ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

(Assignment No: 01)

Submitted by: Aleena Bashir

Submitted to: Tayyab Hassan Zahid

Student ID: 0000329047

Course: Research Methods in Education (8604)

SEMESTER AUTUMN – 22

B.ed (1.5 year)

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 Question No .1
Discuss different methods used as a tool of acquiring knowledge.
Compare the various steps in scientific method with steps in research
process.?
Ans;

In epistemology, a common concern with respect to knowledge is what sources of information are
capable of giving knowledge.
The human knowledge works at two level. At the primary level it functions as the basis of useful
human activities , as when a teacher solves mathematical problems for the students or as whn a
doctor uses his knowledge to cure diseases. At the secondary level, knowledge is employed to
obtain increments in the existing knowledge.
The activity that produces this new knowledge is known as research.
According to J.W. Best (1992) research is an
―intellectual activities which brings to light new knowledge or corrects previous error and
misconception and adds in an oderly way to the existing corpus of knowledge.‖

The process by which it has been derived is replicable i.e. it can be repeated and the stated
results confirmed. It is objective and capable of ―third party‖ verification. Sense perception,
reason, tradition, authority, metaphysics, magic, expert opinion, personal experience,
deduction and induction and science are among the system that have been used to acquire the
knowledge.
 Sense perception
It is the use of our senses to acquire information about the around the world and to become
acquainted with objects, events and their features. The sense perception may be defined as a
connected series of concepts that help people to make sense out of a chaotic environment and to
function more effectively in it.
 Reason
Reasoning might be defined as the process of using known facts to arrive at new facts.
Reason is of huge importance within the search for knowledge of scientists, mathematicians and
historians. Reason also drives our search for patterns and exceptions, which may be used to
create models and even predictions in a range of disciplines.
 Tradition

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 The traditional philosophy of education focuses on the skills, facts and standard of
behavior deemed essential for each generation of student. Ordinarily we obey the customs and
traditions and avoid violating them. We try to seek explanation of the phenomena through the
media of traditions and customs.
 Authority
Perhaps one of the most common methods of acquiring knowledge is through authority. This
method involves accepting new ideas because some authority figure states that they are true.
These authorities include parents, the media, doctors, priest and other religious authority,
the government and professors.
 Metaphysics
Metaphysics provides a base for educational thought by establishing knowledge, truths and
values, as ontological realities whose nature must be understood to understand its place in
educational matter.
 Magic
Magic refers to use of tricks to create visual or other types of illusions. The uninitiated may be
misled into believing in the existence of supernatural power because of the illusion.
 Expert opinion
The opinions of experts are handy in the search of knowledge ; however their opinions are
double edge sword --- the knowledge of expert act as building blocks to our own thoughts, but
sometimes the experts may be incorrect, and their beliefs leas seeker down the wrong path.
 Personal experience
―The only source of knowledge is experience.‖ ( Albert Einstein)
All of our knowledge comes from experiences that we have thought out our entire life, and we
learn from these experience to shape our decisions and action .
 Deduction
Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is
informally called a ―top-down‖ approach. We might begin with thinking up a theory about our topic
of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow
down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads
us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data – a confirmation (or not) of our original
theories.
 Induction
Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a ―bottom up‖ approach (please
note that it‘s ―bottom up‖ and not ―bottoms up‖ which is the kind of thing the bartender says to
customers when he‘s trying to close for the night!). In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific

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observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative
hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or
theories.
 Scientific method

The scientific method is a systematic way of learning about the world around us and answering
questions. The key difference between the scientific method and other ways of acquiring
knowledge are forming a hypothesis and then testing it with an experiment.

The Six Steps

The number of steps can vary from one description to another (which mainly happens
when data and analysis are separated into separate steps), however, this is a fairly standard list of
the six scientific method steps that you are expected to know for any science class:

1. Purpose/QuestionAsk a question.

2. Research

Conduct background research. Write down your sources so you can cite your references. In the
modern era, a lot of your research may be conducted online. Scroll to the bottom of articles to
check the references. Even if you can't access the full text of a published article, you can usually
view the abstract to see the summary of other experiments. Interview experts on a topic. The
more you know about a subject, the easier it will be to conduct your investigation.

3. Hypothesis

Propose a hypothesis. This is a sort of educated guess about what you expect. It is a statement
used to predict the outcome of an experiment. Usually, a hypothesis is written in terms of cause
and effect. Alternatively, it may describe the relationship between two phenomena. One type of
hypothesis is the null hypothesis or the no-difference hypothesis. This is an easy type of
hypothesis to test because it assumes changing a variable will have no effect on the outcome. In
reality, you probably expect a change but rejecting a hypothesis may be more useful than
accepting one.

4. Experiment

Design and perform an experiment to test your hypothesis. An experiment has an independent
and dependent variable. You change or control the independent variable and record the effect it
has on the dependent variable. It's important to change only one variable for an experiment rather
than try to combine the effects of variables in an experiment. For example, if you want to test the
effects of light intensity and fertilizer concentration on the growth rate of a plant, you're really
looking at two separate experiments.

