 1S aw Moae.PosiTve /_ANODE THAN CATHODE, |Comnoney.. ENCLOSED IN SMALL GLASS |THE CATHODE _TERMWAC. THE = OPPOSITE TERMINAL iS THE ANODE aay .DORE OPERATION = You. ALREADY KNOW A _DIDDE._1S__ [Like An ErectRaNic ONE=WAYVALVE.._LT?S._In1PORTANT [re UNDERSTAND. SOME ADDITIONAL ASPECTS. —[oreranon. MERE ARE. —{ 1A Dope wit. —|-vorraGe REACHES. A CERTAIN. {| -SILiCon.._ O/00ES THIS. VOLTAGE. | EXCESSWE , THE SEmiconnucToR MAY CRACK OR MELT! AND... THE. CONTACTS._MAY SEPARATE... AIP MECTS., THE _DIOOE._ MAY._SUODENLY. CONOUCT._IN..BOTH DIRECTIONS... THE | RESULTING HEAT MAY VAPORIZE THE Ol SumMING up Diove | THIS GRAPH SUMS UP. ¢-2 FORWARD CURRENT [Ie = REVERSE CURRENT _(SILICON) _ Hed gaeeesaness|. TYPES OF DIODES - -_MANY DIFFERENT. _KINDS__OF [DIODES ARE._AVALASLE, HERE ARE Some OF THE SMALL SIGNAL. DIODES ARE USED rp TRANSFORM... LOW..CURRENT...AC TO DC, Derect —CQEMODULATE)..RADIO.. SIGNALS, MUCTIPLY VOLTAGE, PERFORM. .LOGIC, AGSORE VOLTAGE SPIKES, ETC. Power RECTIFIER. IDENTICAG, SMALL SIGNAL POWER RECTIFIERS..CAN. HANDLE MUCH MORE. CURRENT... THEY. ._ARE._ IN STALLED. zi IW CARGE METAL... PACKAGES..._THAT.__SoAK uP. : EXCESS.HEAT..AND... TRANSFER IT 7D A. METAG HEAT. SINK» ..USE0 MAINLY IN POWER. SUPPLIES, SIGNED. TD. HAVE. A ~C.Gonouer-lon). VOLTAGE, THIS .MEANS. ZENER. O1ODES.... CAN FUNCTION LIKE. =a A... VOLTAGE SENSITIVE SWITCH. ZENER DIODES HAVING. BREAKDOWN VOLTAGES (Va).OF FROM ABouT. 2-VOLTS TO. ATION. WHEN FORWARD BIASED. DIODES MADE FROM. CERTAIN SEMICONDUCTORS. (LIKE GALLIUM ARSENIDE PHOSPH/DE) EMIT CONSIDERAGLY MORE. | RATION Than _SiUIcON DIODES. THEY'RE CALLED fT = Et tin PkeTopiopeS. THEY INCLUDE A GLASS oR a ———-RLASTIC._WINDow... THROUGH WHICH me LIGHT. —ENTERS.__OFTENL THRY HAVE _A__LARGE , ExPosED JUNCTION REGION. __SWICON MAKES G00) PHOTDDIDDES._HOW. DIODES ARE. USED ——|im_cuneter —You'te SEE HOW VARIOUS TYPES OF DIODES ARE INMANY APPLICATIONS... FOR Mow HERE ARE TWO OF AE MOST IMPORTANT... ROLES..FOR Smale SIGNAL Diape SAND RECTIFIERS? NUNDULATING. CAC) SIGNAL COR VOLTAGE) __ Cpe our S RECTIFIED INTO A ie HALEoF SIGNAL. SINGLE PoLAR\Ty Coc) 1SBLOCKED_. ICL. FULL = WAVE... RECTIFIER, @R_BRIDGE_RECTIELER) RECTIEIES 907A HALUES De out OF AN AC SIGNAL. AC.IN AN ELECTRICAL CURRENT 1S THE MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS. TAROUGA A__CONDUCTOR. 