RESEARCH METHODS

COURSE CONTENTS

The Meaning of Research

RESEARCH comes from the two words, re and search, which implies that research topics
are not new or that such topics have not been discussed before. The present study serves
only as a venue of confirmation, revision or negation of the previous findings. Such results
are still new which add knowledge.

In a more concise language, research is defined as:

a. as defined by Mouly, it refers to the process of arriving at dependable solutions to

problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of
data.

b. Dempsey [1981] ‘’research must answer new questions and add new knowledge to fund
of already existing knowledge using the present and the past.’’

c. Kerlinger [1973] ‘’research is a systematic, controlled, and empirical and critical

investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena.

1. Systematic when it follows steps or stages.

2. Controlled in the sense that every step of the investigation is planned. Fancy and guess
work do not have a place in any of its stages. The problem is thoroughly defined,
variables identified and selected, Instruments carefully chosen or constructed.
3. Empirical -when all the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in
the same manner by all the observers. [based on observations and experiment].

[Ang pananaliksik ay empirical- kailangang maging katanggap-tanggap ang mga

pamamaraang ginagamit sa pananaliksik, maging ang mga datos na nakalap.
Halimbawa: kapag sinabi ng isang tao na mayroong limang tao sa loob ng isang silid,
magiging katanggap-tanggap ang datos na iyon kapag naobserbahan na at na-verify ng
ibang tao ang limang tao sa loob ng silid na iyon. Samakatuwid, ang bilang ng tao ay
isang empirical].

All these points of view have one thing in common, they all state that: research is a
scholarly activity aimed at finding new truths about a specific discipline.
Purposes of Research

1. To discover new facts about known phenomenon.

2. To find answer to problems which are only partially solved by existing methods and
information;
3. To provide basis for decision making in business, industry, education, government and
other undertakings;
4. To satisfy researcher’s curiosity;
5. To find answers to queries by means of scientific knowledge;
6. To acquire a deeper and better understanding about a phenomenon;
7. To improve the educational practices for raising quality of school products;
8. To make work, communication, and travel faster, easier and more comfortable.

Characteristics of a Good research/problem

1. It should be of great interest to you. You can be eloquent only in a subject matter which
you know very well and will not have difficulty in depending it.
2. It should be useful for the concerned people in a particular field. This is why, you as a
researcher, should select a topic within your field of endeavor so that you can share the
benefits of your research work with the other people in that particular field of interest.
3. It should be novel or current issues. Your research topic should be something new so
that you can be sure that it really contributes to the formation of new knowledge and
not just mere repetition of what has been done already.
4. It should be within your experience or orientation as well as within your capability.
5. It should be completed in the allotted time desired. Do not delay your research work
because timeliness and freshness of your data and findings will be crucial. Finish your
research work within the time frame you have set at the start.
6. It should not carry ethical or moral impediments. The ethics of research demand that
you do not intrude into the personal lives of your respondents, [unless allowed to do
so]. Generally, Ethical and moral considerations should be held high. Your research will
fail if your respondents will refuse to answer questions related to ethical and moral
issues.
7. Research employs quantitative or statistical methods. Data are transferred into
numerical measures and are treated statistically to determine their significance and
usefulness.
8. Research is an accurate investigation. Every research must be done accurately so that
the findings will lead to the formulation of a scientific generalization.
9. Research is a patient and unhurried activity to ensure accuracy. Research that is done
or conducted carelessly due to racing against time lead to shaky [weak] conclusions and
generalizations.
10. Research requires an effort-making capacity. No research can be conducted without
the exertion of much effort. It involves much work and time.
 11. Research requires courage.

Types of Research
SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS {Qualitative and Quantitative approaches}

Sociologists generally choose from widely used methods of social investigation: primary
source data collection such as survey, participant observation, ethnography, case study,
unobtrusive observations, experiment, and secondary data analysis, or use of existing sources

There are many types of researches according to their distinctive features. Some of these
types are as follow:

1. According to Purpose – Treece and Treece, as cited by Calderon and Gonzales [1993],
identified thre broadlydifferent methods of research: predictive, directive, and
illuminative.