5. Data/Analysis Record; observations and analyze the meaning of the data. Often, you'll
prepare a table or graph of the data. Don't throw out data points you think are bad or that don't
support your predictions. Some of the most incredible discoveries in science were made because
the data looked wrong! Once you have the data, you may need to perform a mathematical
analysis to support or refute your hypothesis.

6. Conclusion

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 Conclude whether to accept or reject your hypothesis. There is no right or wrong outcome to
an experiment, so either result is fine. Accepting a hypothesis does not necessarily mean it's
correct! Sometimes repeating an experiment may give a different result. In other cases, a
hypothesis may predict an outcome, yet you might draw an incorrect conclusion. Communicate
your results. The results may be compiled into a lab report or formally submitted as a paper.
Whether you accept or reject the hypothesis, you likely learned something about the subject and
may wish to revise the original hypothesis or form a new one for a future experiment.

Sometimes the scientific method is taught with seven steps instead of six. In this model, the first
step of the scientific method is to make observations. Really, even if you don't make observations
formally, you think about prior experiences with a subject in order to ask a question or solve a
problem.

Formal observations are a type of brainstorming that can help you find an idea and form a
hypothesis. Observe your subject and record everything about it. Include colors, timing, sounds,
temperatures, changes, behavior, and anything that strikes you as interesting or significant.

Variables

When we design an experiment, you are controlling and measuring variables. There are three
types of variables:

• Controlled Variables: You can have as many controlled variables as you like. These are
parts of the experiment that you try to keep constant throughout an experiment so that they won't
interfere with your test. Writing down controlled variables is a good idea because it helps make
your experiment reproducible, which is important in science! If you have trouble duplicating results
from one experiment to another, there may be a controlled variable that you missed.

• Independent Variable: This is the variable you control.

• Dependent Variable: This is the variable you measure. It is called the dependent variable
because it depends on the independent variable.

 Conclude; On the other hand, scholars are unhappy with the weakness of existing ways of
knowling, learnes to integrate the strengths of these ways of knowing into new approach –i.e,

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scientific method. Of paricular importance is that deductive and inductive reasoning were
incoporated into scienctific method.

Question No.2
Describe different types of research categorized on the basis of methods
used and the purpose of research.
Ans; Educational research is classified into basic research Applied research and Action
research. The basic and applied researches are differentiated by their purpose. The primary
purpose of basic research is the extension of knowledge whereas the purpose of applied reseach
is the solution of an immediate, practical problem.
Characteristics

 Gary Anderson outlined ten aspects of educational research:

 Educational research attempts to solve a problem.
 Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing
data for a new purpose.
 Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
 Research demands accurate observation and description.
 Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.
 Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will
help in understanding, prediction and/or control.
 Research requires expertise—familiarity with the field; competence in methodology;
technical skill in collecting and analyzing the data.
 Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great
pains to validate the procedures employed.
 Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity which is directional but often refines the
problem or questions as the research progresses.
 Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the problem.

Why Educational Research?

Educators need to be consumers (and producers) of research. Creswell (2002) notes the following
reasons, describing the various purposes of educational research:
Improve Practice

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Research can suggest ways of improving practice that have been verified with many applications
and by many different types of people, which is difficult for practitioners.
2. Add to Knowledge
Research can add to what we know about how people learn and what we can do help facilitate the
learning process.
3. Address Gaps in Knowledge
Research can address areas in which little is know, like perhaps the effects of online versus
traditional classroom learning.
4. Expand Knowledge
Research can allow us to extend what we know in ways we never conceived.
5. Replicate Knowledge
Research can act as a test to verify previous findings.
6. Add Voices of Individuals to Knowledge
Research can add an important perspective for different learning types. Much of the educational
research prior to the Eighties is based on able, white, middle-to-upper class males. This is
certainly not reflective of our increasingly heterogeneous students, and research helps revise
theory and practice to reflect different student needs. These are only a few of the many reasons
research is important, particularly to educators. In an increasingly data-driven society, it is vital
that educators know how to locate, find, and interpret research on their own. Further, educators
need to be able to conduct quality research to examine issues within their own contexts.

 Basic Research

Basic research is an investigation of basic principles and reasons for the occurrence of a
particular event or process or phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. The study or
investigation of some natural phenomenon or relating to pure science is termed basic research.
Basic research sometimes may not lead to immediate use or application. It is not concerned with
solving any practical problems of immediate interest. But it is original or basic in character. It
provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and facilitates the extraction of scientific
and logical explanations and conclusion on it. It helps build new frontiers of knowledge. The
outcomes of basic research form the basis for much-applied research.

