THE SCIENTIFIC

METHOD
 SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• It is a series of processes that people can use to gather knowledge
about the world around them, improve that knowledge, and,
through gaining knowledge, attempt to explain why and/or how
things occur. This method involves making observations, forming
questions, making hypotheses, doing an experiment, analyzing the
data, and forming a conclusion.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT STEPS OF
SCIENTIFIC METHOD?
• 1. Making Observations and Gathering Knowledge
About A Phenomenon.
• 2. Formulation of Hypothesis
• 3. Testing of Hypothesis
• 4. Experimentation
• 5. Draw a Conclusion
 1. MAKING OBSERVATIONS AND GATHERING
KNOWLEDGE ABOUT A PHENOMENON

• (Initial Observation, Recognition of a Problem and Defining It, Further Observation

and Expanding Knowledge)

- The prefix "super" means "above." So supernatural means "above (or beyond) the
natural." The toolbox of a scientist contains only the natural laws of the universe;
supernatural questions are outside their reach. 
- Man has the inherent capacity to observe the things around him. Careful
observation could make one recognize that there is a problem or a phenomenon that
is worthy of further attention and study. After initial observations, details not
previously observed can be determined using instrumentation. Search and review
of related literature (books, scientific journals, online sources, etc.) should also be
undertaken to learn more about the problem.
2. FORMULATION OF
HYPOTHESIS
• (Use of inductive reasoning to provide a tentative solution to the
problem)

-Scientists use generalizations to come up with a hypothesis,

which is an intelligent guess that is a possible explanation for a
natural event. The hypothesis is presented as an actual
statement and must be testable.
-In the development and proving of hypotheses, scientists use
inductive and deductive logic
Inductive logic involves arriving at a probable conclusion based
on several samplings.

Example:
– a person tasted a green mango and found it sour and slightly
tangy to the taste buds. Then he subsequently tasted 24
other mangoes and found the same result. Based on the
these 25 samplings, he may then conclude that all green
mangoes are sour and tangy to the taste.
– - Inductive logic thus proceeds from several specific
observations to a generalization
- Cell Theory, the Theory of Biological Evolution by Natural
Selection, and the theory of plate tectonics, all these are
generalizations arrived at by inductive reasoning.
Deductive logic proceeds from a generalization to specifics.

Example:
-After testing 25 green mangoes and finding them sour and
tangy, one may hypothesize that the next mango he will taste
will be sour and tangy. This kind of reasoning is used to
formulate a new hypothesis after a generalization.
-The scientists may further formulate a new hypothesis using
deductive logic. If 25 green mangoes are sour and tangy, then
the next green mango I will taste should be sour and tangy. If
indeed the mango tasted sour and tangy, then the validity of
the original generalization has gained greater probability (or
credibility). Thus, the scientific procedure; or science progress
by the interplay of inductive and deductive reasoning.
 3. TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS
• (Experimentation and Conduct of Further Observations)
- In this phase, the scientist uses deductive reasoning involving the “if, then” logic.
Foresight or the capability to predict what will happen next is necessary to guide the
scientist on how to go about his experiment. The scientist must come up with an
experimental design that will make him generate meaningful results. Usually a
“control” or “control group” is set up side by side with the experimental group.
This contains all components and undergoes all parts of the experiment except for
the factor being tested.
- In any experiment, we can really only test one thing at a time. So we try to control
all the variables except one that we will change.
• - Independent variable = the variable that you change during the experiment
• - Dependent variable = the variable that you observe changes in (depends on
the independent variable)
 4. EXPERIMENTATION
- Your experiment tests whether your hypothesis is true or false.
- It is important that the test is fair:
- You change ONLY ONE variable at a time, keeping all others the same (constant).
- You should repeat your experiment several times to make sure your results
weren’t just an accident.
- Good precision = at least 3 trials
 5. DRAWING OF CONCLUSION
• (Analysis of Data to Determine whether the Hypothesis is Supported or Not, Publication of Results)
- Data are results of the experiment which may lead one to accept or reject the hypothesis initially
formulated. These should be observable and objective. Mathematical data are usually presented in
tabulated and graphical forms and may require statistical analysis to confirm validity or
significance.
- A conclusion is the answer to the problem and based on a supported hypothesis. Science is a
progressive process such that the conclusion of one experiment can lead to the hypothesis for
another experiment. The results that do not support the hypothesis may be used by scientists to
formulate another hypothesis to be tested.
- Conclusions from many different but related experiments may lead to the development of a
Scientific Theory, a general concept about the natural world.
- A theory, therefore, is a hypothesis that has been repeatedly and extensively tested and always
found to be true. However, no theory in science is ever absolutely and finally proven. Scientists
should be ready to alter or even abandon their most cherished generalizations when new facts
contradict them (Keeton and McFadden, 1983).
 FROM SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE TO
TECHNOLOGY
• 
• 1. J. Watt’s invention of the condensation steam engine that was a prime
mover of transport and industry, was made possible by the concept of latent
heat discovery of J. Black.
• 2. London’s synthetic dye industry came from the accidental of aniline dye
magenta by W. Perkins attempt to synthesize quinine.
• 3.Hermann von Helmholtz’s study on sound waves inspired A. Graham Bell to
create the telephone.
• 4. The electrical industry owes much to the works of H.C. Oersted on
magnetic fields produced by electric currents which was used by A. Volta who
invented electrical batteries.
• 5. The dynamo, alternator and transformer were made based from the works
of M. Faraday on interrelated concepts of motion, magnetism and electricity.
Making Observations

A scientific investigation typically

begins with observations. You make
observations all the time.
Let’s say you take a walk in the woods
and observe a moth resting on a tree
trunk. You notice that the moth has
spots on its wings that look like eyes.
You think the eye spots make the moth
look like the face of an owl.
Figure 1: Marbled emperor moth Heniocha dyops in
Botswana. (CC-SA-BY-4.0; Charlesjsharp).
• Does this moth remind you of an
owl?