a. Predictive / prognostic research - Predictive research is chiefly concerned

with forecasting (predicting) outcomes, consequences, costs, or effects. This type of
research tries to extrapolate from the analysis of existing phenomena, policies, or
other entities in order to predict something that has not been tried, tested, or
proposed before.
b. Directive research - directive research is research that either:
• Has a specific aim or outcome, for example if you were researching to find out about which
species of dog if most popular worldwide, you might have the aim to discover which dog is the
most popular worldwide.
• Research that is directed at a specific thing, for example chocolate bars. To break your
question down, let's define both of these words individually.
• A directive is literally, a direction that you might want to go with something. So, for example,
a company might have a directive to sell more chocolate bars than another maker. A directive is
like a motive or the reason behind doing something. Most things in life have a directive behind
them. We are all aiming to do specific things with our day-to-day actions.
• Research is looking into something to discover new material. It is used in business, particularly
in market research, which is looking into an area of the market and enabling the company, to
see what it needs to improve to do better in its sector. For example, if this research uncovers
that a rival company is selling a chocolate bar at a lower price, the researching company could
choose to lower it prices to stay in more direct competition.
So basically, putting these two terms together, we now know that directive research is a
method of looking into things, to find out new information or facts and figures with a specific
aim in mind for what the overall outcome of the research will be. Most research is directive,
because you generally need to have an aim when researching to narrow the field down,
otherwise the wealth of information is way too much.

c. Illuminative research - Illuminative research is any research that explores new things
or enhances old research. It is typically research that is considered eye-opening.
Example: Interaction of educational components and to show the connections
among students; characteristics, organizational patterns and policies, and
educational consequences.

2. According to Goal. It is classified into three: basic or pure research, applied research,
and action research.

a. Basic or Pure research - Basic research, also called pure research or fundamental

research, is a type of scientific research with the aim of improving
scientific theories for better understanding and prediction of natural or other
phenomena. In contrast, applied research uses scientific theories to
develop technology or techniques which can be used to intervene and alter natural
or other phenomena. Though often driven simply by curiosity, basic research often
fuels the technological innovations of applied science. The two aims are often
practiced simultaneously in coordinated research and development. Example. A
study looking at how alcohol consumption impacts the brain. A study to discover
the components making up human DNA. A study accessing whether stress
levels make people more aggressive. A study looking to see if gender stereotypes
lead to depression. Studying the effects of smoke belching cars on pedestrians.
Studying the effects of antibiotics on a person’s health.

b. Applied research - Applied research refers to scientific study and research that
seeks to solve practical problems. It is the application of the results of pure
research. This type of research plays an important role in solving everyday problems
that often have an impact on life, work, health, and overall well-being. This type of
research can be used in a variety of ways. Most of the educational researches are
applied research for learning process and instructional materials. Examples:
a. Studying the factors that would enhance participation of college students in
the co- curricular activities.
b. Studying the cause of poor students’ achievement in Mathematics

c. Action research - Action Research is a method of systematic enquiry that teachers
undertake as researchers of their own practice. it is focused on immediate
application, not on the development of theory or on general application. It has
placed its emphasis on a problem here and now in a local setting.
- Action research is a form of investigation designed for use by teachers
to. attempt to solve problems and improve professional practices in their
own. classrooms.
 - Example: Improving class participation among Grade four pupils in In the Kinder-
Grade level in Mount Carmel College of Baler.

3. According to Types of Analysis – Weiss classifies research into Analytic and Hellenistic
research:

a. Analytic research - attempts to establish why it is that way or how it came to be.
b. Hellenistic research - Hellenic studies (also Greek studies) is an interdisciplinary
scholarly field that focuses on the language, literature, history and politics of post-
classical Greece. The researcher begins with the total situation, focusing attention
on the system first and on its internal relationship.

4. According to Choice of Answers to Problems. Ackooff classifies research that is

concerned with finding answers to problems into [a] evaluation and [b] developmental
research.

a. Evaluative research - Evaluation research is defined as a form of disciplined and

systematic inquiry that is carried out to arrive at an assessment or appraisal of an
object, program, practice, activity, or system with the purpose of providing
information that will be of use in decision making. Examples of Evaluative Research

Example:
Goiter is highly prevalent in many parts of Bangladesh. UNICEF, Bangladesh
initiated a lipiodol injection campaign in some selected Upazila in 1989. After two
years, the impact of this campaign was evaluated. The results were compared with
another area where no such attack was launched.

b. Developmental research – Developmental research, as opposed to simple

instructional development, has been defined as the systematic study of designing,
developing, and evaluating instructional programs, processes, and products that
must meet criteria of internal consistency and effectiveness.