Basic research

 Seeks generalization
 Aims at basic processes
 Attempts to explain why things happen
 Tries to get all the facts
 Reports in the technical language of the topic

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Applied research:
In applied research, one solves certain problems by employing well-known and accepted theories
and principles. Most of the experimental research, case studies, and interdisciplinary research are
essentially applied research. Applied research is helpful for basic research. Research, the
outcome of which has immediate application is also termed applied research. Such research is of
practical use to current activity.
Applied research

 Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize

 Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference
 Tries to say how things can be changed
 Tries to correct the facts which are problematic
 Reports in common language

Basic and applied research is further divided into three types of research bearing some
characteristics feature as follows:
Quantitative research

 It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics, and uses numbers.

 It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
 The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
 It is conclusive.
 It investigates the what, where, and when of decision-making.

Qualitative research

 It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies to reason, and uses words.

 Its aim is to get the meaning, and feeling and describe the situation.
 Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
 It is exploratory.
 It investigates the why and how of decision-making.

Mixed research
Mixed research- research that involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative methods or
paradigm characteristics. The nature of data is a mixture of variables, words, and images.

 Other types of research

Exploratory Research
Exploratory research might involve a literature search or conducting focus group interviews.
The exploration of new phenomena in this way may help the researcher‘s need for better
understanding, may test the feasibility of a more extensive study, or determine the best
methods to be used in a subsequent study. For these reasons, exploratory research is
broad in focus and rarely provides definite answers to specific research issues.
The objective of exploratory research is to identify key issues and key variables.

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  Descriptive research
The descriptive research is directed toward studying ―what‖ and how many of this ―what‖.
Thus, it is directed toward answering questions such as, ―What is this?‖.
 Explanatory research

 Its primary goal is to understand or explain relationships.

 It uses correlations to study relationships between dimensions or characteristics of
individuals, groups, situations, or events.
 Explanatory research explains (How the parts of a phenomenon are related to each other).
 Explanatory research asks the ―Why‖ question.

 Longitudinal Research
Research carried out longitudinally involves data collection at multiple points in time.
Longitudinal studies may take the form of:

 Trend study- looks at population characteristics over time, e.g. organizational absenteeism
rates during the course of a year
 Cohort study- traces a sub-population over time, e.g. absenteeism rates for the sales
department;
 Panel study- traces the same sample over time, e.g. graduate career tracks over the period
1990 – 2000 for the same starting cohort.

While longitudinal studies will often be more time-consuming and expensive than cross-sectional
studies, they are more likely to identify causal relationships between variables.
 Cross-sectional Research
One-shot or cross-sectional studies are those in which data is gathered once, during a
period of days, weeks or months. Many cross-sectional studies are exploratory or
descriptive in purpose. They are designed to look at how things are now, without any sense
of whether there is a history or trend at work.
 Action research

 Fact findings to improve the quality of action in the social world

 Classification research
It aims at categorizing units into groups

 To demonstrate differences
 To explain relationships

 Comparative research

 To identify similarities and differences between units at all levels

 Causal research

 It aims at establishing cause and effect relationship among variable

 Theory-testing research
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 It aims at testing the validity of a unit

 Theory-building research

 To establish and formulate the theory

 Last, of all, it is needless to say that scientific research helps us in many ways:

 A research problem refers to a difficulty that a researcher or a scientific community or an

industry or a government organization or a society experiences. It may be a theoretical or a
practical situation. It calls for a thorough understanding and possible solutions.
 Research provides the basis for many government policies. For example, research on the
needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs helps a
government to prepare a budget.
 It is the fountain of knowledge and provides guidelines for solving problems.
 Only through research inventions can be made; for example, new and novel phenomena
and processes such as superconductivity and cloning have been discovered only through
research.
 It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to improve the
quality of products.
 Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and glorious.
 It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new living things, new
stars, etc.
 Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes their problems in
them.
 Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social phenomena and
seek solutions to social problems.

Question No.3
discusses the concept of educational research. Also examine the need
and importance of research in education.
Answer;
Educational research refers to a systematic attempt to gain a better understanding of the
educational process, generally with a view in improving its efficiency. It is an application of
scientific method to the study of educational problems.

Education is an integral aspect of every society and in a bid to expand the frontiers of knowledge,
educational research must become a priority. Educational research plays a vital role in the overall
development of pedagogy, learning programs, and policy formulation.

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Educational research is a spectrum that bothers on multiple fields of knowledge and this means
that it draws from different disciplines. As a result of this, the findings of this research are multi-
dimensional and can be restricted by the characteristics of the research participants and the
research environment.

What is Educational Research?

Educational research is a type of systematic investigation that applies empirical methods to

solving challenges in education. It adopts rigorous and well-defined scientific processes in order to
gather and analyze data for problem-solving and knowledge advancement.

J. W. Best defines educational research as that activity that is directed towards the development
of a science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a science is to provide
knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals through the most effective methods.

The primary purpose of educational research is to expand the existing body of knowledge by
providing solutions to different problems in pedagogy while improving teaching and learning
practices. Educational researchers also seek answers to questions bothering on learner
motivation, development, and classroom management.

