The Process of Science

Introduction
Lab 2
In the 1980s Sigma Xi, a scientific research honor society, asked its members the ques-
tion, “What is science?” Nearly all of the scientists replied that science is best defined as
a process by which scientists conduct their work. This process includes objective collec-
tion of information and logical analysis of this information in order to gain knowledge
about the universe. The process of science is dynamic and therefore difficult to reduce to
a set of steps or a scientific method that is rigidly followed each time a scientific investi-
gation is conducted. Nevertheless, while the process of science varies somewhat from one
study to the next, its basic components can be outlined as follows:

Define the Problem

Formulate Hypothesis

Test Hypothesis

Collect and Interpret Data

Draw Conclusions

Defining the Problem

The initial components of a scientific investigation aid in defining the problem. This is
done by making observations and asking questions about some event or phenomenon.
In order for a problem to be studied scientifically, it must be definable, measurable, and
controllable. The scientific process cannot be used to test moral and religious beliefs or to
answer questions that ask for value judgements.

Adapted from SUNY Courtland, Bio 110–111 Lab Manual, 1998. 11

 The Process of Science

Make Observations
“Rats! My car won't start!”

Ask Questions
“What's wrong with my car?”

Check Accumulated Scientific Data

Automobiles need gas to run.

Formulate Hypothesis
“My car must be out of gas.”

Make Predictions
“If this hypothesis is correct,
and I put gas in my tank,
then my car should start.”

Run Experiment
“I put gas in my tank.”

Make Conclusions
Based on experimental results.

• My car still does not start.

• Reject original hypothesis
• Formulate alternative hypothesis
• My car starts.
• Accept original hypothesis
• Report findings ©Hayden-McNeil, LLC

“Hey, everybody, my car started!

Let's go have pizza!”

ACTIVITY I
Discuss the following questions with fellow students and decide which of them can be
answered scientifically. Give reasons for your decisions.
1. Does polluting a river with copper cause decreased growth of fishes?

2. Is the act of polluting a river with copper immoral?

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 Lab 2

3. Is our destiny controlled by the powers of a divine being?

4. What is the effect of watching television as a child on the I.Q. of teenagers?

5. Are children more assertive in kindergarten if they spend a year in nursery school?

6. Is it good to send a child to nursery school?

Formulating Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a particular observation or answer for a ques-
tion; it can be thought of as an “educated guess.” For this guess to be indeed “educated,”
one should first examine previous data to gather information on the problem being
studied. Then inductive reasoning is used to formulate a hypothesis. Inductive reason-
ing uses previous information, logic, and creative thinking to come up with a possible
explanation or answer for an observation or question.

ACTIVITY II
Working in your groups, write hypotheses for the questions in Activity I that you deter-
mined could be answered scientifically.

Testing Hypotheses
Experimentation is a common way of testing a hypothesis. In designing experiments,
deductive reasoning comes into play. Deductive reasoning often involves forming an
“If... then...” statement as a way of predicting the outcome of an experiment that would
support your hypothesis. For example, suppose you hypothesize that fruit production
by tomato plants is greater when magnesium is present as a soil nutrient. Deductive
reasoning leads you to state, “If tomato plants are treated with magnesium-containing
fertilizer, then they will produce more fruit.” You then use this statement to design an
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 The Process of Science

experiment that tests your hypothesis. Certain parameters will change during the course
of an experiment; these are called variables. The independent variable (also known as
the experimental variable) is the parameter that is changed by the investigator. The
dependent variable is what is expected to change as a result of changes in the independent
variable. In the above example, the presence of magnesium is the independent variable
and fruit production is the dependent variable (i.e., fruit production depends on the
presence of magnesium). The effect of only one independent variable can be investigated
at a time. Therefore, all other parameters must be held constant or controlled during the
course of an experiment. Then any changes measured in the dependent variable can be
attributed to the independent variable being studied.

ACTIVITY III
Identify the independent variable and dependent variable in each of the following stud-
ies; include parameters that may have to be held constant or controlled in each.

1. A study examining the effect of sun exposure on skin cancer rates.

2. The effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the weight of tomatoes produced per plant is
studied.

3. A study examining the effect of the length of a soccer player’s leg on the velocity
with which the player can kick a soccer ball.

4. The effect of reading to two-year-old children on the children’s later performance

on the SAT verbal exam is studied.

A controlled experiment enables an investigator to measure the effect of a single indepen-

dent variable on a phenomenon. In experiments that examine the effects of some vari-
ables, the control group can be defined as the group that is left untouched or held in its
“natural” state, while the experimental group is identical to the control group except for
the experimental variable being studied. In other experiments, the control group and the
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 Lab 2

experimental group may not be so easily identified. For example, an experiment designed
to examine the effect of temperature on fruit production by tomato plants may consist of
plants growing at several different temperatures. While control and experimental groups
may not be clearly defined in this case, the experiment will nevertheless be a controlled
experiment as long as temperature is the only parameter that differs for these plants.

