Q. 1 What are the sources of knowledge?

Define scientific method and describe its different

steps.
Sources of Knowledge
From the time humans were born and the present day, each one has accumulated a body of
knowledge. Curiosity, the desire to learn about one‘s environment and the desire to improve
one‘s life through problem-solving is natural to all human beings. For this purpose, human
beings depend on several methods / sources of acquiring knowledge as follows;
Learned Authority :
Human beings refer to an authority such as a teacher, a parent or the boss or an expert or
consultant and seek his / her advice. Such an authority may be based on knowledge or experience
or both. For example, if a child has difficulty in learning a particular subject, he / she may
consult a teacher.Learned authority could also be a book / dictionary /encyclopaedia / journal /
web-site on internet.
Tradition
Human beings easily accept many of the traditions of their culture or forefathers. For example, in
matters of food, dress, communications, religion, home remedies for minor ailments, the way a
friend will react to an invitation, one relies on family traditions. On the other hand, students, in
case of admission criteria and procedures, examination patterns and procedures, methods of
maintaining discipline, co-curricular activities, acceptable manner of greeting teachers and peers
rely on school traditions. Long established customs or practices are popular sources of acquiring
knowledge. This is also known as tenacity which implies holding on to a perspective without any
consideration of alternatives.
Experience
Prior personal experiences in matters of problem-solving or understanding educational
phenomena is the most common, familiar and fundamental source of knowledge.
Scientific Method
In order to comprehend and accept learning acquired through these sources, certain approaches
are as follows:
(a) Empiricism
It implies relying on what a human’s senses tell. Through a combination of hearing and seeing
one come to know the sound of a train. i.e. through these two senses, learns to associate specific
sounds with specific objects. Human senses also enable him/her to compare objects / phenomena
/ events. They provide with the means for studying and understanding relationships between
various concepts (eg.level of education and income).
(b) Rationalism
It includes mental reflection. It places emphasis on ideas rather than material substances. If
logical interconnectedness between two or more things is viewed, those things are being
accepted. For example, it may reason that conducive school / college environment is expected to
lead to better teacher performance.
(c) Fideism
It implies the use of beliefs, emotions or gut reactions including religion. Humans believe in God
because their parents told them though they had not sensed God, seen or heard him nor had
concluded that that his existence is logically proved.

Scientific Method and Describe Its Different Steps

An enquiry is a natural technique for a search. But when it‘s used systematically and
scientifically, it takes the form of a method. So scientific enquiry is also known as Scientific
Method. Bacon‘s inductive method contributes to human knowledge. It is difficult to solve many
problems either by inductive or by deductive method. So Charles Darwin seeks happy blending
of inductive and deductive method in his scientific method. In this method, initially knowledge
gained from previous knowledge, experience, reflective thinking and observation is unorganized.
Later on it proceeds inductively from part to whole and particular to general and ultimately to
meaningful hypothesis. Thereafter, it proceeds deductively from whole to part, general to
particular and hypothesis to logical conclusion.
Steps in Scientific Method
Scientific method follows five steps as under:
1. Identification and definition of the problem
The researcher states the identified problem in such a manner that it can b solved through
experimentation or observation.
2. Formulation of hypothesis
It allows to have an intelligent guess for the solution of the problem.
3. Implication of hypothesis through deductive reasoning
Here, the researcher deduces the implications of suggested hypothesis, which may be true.

4. Collection and analysis of evidence

The researcher is expected here to test the deduced implications of the hypothesis by collecting
concerned evidence related to them through experimentation and observation.
 5. Verification of the hypothesis
Later on the researcher verifies whether the evidence support hypothesis. If it supports, the
hypothesis is accepted, if it doesn‘t the hypothesis is not accepted and later on it is modified if it
is necessary. A peculiar feature of this method is not to prove the hypothesis as an absolute truth
but to conclude that the evidence does or doesn‘t support the hypothesis.