Characteristics of Education Research

While educational research can take numerous forms and approaches, several characteristics
define its process and approach. Some of them are listed below:

1. It sets out to solve a specific problem.

2. Educational research adopts primary and secondary research methods in its data collection
process. This means that in educational research, the investigator relies on first-hand
sources of information and secondary data to arrive at a suitable conclusion.
3. Educational research relies on empirical evidence. This results from its largely scientific
approach.
4. Educational research is objective and accurate because it measures verifiable information.
5. In educational research, the researcher adopts specific methodologies, detailed
procedures, and analysis to arrive at the most objective responses
6. Educational research findings are useful in the development of principles and theories that
provide better insights into pressing issues.
7. This research approach combines structured, semi-structured, and unstructured
questions to gather verifiable data from respondents.

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 8. Many educational research findings are documented for peer review before their
presentation.
9. Educational research is interdisciplinary in nature because it draws from different fields and
studies complex factual relations.

Types of Educational Research

Educational research can be broadly categorized into 3 which are descriptive

research, correlational research, and experimental research. Each of these has distinct and
overlapping features.

Descriptive Educational Research

In this type of educational research, the researcher merely seeks to collect data with regards to
the status quo or present situation of things. The core of descriptive research lies in defining the
state and characteristics of the research subject being understudied.

Because of its emphasis on the ―what‖ of the situation, descriptive research can be termed
an observational research method. In descriptive educational research, the researcher makes use
of quantitative research methods including surveys and questionnaires to gather the required
data.

Typically, descriptive educational research is the first step in solving a specific problem. Here are
a few examples of descriptive research:

 A reading program to help you understand student literacy levels.

 A study of students‘ classroom performance.
 Research to gather data on students‘ interests and preferences.

From these examples, you would notice that the researcher does not need to create a simulation
of the natural environment of the research subjects; rather, he or she observes them as they
engage in their routines. Also, the researcher is not concerned with creating a causal relationship
between the research variables.

Correlation Educational Research

This is a type of educational research that seeks insights into the statistical relationship between
two research variables. In correlational research, the researcher studies two variables intending to
establish a connection between them.

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Correlational research can be positive, negative, or non-existent. Positive correlation occurs when
an increase in variable A leads to an increase in variable B, while negative correlation occurs
when an increase in variable A results in a decrease in variable B.

When a change in any of the variables does not trigger a succeeding change in the other, then the
correlation is non-existent. Also, in correlation educational research, the research does not need
to alter the natural environment of the variables; that is, there is no need for external conditioning.

Examples of educational correlation research include:

 Research to discover the relationship between students‘ behaviors and classroom

performance.
 A study into the relationship between students‘ social skills and their learning behaviors.

 Need and importance

Research in education as in the other fields is essential for providing useful and dependable
knowledge through which the process of education can be made more effective. There are various
considerations which emphasize need for research in education (Best, 1998).

❖ Education has strong roots in the field like philosophy, history, economics, psychology and
sociology. It is through an intensive process of scientific inquiry about the philosophical, historical,
economics, psychological and sociological impact on various aspects of education that sound
theories can be established.

❖ Education is considered as much a science as an art. As a science, it has a corpus of

knowledge. Since education depends on a corpus of knowledge, there is need to add scientific
knowledge to it for enrichment and improvement. As an art, education seeks to impart knowledge
effectively. For example, ‗How can the teacher play an effective role in the classroom and
outside?‘ is a vital question before educationists. It needs careful research efforts to enhance
teacher‘s effectiveness.

❖ The slogan of democratization of education resulted in the expansion of education. It has given
rise to numerous problems like the problem of individual differences, expansion, buildings,
discipline and so on. Solutions of such problems by trial and error or by experience from tradition
and authority often yielded erroneous result. We need solutions based on research so that the
coming generation is not left to the mercy of errors of outright sins of tradition, ignorance and
prejudice (Boykin, 1972).

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❖ There is a need for educational research because of the changing concept of education. The
International Commission on the Development of Education, in its report ―Learning To Be‖
(UNESCO 1972, p. 143) emphasizes: ‗Education from now-on can no longer be defined in relation
to a fixed content which has to be assimilated, but must be conceived of as a process in the
human beings, who thereby learns to express himself, to communicate and to question the world,
through his various experiences and increasingly - all the time - to fulfil himself. It has strong roots,
not only in economics and sociology but also in the findings from psychological research which
indicate that man is an unfinished being and can only fulfil himself through constant learning. If
this is so, then education takes place at all ages of life, in all situations and circumstances of
existence. It returns to its true nature, which is to ne total and life long, and transcends the limits of
institutions, programmes and methods imposed on it down the centuries.‘ In the context of above
nature of education, the limits of educational research have to be extended from the formal and
conventional modes of education to the non-formal and innovative systems based on ecological
and cybernetic models (Bransford et al., 2017).