02 SEMICONDUCTOR. SINCE ELECTRONS MOVE. FROM. A NEGATIVELY CHARGED TDA POSITIVELY CHARGED REGION, WHY DOES THE _ARROWHEAD..IN A DIODE SYMBo. POINT INTHE lopeosize DIRECTION? TAERE .ARE_.TWO_REASONS: -WUTH BEN TAMIN.. “ERANKLIN, it WAS. “TRADITION ALLY. ASSUMED ELECTRICITY Flows FROM A POSITIVELY CHARGED. To A _|NEGATIVELY CHARGED REGION. THE DISCOVERY 0& THE ELECTRON CORRECTED. THAT...( BT. MOST. EGECTRICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS.TDDAY __ __|STILA FOLLOW THE OLD TRADITION. IN.WHICH..THE...POSITIVE POWER. ISuPAY CONNECTION. 1S PLACED ABOVE. THE NEGATIVE... CONNECTION |AS_1F GRAVITY. SOMEHOW _INELUENCES THE ELOW..0F..A..CURRENT.) 2. A. SEMICONDUCTOR, AS SHOWN ON PAGE iN THE DIRECTION. OPPOSITE THAT OF ELECTRON FLO} FHEREEORE. COMMON. 1D..REFER TO. PosiTIVE SEMICONDUCTORS. i: FOR ACCURACY, IN. THIS. BOOK." CURRENT. FLOW." REFERS..TO ELEGIRON \FLOW..BUT.._.WE'RE _STUCK._WITH SYMBOLS THAT INDICATE HOLE FLOW. \ \ \\THE... TRANSISTOR | TRANSISTORS _ARE__SEMICON- DUCTOR. DEVICES WTR THREE, LEADS... AVERY... SMALL. CURRENT... OR. VOLTAGE... AT...ONE. LEAD... CAN... CONT ROL... A... MUCH, LARGER... CURRENT... FLOWING. |TAROUGH... THE... OTHER... Two... LEADS. TAIS._MEANS.TRANSISTORS.CAn) BE_USED.AS.....AMPUFIERS....... AND. SWATCHES... THERE... ARE. Two. MAIN. FAMILIES OF TRANSISTORS: BiPoaR Awd. FIELD = EFFECT. BIPOLAR... TRANSISTORS ADD... A. SECOND. TUNCTION..To A PN TUNCTION. DIODE. AND. YoU. GET__A..3- LAYER SILICON SANDWICH. THE SAoWICH. CAN. GE EITHER NPN oR PNP, EITHER WAN, LINE. MIDDLE.LAYER. ACTS... LIKE A__fARCET. OR GATE THAT... comTROCS. BASE COECTOR \ THE CURRENT. MOVIN.G.... THROUGH, THE THREE LAYERS. (C1 BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR. OPERATION — BIPOLAR... TRANSISTOR. ARE... THE |THE... BASE..1S.... YERY THIN. .AND THE EMITTER... AND._COLLECTOR. BASE CURRENT...WiLL.. CAUSE COLLECTOR... CURRENT.....TD.... PLOW. THREE GASE_ THE EMITTER , HAS. FEWER THERE FORE. A_.MugH VER coutecrer, AMPLIFIED. ouTPuT, CURRENT. Base BASE. cof] emerrreR outer THE... RESISTORS. PRoreer.THE TRANSISTOR.PROM TO... MUCH... CoRRENT. (WHICH 2An). CAUSE DOPING. LARGER OFA COLE CTOR.. ATOMS THAN SMALL EMITTER — EMITTER LAYERS. AND. Y ConLECTOR EmiTER,I. MORE. A@ouT. S1POLAR TRANSISTOR OPERATION - Z TRANSISTORS... SHARE. SEVERAL.