Q. 2 Describe different types of research categorized on the basis of methods used and the
purpose of research.

Types of Research
Educational research is classified into Basic research, applied research and action research.
The basic and applied researches are differentiated by their purposes. The primary purpose of
basic research is the extension of knowledge whereas the purpose of applied research is the
solution of an immediate, practical problem.
1. Basic Research
Basic research, also called pure research or fundamental research, is a type of scientific
research with the aim of improving scientific theories for better understanding and prediction of
natural or other phenomena.
The concept of basic research emerged between the late 19th century and early 20th century in
an attempt to bridge the gaps existing in the societal utility of science. Typically, basic research
can be exploratory, descriptive or explanatory; although in many cases, it is explanatory in
nature. The primary aim of this research approach is to gather information in order to improve
one's understanding, and this information can then be useful in proffering solutions to a
problem. 
The basic research has the following characteristics;
i. It aims at developing educational theories and principles that will be applicable to a broad
population.
ii. It requires expert training.
iii. It makes use of a wide range of methods to locate the research problem.
iv. Highly specific hypothesis are developed.
v. It involves careful attention so that error is reduced to the minimum.
vi. It calls for a complex analysis of data.
vii. The generalizations usually remain confined to books and research reports.
 2. Applied Research
Applied research is a type of research that is concerned with solving practical problems using
scientific methods while basic research is a type of research that is concerned with the expansion
of knowledge. Applied research creates practical solutions to specific problems hence it is
solution-specific. 

When conducting applied research, the researcher takes extra care to identify a problem, develop
a research hypothesis and goes ahead to test these hypotheses via an experiment. In many cases,
this research approach employs empirical methods in order to solve practical problems. 

Applied research is sometimes considered to be a non-systematic inquiry because of its direct

approach in  seeking a solution to a problem. It is typically a follow-up research design that
further investigates the findings of pure or basic research in order to validate these findings and
apply them to create innovative solutions.  

Types of Applied Research

There are 3 types of applied research. These are evaluation research, research and development,
and action research.

 Evaluation Research

Evaluation research is a type of applied research that analyses existing information about a
research subject to arrive at objective research outcomes or reach informed decisions. This type
of applied research is mostly applied in business contexts, for example, an organisation may
adopt evaluation research to determine how to cut down overhead costs. 

 Research and Development

Research and development is a type of applied research that is focused on developing new
products and services based on the needs of target markets. It focuses on gathering information
about marketing needs and finding ways to improve on an existing product or create new
products that satisfy the identified needs. 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Applied Research

The advantages and disadvantages of applied and fundamental research mirror and contrast each
other. On the positive side, applied research can be helpful in solving specific problems in
business and other settings.

On the negative side, findings of applied research cannot be usually generalized. In other words,
applicability of the new knowledge generated as a result of applied research is limited to the
research problem. Moreover, applied studies usually have tight deadlines which are not flexible.
 3. Action Research
The process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to
guide, correct and evaluate their decisions and actions is called action research.
Action research is a step ahead of common sense approach. A good teacher does not merely
depend upon tradition, or experience of others or recommendations of expert bodies. In action
research he is deliberately more systematic and scientific in dealing with the problem.
What is not an Action Research?
Action research is not a library project where we learn more about a topic that interests us. It is
not problem-solving in the sense of trying to find out what is wrong, but rather a quest for
knowledge about how to improve. Action research is not about doing research on or about
people, or finding all available information on a topic looking for the correct answers. It involves
people working to improve their skills, techniques, and strategies. Action research is not about
learning why we do certain things, but rather how we can do things better. It is about how we can
change our instruction to impact students.
Example
A school administrator conducts action research to improve his administrative behavior.
A teacher conducts action research to improve his own teaching. The research being conducted
by teacher can be based on following assumptions;
 Teachers and principals work best on problems they have identified for themselves
 Teachers and principals become more effective when encouraged to examine and assess
their own work and then consider ways of working differently
 Teachers and principals help each other by working collaboratively
 Working with colleagues helps teachers and principals in their professional development
Different Aspects of Action Research
There are eight aspects of the process of action research. These include the following:
1. Self-dissatisfaction. The teacher feels dissatisfied with the situation.
2. Identification of the problem. The teacher pinpoints the problem.
3. Defining the problem. After identifying the problem, the teacher defines the problem.
4. Problem analysis. The teacher then locates the causes of the weakness.
5. Action hypothesis. Action hypothesis is formed.
6. Use of tools. The teacher decides about the research tools to be used.
7. Action programme. The teacher works out the experiment.
8. Evaluation. The teacher finds out the difference in the result
Advantages of Action Research