❖ During the last two decades, great changes have taken place as a result of the rapid scientific
and technological developments. Education has to play an important role so that we can accept
the change in a smooth way. It can do so by bringing improvements in the existing curriculum,
textbooks, methods of teaching and evaluation (Bulterman-Bos, 2008). Research in education has
enabled substantial progress to be made in curriculum development and reform, educating slow
learners, understanding the psychological traits of the physically challenged individuals and in
adapting methods of instructions to the needs of individual learners. Research in education has
rendered an imperative contribution in acquiring information regarding different cultures, norms
and values. The individuals have made substantial contributions through research to their
knowledge and generation of awareness, understanding administrative leadership and behaviour,
group procedures, classroom atmosphere, interaction analysis, self-concept, levels of aspiration,
deprivation and racism, educational inequality and the deprived, marginalized and socio-
economically backward sections of the society. The need for research activities becomes
imperative, which will support education to achieve its goals and objectives, rebuild confidence in
public schools, adapt to cultural diversity, educate for self-identity and individual realization, re-
establish faith in human, moral and democratic values, bring about changes in racial attitudes,
achieve the goals of quality and relevance, and meet the challenges of the future world of
accelerating scientific and technological change (Boykin, 1972).

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Conclusion

Educational research is crucial to the overall advancement of different fields of study and learning,
as a whole. Data in educational research can be gathered via surveys and questionnaires,
observation methods, or interviews – structured, unstructured, and semi-structured.

Question .4
What is an experiment and how you will conduct an experimental
research? What will be the threats to internal and external validity and
how you will minimize these threats?
Each of these situations can be examined best by using experimental research methodology in
which investigators compare the mean performance of two or more groups on an appropriate test.
In experimental research, it is customary to distinguish between the independent variable and the
dependent measure. The independent variable is the feature that is different between the
groups—for example, whether 20 minutes of time each day is used for phonics instruction or
reading aloud to students, whether the class size is small or large, or whether a short quiz is given
during each class meeting. The dependent measure is the score that is used to compare the
performance of the groups—for example, the score on a reading test administered at the end of
the year, the change in performance on academic tests from the beginning of the year to the end
of the year, or the score on a final exam in the class. When researchers compare two or more
groups on one or more measures, they use experimental research methodology.
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DEFINED
Experimental research is based on a methodology that meets three criteria:
(a) random assignment—the subjects (or other entities) are randomly assigned to treatment
groups,
(b) experimental control—all features of the treatments are identical except for the independent
variable (i.e., the feature being tested), and
(c) appropriate measures—the dependent measures are appropriate for testing the research
hypothesis.
For example, in the class size example, random assignment involves finding a group of students
and randomly choosing some to be in small classes (i.e, consisting of 15 students) and some to
be in large classes (i.e., consisting of 30 students). The researcher cannot use pre-existing small
or large classes because doing so would violate the criterion of random assignment. The problem
with violating random assignment is that the groups may systemically differ; for example, students
in the smaller classes may be at more wealthy schools that also have more resources, better
teachers, and better-prepared students. This violation of the random assignment criterion,
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sometimes called self-selection, is a serious methodological flaw in experimental research. In the
class size example, the criterion of experimental control is reflected in having the classes
equivalent on all relevant features except class size. That is, large and small classes should have
teachers who are equivalent in teaching skill, students who are equivalent in academic ability, and
classrooms that are physically equivalent; they should also have equivalence in support services,
length of school day, percentages based on gender, English language proficiency, ethnicity, and
so on. If the groups differ on an important variable other than class size, determining whether
differences in test performance can be attributed to class size will be difficult. This violation of the
experimental control criterion, called confounding, is a serious methodological flaw in experimental
research.
 Dependent measure
Finally, in the class size example, the dependent measure should test the research hypothesis
that class size affects academic learning, so an appropriate measure would be to give an
achievement test covering the curriculum at the start and end of the year. The appropriate
measures criterion would be violated if the dependent measure were a survey asking students
how well they enjoyed school this year or an ungraded portfolio of their artwork over the year.
When a test does not measure what is intended, the test lacks validity; invalid tests represent a
serious methodological flaw in experimental research.

 BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Experimental research is generally recognized as the most appropriate method for drawing causal
conclusions about instructional interventions, for example, which instructional method is most
effective for which type of student under which conditions. In a careful analysis of educational
research methods, Richard Shavelson and Lisa Towne concluded that
―from a scientific perspective, randomized trials (we also use the term experiment to refer
to causal studies that feature random assignment) are the ideal for establishing whether
one or more factors caused change in an outcome because of their strong ability to enable
fair comparisons‖.
Similarly, Richard Mayer notes: ―experimental methods— which involve random
assignment to treatments and control of extraneous variables—have been the gold
standard for educational psychology since the field evolved in the early 1900s‖.
Overall, if one wants to determine whether a particular instructional intervention causes an
improvement in student learning, then one should use experimental research methodology.
Although experiments are widely recognized as the method of choice for determining the effects of
an instructional intervention, they are subject to limitations involving method and theory. First,
concerning method, the requirements for random assignment, experiment control, and appropriate