Asking a Question

• Observations often lead to

questions. For example, you
might ask yourself why the moth
has eye spots that make it look
like an owl’s face. What reason
might there be for this
observation?
 FORMULATING A HYPOTHESIS

• Assume you know that some birds eat moths and that
owls prey on other birds. From this knowledge, you
reason that eye spots scare away birds that might eat
the moth. This is your hypothesis.
TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS

• To test a hypothesis, you first need to make a

prediction based on the hypothesis. A prediction is a
statement that tells what will happen under certain
conditions. It can be expressed in the form: If A
occurs, then B will happen.

If a moth has eye spots on its wings, then birds will

avoid eating it.
 EXPERIMENTATION

• Next, you must gather evidence to test your

prediction. Evidence is any type of data that may either
agree or disagree with a prediction, so it may either
support or disprove a hypothesis. Evidence may be
gathered by an experiment. Assume that you gather
evidence by making more observations of moths with
eye spots. Perhaps you observe that birds really do
avoid eating moths with eye spots. This evidence agrees
with your prediction.
 DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

A conclusion is the answer to the problem and based on

a supported hypothesis.
Scientific Processes
 BASIC SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS:

1. Observing - using your senses to gather information about an object or

event. It is description of what was actually perceived. This information is
considered qualitative data.
2. Measuring - using standard measures or estimations to describe specific
dimensions of an object or event. This information is considered quantitative
data.
3. Inferring - formulating assumptions or possible explanations based upon
observations.
4. Classifying - grouping or ordering objects or events into categories based
upon characteristics or defined criteria.
5. Predicting - guessing the most likely outcome of a future event based upon a
pattern of evidence.
6. Communicating - using words, symbols, or graphics to describe an object,
action or event.
INTEGRATED SCIENCE PROCESS
SKILLS:
1. Formulating Hypotheses - stating the proposed solutions or expected
outcomes for experiments. These proposed solutions to a problem must be
testable.
2. Identifying of Variables - stating the changeable factors that can affect an
experiment. It is important to change only the variable being tested and keep
the rest constant. The one being manipulated is the independent variable; the
one being measured to determine its response is the dependent variable; and
all being kept constant are constants or controlled variables.
3. Defining Variables Operationally - explaining how to measure a variable in
an experiment.
4. Describing Relationships Between Variables - explain relationships between
variables in an experiment such as between the independent and dependant
variables.
5. Designing Investigations - designing an experiment by identifying materials
and describing appropriate steps in a procedure to test a hypothesis.
6. Experimenting - carrying out an experiment by carefully following directions
of the procedure so the results can be verified by repeating the procedure
several times.
7. Acquiring Data - collecting qualitative and quantitative data as observations
and measurements.
8. Organizing Data in Tables and Graphs - making data tables and graphs for
data collected.
9. Analyzing Investigations and Their Data - interpreting data, identifying
errors, evaluating the hypothesis, formulating conclusions, and recommending
further testing where necessary.
10.Understanding Cause and Effect Relationships - what caused what to
happen and why.
11. Formulating Models - recognizing patterns in data and making
comparisons to familiar objects or ideas.
 SCIENTIFIC TRAITS AND VALUES
• Intellectual Honesty
- This attitude allows a scientist to recognize the work done by other scientists
before him. This attitude is also shown by reporting data truthfully.

• Open Mindedness
- A scientist is open minded. Open-mindedness is an attitude that allows a
scientist to look at other possibilities.
- Evaluate, validate and accept other people’s idea towards a question.

• Creative and Critical Thinker

- A scientist can do critical assessment of results and limitations.
- This enables a scientist to come up with new concepts which lead to
discoveries that traditional scientists have overlooked.
• Curiosity
- This attitude/quality-curiosity-enables a scientist to try to discover more about
the things around him.

• Risk taker, confident and persistent

- These attitudes are very important because it enables a scientist to continue a
project despite obstacles and failures.
• Objectivity
- A scientist must be objective in declaring results of his/her experiments and
Judgment is based on observable phenomena and not influenced by emotions or
personal prejudices
• Precision
- A scientist must always consider the precision of his work if it forms a pattern or
repeatedly occurring in nature. Lack of precision to a work would mean
inconsistency.
• Objectivity
-The moral, social and personal responsibility and accountability
of a scientist to all of his works must be observed.

• Collaboration and Readiness to reach consensus

-“No Man is an Island”
-All people need others criticism for us to know if this can be
widely accepted or not.
-Two minds are better than one.