i. High level of practical relevance of the business research

ii. Can be used with quantitative, as well as, qualitative data
iii. Possibility to gain in-depth knowledge about the problem
iv. Action research proceeds through a process of planning, action and reflection upon
action. This can be thought of as an action-reflection ‘cycle’.
v. Action research encourages practitioners to become knowledge-makers, rather than
merely knowledge-users.
vi. Researcher can study individuals and their related behaviours, more closely
vii. Participants are able to give data in their own words.
viii. The person must improve if the problem is to be solved is active in, the changed
process from the beginning.
ix. Facts and evidences are stressed which keep the changed process anchored more
continuously to reality. The approach is experimental and tentative rather than
dogmatic.
x. An integral part of action research is the experiment which actually is changed
evaluated.
xi. Action research emphasizes a desirable decentralization of decision making and
action.

Purposes of Research

Basic Research

Research has drawn its pattern, and spirit from the physical sciences and has represented a
rigorous, structured type of analysis. The goal of research is the development of theories by the
discovery of broad generalizations or principles. Have employed careful sampling procedures in
order to extend the findings beyond the group or situation studied. So far, has shown little
concern for the application of the findings to actual problems in areas considered to be the
concern of people other than the investigator. This methodology is the approach of basic or
fundamental research. Fundamental research is usually carried on in a laboratory situation,
sometimes with animals as subjects. This type of research has been primarily the activity of
psychologists rather than educators.

Applied Research

Applied research has most of the characteristics of fundamental research, including the use of
sampling techniques and the subsequent inferences about the target population. However, its
purpose is improving a product or a process—testing theoretical concepts in actual problem
situations. Most educational research is applied research, for it attempts to develop
generalizations about teaching-learning processes and instructional materials. Fundamental
research in the behavioral sciences may be concerned with the development and testing of
theories of behavior. Educational research is concerned with the development and testing of
theories of how students behave in an educational setting.

Action Research

Action research is focused on immediate application, not on the development of theory or on

general application. It has placed its emphasis on a problem here and now in a local setting. Its
findings are to be evaluated in terms of local applicability, not universal validity. Its purpose is to
improve school practices and, at the same time to improve those who try to improve the
practices:- to combine the research processes, habits of thinking, ability to work harmoniously
with others, and professional spirit.

Q. 3 Define casual comparative (Ex-Post Factor) research and discuss it in detail with
example.

Causal-Comparative Research Design Introduction and Focus

While causal research is experimental research designed to compare groups in a more natural
way, causal comparative research design attempts to identify causes or consequences of
differences in a non-experimental setting.  These differences already exist, and their impact on
the outcome is identified by comparing groups. Causal-comparative designs can have different
foci:

(i) exploration of effects,

(ii) exploration of causes,

(iii) exploration of consequence

When to Use the Design? 

This design is used as an alternative to experimental design because sometimes the latter is
expensive, non-feasible and difficult to conduct and while in experimental design the
independent variables are manipulated, in causal-comparative design the predictors are not.
Causal research uses different terms: ex post facto studies gather data retrospectively (e.g. given
the obvious effects of smoking, the researcher will look in the past to find the potential cause),
causal comparison where data are gathered from pre-formed groups and the independent variable
is not manipulated in the experiment.   For this, the researcher will have either to find a
population on which the data are available, or to find an already existing appropriate group.