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measures can impose artificiality on the situation. Perfectly controlled conditions are generally not
possible in authentic educational environments such as schools. Thus, there may be a tradeoff
between experimental rigor and practical authenticity, in which highly controlled experiments may
be too far removed from real classroom contexts. Experimental researchers should be sensitive to
this limitation, by incorporating mitigating features in their experiments that maintain ecological
validity. Second, concerning theory, experimental research may be able to tell that one method of
instruction is better than conventional practice, but may not be able to specify why; it may not be
able to pinpoint the mechanisms that create the improvement. In these cases, it is useful to derive
clear predictions from competing theories so experimental research can be used to test the
specific predictions of competing theories. In addition, more focused research methods—such as
naturalistic observation or in-depth interviews—may provide richer data that allows for the
development of a detailed explanation for why an intervention might have a new effect.
Experimental researchers should be sensitive to this limitation, by using complementary methods
in addition to experiments that provide new kinds of evidence.

 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Three common research designs used in experimental research are between subjects, within
subjects, and factorial designs. In between-subjects designs, subjects are assigned to one of two
(or more) groups with each group constituting a specific treatment. For example, in a between-
subjects design, students may be assigned to spend two school years in a small class or a large
class. In within-subjects designs, the same subject receives two (or more) treatments.
For example, students may be assigned to a small class for one year and a large class for the
next year, or vice versa. Within-subjects designs are problematic when experience with one
treatment may spill over and affect the subject's experience in the following treatment, as would
likely be the case with the class size example. In factorial designs, groups are based on two (or
more) factors, such as one factor being large or small class size and another factor being whether
the subject is a boy or girl, which yields four cells (corresponding to four groups). In a factorial
design it is possible to test for main effects, such as whether class size affects learning, and
interactions, such as whether class size has equivalent effects for boys and girls.

 RANDOMIZED TRIALS IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Experimental research helps test and possibly provide evidence on which to base a causal
relationship between factors. In the late 1940s, Ronald A. Fisher (1890–1962) of England began
testing hypotheses on crops by dividing them into groups that were similar in composition and
treatment to isolate certain effects on the crops. Soon he and others began refining the same
principles for use in human research. To ensure that groups are similar when testing variables,

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researchers began using randomization. By randomly placing subjects into groups that say,
receive a treatment or receive a placebo, researchers help ensure that participants with the same
features do not cluster into one group. The larger the study groups, the more likely randomization
will produce groups approximately equal on relevant characteristics. Nonrandomized trials and
smaller participant groups produce greater chance for bias in group formation. In education
research, these experiments also involve randomly assigning participants to an experimental
group and at least one control group.
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 2001 and the Educational Sciences
Reform Act (ERSA) of 2002 both established clear policies from the federal government
concerning a preference for ―scientifically based research.‖ A federal emphasis on the use of
randomized trials in educational research is reflected in the fact that 70% of the studies funded by
the Institute of Education Sciences in 2001 were to employ randomized designs.
Critics of experimental research say that the time involved in designing, conducting, and
publishing the trials makes them less effective than qualitative research.

Question.5
Define descriptive research What are its major forms? Strengthen your
answer with the example of Case Studies, Causal Comparative studies and
correlation studies?
Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or
phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when and how questions, but not why questions.

According to Best, descriptive research describe research describes and interprets ― what is? It
is concern with conditions or relationship that exist, practices that prevail ; beliefs, points
of views or attitudes that are held; processes that are going on, effects that are being felt
or trends that are developing‖

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods to investigate one or
more variables. Unlike in experimental research, the researcher does not control or manipulate
any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

 Steps in a Descriptive Research

In descriptive studies, the researches follow certain procedures and steps and do not merely
present private convictions or data based on cursory or casual observations.

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According to Van Dalen, the following steps may be taken by the investigate to carry out a good
research:

 Examine their problematic situations.

 Define their problems and sometimes state their hypotheses.
 List the assumptions upon with their hypotheses and procedure are based.
 Select appropriate subject and source material.
 Select or construct techniques for collecting the data.
 Establish categories for classing the data are unambiguous, appropriate for the purpose of,
the study and capable of bringing, about significant likeness, difference or relationship.
 Validate the data gathering techniques,
 Make discriminating and objective observation.

 Types of Descriptive Research

Different writers have classified descriptive research in different ways. Van Dalen has
placed descriptive researches in three categories;

 Survey studies
 Inter-relationship studies
 Developmental studies

 Descriptive-survey

Descriptive survey research uses surveys to gather data about varying subjects. This data aims to
know the extent to which different conditions can be obtained among these subjects.

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For example, a researcher wants to determine the qualification of employed professionals in
Maryland. He uses a survey as his research instrument, and each item on the survey related to
qualifications is subjected to a Yes/No answer.

This way, the researcher can describe the qualifications possessed by the employed
demographics of this community.