__ KEY. FEATURES. A THE. GASE = EMITTER UNITIC..THE... FORWARD 2...T0O... MUCH CORRENT..WILL TRANSISTOR 7D. BECOME HOT AND. IMPROPERLY. TE A._TRANSISTOR_IS. WHEN TRUCKED, DISCONNECT. THE POWER, T.aT} 13,700. MUCH... CURRENT.....OR DAMAGE OR... PERMANENTLY... DESTROY THE __ ea Z SEMICONDUCTOR... CHIP....THAT..FORMS A TRANSISTOR... LETHE... CHIP___ISWT HARMED, ITS_.TINY._CONNECTION.._.WIRES.. OR... SEPARATE. FROM THE CHIP... SONNECT....A_ TRANSISTOR _BACKWARDS.1. KINDS OF. TRANSISTORS = MANY DIEFERENT __KINDS.OF... ITRANSISTORS....ARE..... AVAILAELE.. HERE. ARE EXAMPLES OF. THE. MOST._IMPORTANT. MAY MELT SMALL SIGNAL AND. SWITCHING . ___SMAUL SIGNAL __TRANSISTORS._ARE USED as EY Low LEVEL SIGAALS._. oe best _ SWITCHING. TRANSISTORS ARE DE SIGNED. coon TD BE OPERATED. EULLY On) OR OFF. ArieeLEY. PoweR TRANSISTORS ARE —-USED_IN._HIGH_ POWER... AMPLIFIERS _AND___ POWER, SUPPLIES, LARGE. SIZE._AND _..EKPORED. METAL,.SURFACES.. KEEP. THEM coon. “BIGH= FREQUENCY TRANSISTORS. PERATE AT. RADIO, TELEVISION BASE..REGION.IS VERY.FD BPOLAR TRANSISTOR AN DIRECTION _ —couLectoR (0) TT. NEN EMITTER. CE) JHOW.--BIPOLAR “TRANSISTORS ARE USED WHEN THE BASE — AN. _ NPN. “TRANSISTOR AS_GROUNDED_ INO CURRENT..FLOWS... FROMTHE _EMITTER.TO. E. COLLecTOR ¢ THE FTRANSISTOR..15 'ofe"), IF THE BASE 15 FORWARD = 8IASED. 8Y AT HEAST..0.6..VOLT.».. A CURRENT WILL FLOW. FROM.THE EMITTER TO JTRE...cOLLECTOR (THE TRANSISTOR 1S_".ON"), WHEN OPERATED In ONLY THESE TWO. MODES, THE TRANSISTOR. FUNCTIONS..AS_A SWITCH. KE THE BASE 1s FORWARD BIASED, THE EMITTER-COLLECTOR. CURRENT WILL FOLLOW VARIATIONS..IN. A. MUCH SMALLER ASE CURRENT. SHE TRANSISTOR.THEN. FUNCTIONS AS AN AMPLIEIER. THLS____ DISCUSSION APPLIES...7D_A TRANSISTOR IN WHICH THE. EMITTER IS THE ROUND... CONNECTION... FOR BOTH THE. INPUT AND. OUTPUT AND is ICALLED.... THE. COMMON = EMITTER CIRCUIT... SOME. SIMPLIFIED COMMON=__. EMITTER. CIRCUITS ARE SHOWN. BELOW,._S0__You CAN SEE How WHEY... ARE. USED IN REAL CIRCUITS, EACH EXAMOLE REFERS TO. AL TYPICAL WORKING APPLICATION. IN CHAPTER. CLA BIPOLAR. TRANSISTOR SWITCH BASE, RESiston. OK 3D_USE_RESISTOR,. __PlEZ0 BUZZER, ETC, ws PLACE OF LAMB. ONLY TWO. INPUTS. ARE_POSSI8¢E : GROUND CO vouTs) ANDTHE POSITIVE. BATTERY..VOLTAGE.C +.V.)...__ THEREFORE... LS_OFF. OR. ON, ATYPICAL BASE. RESISTANCE |10,000.onms.IE THE RESISTOR 1S REPLACED BY A_WiRe, LAME CAN BE SWITCHED ON oR CFE FROM A CONSIDER AGLE DISTANCE.)