Type of Problem Appropriate For This Design

The type of problem that this design addresses. should relate to the impact or effect of X on Y. 
This type of design has some similarities with the correlational design. Both designs are suitable
when conducting an experiment is either impossible or unethical. Both try to establish
relationships among variables, but the main difference is that causal comparative will compare
two or more groups after one of the groups has been exposed to some treatment and/or condition
(e.g. new training or intervention)  ) and the design will be used to compare the grades and/or
GPA in two or more groups.  In causal comparison, we compare groups, while in correlational
design we attempt to explain one variable by the other.

Specific Characteristics

1. Sample Size

Causal-comparative studies use different types of data analysis (e.g. if 2 groups are compared
then a t-test or a one-way ANOVA is appropriate, or is more than 2 groups are compared and
ANOVA is appropriate) and the sample size should be calculated accordingly.  The sample size
can be calculated using G*Power.

2. Sampling Method

In causal research samples will be selected because they will have certain characteristics and as
stated above will be non-equivalent. The researcher can construct groups or use performed
groups.  For instance, if the researcher is interested in studying the effects of meat eating on
health, he/she can construct three groups of meat eaters, fish eaters and vegetarians so that
comparisons between them are conducted related to the effects of meat eating. An example of
using a performed group could be when in an inclusion program the researcher is interested in
studying the use of classroom time by disability students.  In this scenario the researcher will use
non-disability students as a control group, but will not have freedom for assigning students to
control or experimental groups if the researcher will be studying both categories of learners in
the same class. Another way of sample selection might be to find a population that already has
the data (e.g. effect of smoking) or to find an existing appropriate group to study the effects of
the cause.

3. Data Collection

Causal research will use questionnaires, tests, interviews as data gathering procedures.  
 4. Data Analysis

In causal-comparative design t-tests, ANOVA and its variations and a chi-square could be used.
The most common tests used are paired-samples t-test, independent samples t-test, one-sample t-
test (if we are interested in comparing results of one group to a norm), and the different
variations of ANOVA. Chi-square is used when the level of measurement of the variables is
nominal.

Limitations
Causal comparative designs have the same limitations as any other design undernon-
experimental research that is the independent variable cannot be manipulated and the researcher
has no control over other variables that can be impacting the dependent variable. Additionally, is
impossible to choose the experimental groups since the events have already occurred.

Example Casual Comparative (Ex-Post Factor) Research

Research on cigarette smoking has had a tremendous effect on society Laws banning television
advertising and cigarette smoking in certain areas resulted from the U.S. Surgeon General's
reports (1964.1979). These reports compiled the research of epidemiologists on the effects of
smoking on a person's health. Epidemiological research methods are used to study trends and
incidences of disease and are descriptive in nature. The epidemiological research on smoking
included two types of descriptive methodology: retrospective studies relate personal histories
with medical and mortality records; prospective studies follow a group of individuals for an
indefinite period or until they die. The early studies, from 1939 to the early 1960s, were
primarily retrospective. These studies found that persons who had Jed of lung cancer were more
likely to have been cigarette smokers than nonsmoker.

Q. 4 What is an experiment and how you will conduct an experimental research? What will be
the threats to internal and external validity and how you will minimize these threats?

Experiment

The essence of an experiment may be described as observing the effect on a dependent variable
of the manipulation of an independent variable. However, the experimentation in education is
useful to determine and evaluate the adequacy and effectiveness of educational aims and
objectives through the measurement of outcomes.
Experimental research provides a method of hypothesis testing. Hypothesis is the heart of
experimental research. After the experimenter defines a problem he has to propose a tentative
answer to the problem or hypothesis. Further, he has to test the hypothesis and confirm or
disconfirm it.
Although, the experimental method has greatest utility in the laboratory, it has been effectively
applied non-laboratory settings such as the classroom. The immediate purpose of
experimentation is to predict events in the experimental setting. The ultimate purpose is to
generalize the variable relationships so that they may be applied outside the laboratory to a wider
population of interest.