 Descriptive-normative survey

This is an extension of the descriptive survey, with the addition being the normative element. In
the descriptive-normative survey, the results of the study should be compared with the norm.

For example, an organization that wishes to test the skills of its employees by a team may have
them take a skills test. The skills tests are the evaluation tool in this case, and the result of this
test is compared with the norm of each role.

If the score of the team is one standard deviation above the mean, it is very satisfactory, if within
the mean, satisfactory, and one standard deviation below the mean is unsatisfactory.

 Descriptive-status

This is a quantitative description technique that seeks to answer questions about real-life
situations. For example, a researcher researching the income of the employees in a company,
and the relationship with their performance.

A survey will be carried out to gather enough data about the income of the employees, then their
performance will be evaluated and compared to their income. This will help determine whether a
higher income means better performance and low income means lower performance or vice
versa.

 Descriptive-analysis

The descriptive-analysis method of research describes a subject by further analyzing it, which in
this case involves dividing it into 2 parts. For example, the HR personnel of a company that
wishes to analyze the job role of each employee of the company may divide the employees into
the people that work at the Headquarters in the US and those that work from Oslo, Norway office.

A questionnaire is devised to analyze the job role of employees with similar salaries and who work
in similar positions.

 Descriptive classification

This method is employed in biological sciences for the classification of plants and animals. A
researcher who wishes to classify the sea animals into different species will collect samples from
various search stations, then classify them accordingly.

 Descriptive-comparative

In descriptive-comparative research, the researcher considers 2 variables that are not

manipulated, and establish a formal procedure to conclude that one is better than the other. For
example, an examination body wants to determine the better method of conducting tests between
paper-based and computer-based tests.

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A random sample of potential participants of the test may be asked to use the 2 different methods,
and factors like failure rates, time factors, and others will be evaluated to arrive at the best
method.

 Correlative Survey

Correlative surveys are used to determine whether the relationship between 2 variables is
positive, negative, or neutral. That is, if 2 variables, say X and Y are directly proportional, inversely
proportional or are not related to each other.

 Examples of Descriptive Research

There are different examples of descriptive research, that may be highlighted from its types, uses,
and applications. However, we will be restricting ourselves to only 3 distinct examples in this
article.

 Comparing Student Performance:

An academic institution may wish 2 compare the performance of its junior high school students in
English language and Mathematics. This may be used to classify students based on 2 major
groups, with one group going ahead to study while courses, while the other study courses in the
Arts & Humanities field.

Students who are more proficient in mathematics will be encouraged to go into STEM and vice
versa. Institutions may also use this data to identify student‘s weak points and work on ways to
assist them.

 Scientific Classification

During major scientific classification of plants, animals, and periodic table elements, the
characteristics and components of each subject are evaluated and used to determine how they
are classified.

For example, living things may be classified into kingdom Plantae or kingdom animal is depending
on their nature. Further classification may group animals into mammals, pieces, vertebrae,
invertebrae, etc.

All these classifications are made a result of descriptive research which describes what they are.

 Human Behavior

When studying human behaviour based on a factor or event, the researcher observes the
characteristics, behaviour, and reaction, then use if to conclude. A company willing to sell to its
target market needs to first study the behaviour of the market.

This may be done by observing how its target reacts to a competitor‘s product, then use it to
determine their behaviour.

What are the Characteristics of Descriptive Research?

The characteristics of descriptive research can be highlighted from its definition, applications, data
collection methods, and examples. Some characteristics of descriptive research are:

 Quantitativeness
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Descriptive research uses a quantitative research method by collecting quantifiable information to
be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. This is very common when dealing with
research in the physical sciences.

 Qualitativeness

It can also be carried out using the qualitative research method, to properly describe the research
problem. This is because descriptive research is more explanatory than exploratory or
experimental.

 Uncontrolled variables

In descriptive research, researchers cannot control the variables like they do in experimental
research.

 The basis for further research

The results of descriptive research can be further analyzed and used in other research methods. It
can also inform the next line of research, including the research method that should be used.

This is because it provides basic information about the research problem, which may give birth to
other questions like why a particular thing is the way it is.

Why Use Descriptive Research Design?

Descriptive research can be used to investigate the background of a research problem and get the
required information needed to carry out further research. It is used in multiple ways by different
organizations, and especially when getting the required information about their target audience.

 Define subject characteristics:

It is used to determine the characteristics of the subjects, including their traits, behaviour, opinion,
etc. This information may be gathered with the use of surveys, which are shared with the
respondents who in this case, are the research subjects.

For example, a survey evaluating the number of hours millennials in a community spends on the
internet weekly, will help a service provider make informed business decisions regarding the
market potential of the community.

 Measure Data Trends

It helps to measure the changes in data over some time through statistical methods. Consider the
case of individuals who want to invest in stock markets, so they evaluate the changes in prices of
the available stocks to make a decision investment decision.

Brokerage companies are however the ones who carry out the descriptive research process, while
individuals can view the data trends and make decisions.