Collecting and Interpreting Data

After a controlled experiment is performed and measurements are taken, the results or
data collected from the experiment are often organized in tables or graphs. When graphing
the results of an experiment, the independent variable is placed on the x-axis (horizontal
axis) and the dependent variable is placed on the y-axis (vertical axis). Include the units
used for both. In addition, place a title on the graph that represents what was studied. In
graphing the results obtained from the above example, one would place Temperature (the
independent variable) on the x-axis and Fruit Production (the dependent variable) on
the y-axis and a title of “Temperature Effects on Tomato Fruit Growth.”

In order to have confidence in the results of a controlled experiment, as well as to get an

idea of the amount of variation in the data, it is important to replicate the experiment
and provide adequate sample size. An experiment is replicated by repeating the tech-
nique in exactly the same way a number of times and comparing the results obtained. In
addition, since variation among organisms is the rule, biologists experiment with groups
of organisms (rather than individuals) and compare values obtained from experimental
and control groups. How many replicas or individuals an experiment should include
depends on how much variation exists. Therefore, scientists often plan and interpret
the results of experiments with statistics. To help interpret experimental results, various
statistical measures can be calculated from data; two commonly used statistical measures
are the mean and the standard deviation.

The mean is the arithmetic average of a set of values and is calculated as follows:
/ x1
x=
N

Symbols
x = mean

R = sum of

x1= individual item in sample

N = number of items in sample

The standard deviation is the average deviation (+ or -) of the values in a set from the
mean and is calculated as follows:

/ _x1 - x i2
S=
N-1
S = standard deviation

x1 - x = deviation from mean

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 The Process of Science

It might seem that all we need to know is whether the means of two sets of values are
different in order to accept or reject a hypothesis. However, in order to determine if the
means are significantly different from one another, we must take into account the varia-
tion in the data. The Student’s t-Test is an example of a statistical test that can be used
to determine the probability that the difference between the means of two sets of values
is the result of chance and therefore not significant. In general, the greater the difference
between two means, the lower the probability that the difference is due to chance. If the
probability is less than 5% (p < 0.05) that the difference between the means of two sets
of values is due to chance, then the difference is deemed significant.

Drawing Conclusions
Interpretation of data from a controlled experiment enables one to conclude that the
results either support or falsify (disprove) the hypothesis. If the data obtained are incon-
sistent with a hypothesis, then the hypothesis is proven false. However, if data support a
hypothesis, scientists do not say that the data “prove” the hypothesis to be true. Science
is a continual process of acquiring information and using this information to explain
things. Therefore, there is always a possibility that future experiments (perhaps using
more sophisticated technology) will yield data that are inconsistent with a hypothesis
that has previously found support. Scientists draw conclusions and offer explanations
that are consistent with currently available information, but due to the dynamic nature
of science, they must always be willing to revise explanations and hypotheses in light of
new information.

Designing and Conducting an Experiment

In this part of the lab, you will design an experiment examining the effect of some inde-
pendent variable on human reaction time. Reaction time will be measured as the time
it takes for an individual to catch a falling meter stick.

PROCEDURE

1. The class will formulate a hypothesis to be investigated as a group. Provide the fol-
lowing information.

Hypothesis chosen by class:

Independent variable:

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 Lab 2

Dependent variable:

Control variables:

2. Working in pairs, each member of a pair will act as both the experimenter and the
subject. The actual experiment proceeds as follows:

a. The experimenter holds a meter stick (or half-meter stick) between the thumb
and middle finger of the subject’s hand. The subject’s arm should be resting on
the lab bench, with the hand hanging over the edge of the bench and 10 cm be-
tween the thumb and middle finger. The experimenter should position the meter
stick such that the 0 cm end is even with the subject’s thumb and middle finger.

b. The experimenter releases the meter stick and the subject catches it between
the thumb and middle finger. Reaction time is recorded at the cm mark where
the subject’s thumb/middle finger is when the meter stick is caught.
2

4
Centimeters 1

3
2
©Hayden-McNeil, LLC

Centimeters 1

A) Before ruler is dropped B) Ruler caught between fingers

c. Repeat the above procedure 10 times for each of the treatments being examined.
Record the reaction time for each trial on the accompanying table (Table 2.1).

d. Switch roles—experimenter becomes subject and vice-versa, and repeat the

above procedure.

e. Calculate the mean reaction time for each treatment.

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 The Process of Science

f. Compile class data. Calculate the mean of the mean reaction times for each
treatment and determine the standard deviation for each set of values. The
Student’s t-Test (or another statistical test) can now be used to determine if the
independent variable has a significant effect on reaction time.

g. Discuss class data. Draw conclusions as to whether the results support or falsify
the hypothesis chosen by the class.

Table 2.1 Experimental results.

Human Reaction Time*
Trial
Treatment 1 Treatment 2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Sum
Mean
CLASS DATA
Mean
St. Dev.
p-value

*measured in cm required to catch a falling meter stick

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