Characteristics of Experimental Method

There are four essential characteristics of experimental research:

manipulation observation

control replication
Characteristics
of
Experimental
Method

i. Control
Variables that are not of direct interest to the researcher, called extraneous variables, need to be
controlled. Control refers to removing or minimizing the influence of such variables by several
methods such as: randomization or random assignment of subjects to groups; matching subjects
on extraneous variable(s) and then assigning subjects randomly to groups; making groups that
are as homogenous as possible on extraneous variable(s); application of statistical technique of
analysis of covariance (ANCOVA); balancing means and standard deviations of the groups.
ii. Manipulation
Manipulation refers to a deliberate operation of the conditions by the researcher. In this process,
a pre-determined set of conditions, called independent variable or experimental variable. It is
also called treatment variable. Such variables are imposed on the subjects of experiment. In
specific terms manipulation refers to deliberate operation of independent variable on the subjects
of experimental group by the researcher to observe its effect. Sex, socio-economic status,
intelligence, method of teaching, training or qualification of teacher, and classroom environment
are the major independent variables in educational research. If the researcher, for example, wants
to study the effect of ‘X’ method of teaching on the achievement of students in mathematics, the
independent variable here is the method of teaching. The researcher in this experiment needs to
manipulate ‘X’ i.e. the method of teaching. In other words, the researcher has to teach the
experimental groups using ‘X’ method and see its effect on achievement.

iii. Observation
In experimental research, the experimenter observes the effect of the manipulation of the
independent variable on dependent variable. The dependent variable, for example, may be
performance or achievement in a task.
iv. Replication
Replication is a matter of conducting a number of sub-experiments, instead of one experiment
only, within the framework of the same experimental design. The researcher may make a
multiple comparison of a number of cases of the control group and a number of cases of the
experimental group. In some experimental situations, a number of control and experimental
groups, each consisting of equivalent subjects, are combined within a single experiment.

Conducting an Experimental Research

Experimentation in education is not a perfectly precise method. There are many variables in
education which are extremely difficult or even impossible to control. The basic condition of
other things being equal' is difficult for fulfillment in educational research. All experiments in
education are ultimately experiments with children who for ethical reasons must not be subjected
to conditions that may harm them. There are boundaries of a moral character for experimentation
which must not be infringed.
The following .are the major steps in experimental research.
i. Planning the experiment.
ii. Conducting the experiment.
iii. Reporting the results.
There are various types of experimental designs. The selection of a particular design depends
upon factors like nature and purpose of experiment, the type of variables to be manipulated, the
nature of the data, the facilities available for carrying out the experiment and the competence of
the experimenter.
Categories of Experimental Research Designs
The following categories of experimental research designs are popular in educational research:
(a) Single Design
This type of experiment is carried in comparing the growth of a single individual or group under'
two sets of conditions. The experimenter observes the performance of the individual or the group
before and after the introduction of the experimental variable. Let us say the experimenter is
interested in evaluating the reading speed of a group of sixth class students as affected by
training. He will adopt the steps like test the group, allow for a period of transition and test the
group again.

(b) Parallel or Equivalent Group Design

In this two or more groups of subject’s equivalent in all significant aspects are selected. One of
these groups serves as the 'control group' and the other as 'experimental group'.
(c) Rotation Group Experimentation
This method involves the rotation of 'instructional factors of the experimental and control groups
Pt equal intervals. This method is used to obtain control of pupil factors when groups cannot be
thoroughly equated. It also neutralizes the teacher variable. Of the three designs of educational
experimentation, this is the most valid and at the same time most complicated.