 Comparison

Descriptive research is also used to compare how different demographics respond to certain
variables. For example, an organization may study how people with different income levels react
to the launch of a new Apple phone.

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This kind of research may take a survey that will help determine which group of individuals are
purchasing the new Apple phone. Do the low-income earners also purchase the phone, or only
the high-income earners do?

Further research using another technique will explain why low-income earners are purchasing the
phone even though they can barely afford it. This will help inform strategies that will lure other low-
income earners and increase company sales.

 Validate existing conditions

When you are not sure about the validity of an existing condition, you can use descriptive
research to ascertain the underlying patterns of the research object. This is because descriptive
research methods make an in-depth analysis of each variable before making conclusions.

 Conducted Overtime

Descriptive research is conducted over some time to ascertain the changes observed at each
point in time. The higher the number of times it is conducted, the more authentic the conclusion
will be.

What are the Disadvantages of Descriptive Research?

 Response and Non-response Bias

Respondents may either decide not to respond to questions or give incorrect responses if they
feel the questions are too confidential. When researchers use observational methods,
respondents may also decide to behave in a particular manner because they feel they are being
watched.

 The researcher may decide to influence the result of the research due to personal opinion
or bias towards a particular subject. For example, a stockbroker who also has a business of
his own may try to lure investors into investing in his own company by manipulating results.
 A case-study or sample taken from a large population is not representative of the whole
population.
 Limited scope:The scope of descriptive research is limited to the what of research, with no
information on why thereby limiting the scope of the research.

 Data Collection Methods in Descriptive Research

There are 3 main data collection methods in descriptive research, namely; observational method,
case study method, and survey research.

1. Observational Method

The observational method allows researchers to collect data based on their view of the behaviour
and characteristics of the respondent, with the respondents themselves not directly having an
input. It is often used in market research, psychology, and some other social science research to
understand human behaviour.

It is also an important aspect of physical scientific research, with it being one of the most
effective methods of conducting descriptive research. This process can be said to be either
quantitative or qualitative.

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Quantitative observation involved the objective collection of numerical data, whose results can be
analyzed using numerical and statistical methods.

Qualitative observation, on the other hand, involves the monitoring of characteristics and not the
measurement of numbers. The researcher makes his observation from a distance, records it, and
is used to inform conclusions.

2. Case Study Method

A case study is a sample group (an individual, a group of people, organizations, events, etc.)
whose characteristics are used to describe the characteristics of a larger group in which the case
study is a subgroup. The information gathered from investigating a case study may be generalized
to serve the larger group.

This generalization, may, however, be risky because case studies are not sufficient to make
accurate predictions about larger groups. Case studies are a poor case of generalization.

3. Survey Research

This is a very popular data collection method in research designs. In survey research, researchers
create a survey or questionnaire and distribute it to respondents who give answers.

Generally, it is used to obtain quick information directly from the primary source and also
conducting rigorous quantitative and qualitative research. In some cases, survey research uses a
blend of both qualitative and quantitative strategies.

Survey research can be carried out both online and offline using the following methods

 Online Surveys: This is a cheap method of carrying out surveys and getting enough
responses. It can be carried out using Formplus, an online survey builder. Formplus has
amazing tools and features that will help increase response rates.
 Offline Surveys: This includes paper forms, mobile offline forms, and SMS-based forms.

What Are The Differences Between Descriptive and Correlational Research?

Before going into the differences between descriptive and correlation research, we need to have a
proper understanding of what correlation research is about. Therefore, we will be giving a
summary of the correlation research below.

Correlational research is a type of descriptive research, which is used to measure the relationship
between 2 variables, with the researcher having no control over them. It aims to find whether there
is; positive correlation (both variables change in the same direction), negative correlation (the
variables change in the opposite direction), or zero correlation (there is no relationship between
the variables).

Correlational research may be used in 2 situations;

(i) when trying to find out if there is a relationship between two variables, and

(ii) when a causal relationship is suspected between two variables, but it is impractical or
unethical to conduct experimental research that manipulates one of the variables.

Below are some of the differences between correlational and descriptive research:

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  Definitions:

Descriptive research aims is a type of research that provides an in-depth understanding of the
study population, while correlational research is the type of research that measures the
relationship between 2 variables.

 Characteristics:

Descriptive research provides descriptive data explaining what the research subject is about,
while correlation research explores the relationship between data and not their description.

 Predictions:

Predictions cannot be made in descriptive research while correlation research accommodates the
possibility of making predictions.

Conclusion

The uniqueness of descriptive research partly lies in its ability to explore both quantitative and
qualitative research methods. Therefore, when conducting descriptive research, researchers have
the opportunity to use a wide variety of techniques that aids the research process.

Descriptive research explores research problems in-depth, beyond the surface level thereby
giving a detailed description of the research subject. That way, it can aid further research in the
field, including other research methods.

It is also very useful in solving real-life problems in various fields of social science, physical
science, and education.

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