Threats to Internal and External Validity

Internal and External Experimental Validity

 Validity of Experimentation
An experiment must have two types of validity: internal validity and external validity.
 Internal Validity
Internal validity refers to the extent to which the manipulated or independent variables actually
have a genuine effect on the observed results or dependent variable and the observed results were
not affected by the extraneous variables. This validity is affected by the lack of control of
extraneous variables.
 External Validity
External validity is the extent to which the relationships among the variables can be
generalized outside the experimental setting like other population, other variables. This validity
is concerned with the generalizability or representativeness of the findings of experiment, i.e. to
what population, setting and variables can the results of the experiment be generalized.
Factors Affecting Validity of Experimentation
In educational experiments, a number of extraneous variables influence the results of the
experiment in way that are difficult to evaluate. Although these extraneous variables cannot be
completely eliminated, many of them can be identified.
Campbell and Stanley (1963) have pointed out the following major variables which affect
significantly the validity of an experiment:
History
The variables, other than the independent variables, that may occur between the first and the
second measurement of the subjects (Pre-test and post test).

Maturation
The changes that occur in the subjects over a period of time and confused with the effects of the
independent variables.
Testing
Pre-testing, at the beginning of an experiment, may be sensitive to subjects, which may produce
a change among them and may affect their post-test performance.
Measuring Instruments
Different measuring instruments, scorers, interviewers or the observers used at the pre and post
testing 183 stages; and unreliable measuring instruments or techniques are threats to the validity
of an experiment.
Statistical Regression
It refers to the tendency for extreme scores to regress or move towards the common mean on
subsequent measures. The subjects who scored high on a pre-test are likely to score relatively
low on the retest whereas the subjects who scored low on the pre-test are likely to score high on
the retest. Experimental Mortality
It refers to the differential loss of subjects from the comparison groups. Such loss of subjects
may affect the findings of the study. For example, if some subjects in the experimental group
who received the low scores on the pre-test drop out after taking the test, this group may show
higher mean on the post-test than the control group.
Differential Selection of Subjects
It refers to difference between/among groups on some important variables related to the
dependent variable before application of the experimental treatment.

Controlling the Threats to Internal and External Validity

All experimental designs have one central characteristic, they are based on manipulating the
independent variable and measuring the effect on the dependent variable. Experimental designs
result in inferences drawn from the data that explain the relationships between the variables. The
classic experimental design consists of the experimental group and the control group.
In the experimental group the independent variable is manipulated. In the control the dependent
variable is measured when no alteration has been made on the independent variable. The
dependent variable is measured in the experimental group the same way, and at the same time, as
in the control group. The prediction is that the dependent variable in the experimental group will
change in a specific way and that the dependent variable in the control group will not change.

Controlling Unwanted Influences

To obtain a reliable answer to the research question, the design should eliminate unwanted
influences. The amount of control that the researcher has over the variables being studied varies,
from very little in exploratory studies to a great deal in experimental design.
These unwanted influences stem from one or more of the following:
 Extraneous Variables
 Bias
 The Hawthorne Effect
 The Passage of Time.
Extraneous Variables
Extraneous variables are variables that can interfere with the action of the independent variable.
Since they are not part of the study, their influence must be controlled. In the research literature,
the extraneous variables also referred to as intervening variables, directly affect the action of the
independent variable on the dependent variables.
Intervening variables are those variables that occur in the study setting. They include;
 Economic
 Physical
 Psychological variables.
Therefore, it is important to control extraneous variables to study the effect of independent
variable on dependent variable.
Methods of controlling extraneous variables
Following are the Methods for controlling extraneous variables:
i. Randomization
ii. Homogeneous sampling techniques
iii. Matching
 iv. Building the variables into the design
v. Statistical control

Q. 5 Write notes on following

a) Survey Studies b) Interrelationship Studies

Survey Studies

The survey studies collect data from a number of cases at a particular period of time. These are
not related with the characteristics of individuals but their main concern is to make
generalizations which are based on the data collected from a number of cases.

Purpose of a Descriptive Survey Study

The purpose of a descriptive survey study may be:
i. To secure evidence concerning and existing situation or current conditions.
ii. To identify standards or norms with which to compare present conditions.
iii. To determine how to make the next step.
Scope of Survey Study
Surveys may be broad or narrow in scope. They may encompass several countries or may be
confined to one region, city or so other unit. Survey data may be gathered from every member of
a population or from a carefully selected sample. Data may be collected concerning a large
number of related factors or a few selected items. The scope and depth of the study depends
primarily upon the nature of the problem.
Basic criteria for survey study
 i. A survey study is essentially a research and is dearly distinguished from a general report.
But for this purpose a survey study should fulfill the following criteria:
ii. The research report usually has distinctive form, with definite-attention given to
describing the methodology, the sources, the population, the trait being studied, and other
appropriate methodological or technical details.
iii. Presumably original observations are taken.
iv. Each step in the work proceeds with meticulous care and with due consideration for the
large plan and purpose of the work. The data are verified and evaluated.
v. The data are resolved, or organized into certain more general terms, and are sometimes
related to a single, overall thesis. Certainly the data will be summarized in some form or
other, as systematically as possible. What is done with the data is a definite part of the
contribution of the study.
vi. The background, sensitivity, and general competence of the investigator, as well as the
spirit with which he works, are vital elements. As to whether a study must have more or
less than the qualities in this list, probably no definite rule can be stated. These qualities
vary in degree; various types of research have their own criteria. One should aim, In
doing his own research, not at the minimum requirements of research, but at a fairly full-
bodied attach.
Limitations of survey studies
Although the survey researchers make an effort to come up to the above mentioned criteria but
there are certain limitations of survey studies which arise in most cases because of the nature of
data used in these studies. Some of these limitations are as follows:
i. Information that is not known to 'the respondent cannot be obtained in survey.
ii. Information that is not significant to the respondent cannot be obtained in a reliable way.
iii. The information provided by the respondents may not be accurate in case it is about the
aspects which the respondents intend to hide, although an assurance is given to the
respondent about its remaining secret.
iv. Information about activities shared by a very small proportion of population cannot be
obtained in a reliable way in cross-section surveys.
v. Data that can be obtained only with high sampling error do not constitute proper topics
for sample surveys:
vi. Information obtained from a single survey is less reliable than trend data derived from
two or more consecutive surveys carried out by the same methods.
vii. Survey cannot be aimed at obtaining exact quantitative forecasts of things to come
Types of Survey Studies
The following are the major types of survey studies:
i. School Surveys
ii. Public Opinion Surveys
iii. Community Surveys
iv. Documentary Analysis
v. Job Analysis
vi. Follow-up Studies
 Types of
Survey Studies

Community Public Opinion Follow-up Documentary

School Surveys Job Analysis
Surveys Surveys Studies Analysis

the outside Cooperative

self-survey
expert survey Survey.
 Interrelationship Studies
Educationists collect facts to obtain an accurate description of existing status as they make an
effort to trace interrelationship between facts that will provide a deeper insight into the
phenomena. There are three types of studies are included in this type of descriptive research.
These are:
i. Case studies
ii. Casual Comparative studies
iii. Correlation Studies.

i. Case study
Case study research is descriptive research that involves describing and interpreting events,
conditions, circumstances or situations that are occurring in the present. Case study seeks to
engage with and report the complexities of social activity in order to 108 represent the meanings
that individual social actors bring to their social settings. It excels at bringing us to an
understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend experience or add strength to what is
already known through previous research. Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of
a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.
Example
Darwin's theory of evolution was based, in essence, on case study research, not experimentation,
for instance. In education, this is one of the most widely used qualitative approaches of research.
Characteristics of a Case Study
Following are the characteristics of a case study:
1. It is concerned with an exhaustive study of particular instances. A case is a particular
instance of a phenomenon.
2. It emphasizes the study of interrelationship between different attributes of a unit.
3. Case study deepens our perception and gives a clear insight into life… It gets at
behaviour directly and not by an indirect or abstract approach
4. Each case study needs to have a clear focus which may include those aspects of the case
on which the data collection and analysis will concentrate.
5. In order to ensure that the case study is intensive and in-depth, data are collected over a
long period of time from a variety of sources including human and material and by using
a variety of techniques such as interviews and observations and tools such as
questionnaires, documents, artefacts, diaries and so on.
6. The progressive records of personal experience in a case study reveals the internal
strivings, tensions and motivations that lead to specific behaviors or actions of
individuals or the unit of analysis.
Components of a Case Study Design
Following are the five component elements of a case study design:
1. Study questions
2. Study propositions (if any are being used) or theoretical framework
3. Identification of the units of analysis
4. The logical linking of the data to the propositions (or theory)
5. The criteria for interpreting the findings

ii. Casual Comparative studies

Some researchers, while carrying out descriptive research not only try to discover what a
phenomenon is, but also how and why it occurs. They try to determine what factors, or
circumstances, certain events or practices accompany the occurrence of the phenomenon. In
social sciences, where it is difficult to control various variables, causal comparative method is
employed instead of experimental research. It is not always possible for an educational planner
to select, control and manipulate the factors necessary to study cause and effect relationship. So
this method enables a researcher to analyse what happens in a natural rather than laboratory
situation. In an experiment, the researcher may hypothesize; ‘If observed’.
Example
For example, a researcher wants to determine the causes of riots in an, educational institution. He
cannot set up a control group to test whether certain factors will cause a riot. He will compare the
institutions where riots occurred with other institutions which had no riots. He will study the
likeness and difference between the two situations and will determine the factors that appear to
account for the riots in one instance and for its lack in the other.
Limitations
This type of research has some limitations.
a. Lack of control
Lack of control is the greatest weakness of this method. Suppose a researcher observes
phenomenon B and hypothesizes that A caused B.
b. Uncertainty
The data may show that A is related to B but without controlling A, he cannot be certain that
some other factor a C, D or did not cause the occurrence of B.
c. Issues of Precision
It can be said that causal comparative studies do not produce precise reliable knowledge that an
experimental study can do. But they provide a way to probe problems that cannot be probed in a
laboratory situation.
 iii. Correlation Studies
Correlational research describes what exists at the moment (conditions, practices, processes,
structures etc.) and is therefore, classified as a type of descriptive method. Nevertheless, these
conditions, practices, processes or structures described are markedly different from the way they
are usually described in a survey or an observational study.
Scope of the Study
Correlational research is aimed at determining the nature, degree and direction of relationships
between variables or using these relationships to make predictions. Correlational studies
typically investigate a number of variables expected to be related to a major, complex variable.
Those variables which are not found to be related to this major, complex variable are omitted
from further analysis. On the other hand, those variables which are found to be 83 related to this
major, complex variable are further analyzed in a causal-comparative or experimental study so as
to determine the exact nature of the relationship between them.
Steps of a Correlational Research
1. Selection of a Problem
2. Selection of the Sample and the Tools
3. Design and Procedure
4. Interpretation of the Findings
Types of Correlational Study
Co relational research is of the following two types:
(a) Relationship Studies
These attempt to gain insight into variables that are related to
complex variables such as academic performance, self-concept, stress, achievement
motivation or creativity.
(b) Prediction Studies
These are conducted to facilitate decisions about individuals or to aid
in various types of selection. They are also conducted to determine predictive validity of
measuring tools as well as to test variables hypothesized to be predictors of a criterion
variable.
Some questions that could be examined through correlational research are as follows:
1. How is job satisfaction of a teacher related to the extent of autonomy available in job?
2. Is there a relationship between Socio-Economic Status of parents and their involvement
with the school?
3. How well do Common Entrance Test Scores for admission to B.Ed. reflect / predict
teacher effectiveness?