Example:
- Researchers study the voluntary responses of infants and young children in many
ways. For example, developmental scientists study recall memory in infants and
young children by looking at voluntary responses.
- Construction of instructional material, preparation of the worktext, or
development of an action program.

5. According to the Area or Field of Study

 a. Sociological research - Here's what sociological research is: the systematic study of
people, institutions, or social phenomena using measurement techniques such as
surveys, interviews, focus groups, ethnography, or comprehensive analysis of texts.

For example:
A sociologist may study individuals or families who are facing eviction or who have
been evicted from their homes, or they may examine societal conditions that have resulted in
increased evictions in the United States (Desmond 2016). Steps in sociological research: These
are (1) selecting a topic, (2) defining the problem, (3) reviewing the literature, (4) formulating a
hypothesis, (5) choosing a research method, (6) collecting the data, (7) analyzing the results,
and (8) sharing the results.

b. Social research - Social Research is a method used by social scientists and
researchers to learn about people and societies so that they can design
products/services that cater to various needs of the people. Different socio-
economic groups belonging to different parts of a county think differently. Example
of social research: As a consequence of unpaid dowry, women are tortured by their
husbands and in-laws, burnt by acid, or even murdered. Despite serious growing
concerns within government and civil societies, the practice of dowry has not
decreased. In most cases, males' attitudes were unfavorable. Steps in social
research: Steps Involved in the Process of Social Research: 11 Steps

 Step 1# Formulation of Research Problem: ...

 Step 2# Review of Related Literature: ...
 Step 3# Formulation of Hypotheses: ...
 Step 4# Working Out Research Design: ...
 Step 5# Defining the Universe of Study: ...
 Step 6# Determining Sampling Design:

c. Psychological research - refers to research that psychologists conduct for systematic

study and for analysis of the experiences and behaviors of individuals or groups.
Their research can have educational, occupational and clinical applications.
Psychologists use the scientific method to conduct studies and research in
psychology. The basic process of conducting psychology research involves asking a
question, designing a study, collecting data, analyzing results, reaching conclusions,
and sharing the findings.
d. Anthropological research - Anthropology is the study of what makes us human.
Anthropologists take a broad approach to understanding the many different aspects
of the human experience, which we call holism. They consider the past, through
archaeology, to see how human groups lived hundreds or thousands of years ago
 and what was important to them. Anthropology is the study of people, past and
present, with a focus on understanding the human condition both culturally and
biologically.
Anthropological questions tend to be about how individuals craft their lives,
their dreams, their beliefs, and their actions in relation to this shared context—
what an anthropologist or sociologist might term a “social” context. What are some
examples of anthropological research? Anthropology is the study of humans, early
hominids and primates, such as chimpanzees. Anthropologist’s study human
language, culture, societies, biological and material remains, the biology and
behavior of primates, and even our own buying habits.
e. Physical research - Physical science is the study of the inorganic world. That is, it
does not study living things. (Those are studied in biological, or life, science.) The
four main branches of physical science are astronomy, physics, chemistry, and the
Earth sciences, which include meteorology and geology. Examples of physical
research: Any of the sciences concerned with the study of non-living systems, such
as the nature and properties of energy, in contrast to biological sciences that study
living systems. Physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology and other disciplines
concerned with the study of non-living things are examples of physical science.

f. Chemical research - Chemistry is the study of matter and the chemical reactions
between substances. Chemistry is also the study of matter's composition, structure,
and properties. ... Chemistry is sometimes called “the central science,” because it
bridges physics with other natural sciences, such as geology and biology. Research
chemicals are chemical substances used by scientists for medical and scientific
research purposes. ... One characteristic of a research chemical is that it is for
laboratory research use only; a research chemical is not intended for human or
veterinary use.

g. Business and Industrial research - The definition of business research

involves acquiring information and knowledge for professional or commercial
purposes such as determining opportunities and goals for a business. An example
of business research is gathering sales information and writing a detailed report on
marketing and sales. The purpose of business research is to gather information in
order to aid business- related decision-making. Business research is defined as 'the
systematic and objective process of collecting, recording, analyzing and interpreting
data for aid in solving managerial problems'. Business research helps to identify
opportunities and threats. It helps identify problems and using this information,
wise decisions can be made to tackle the issue appropriately. It helps to understand
customers better and hence can be useful to communicate better with the
customers or stakeholders.
 h. Economics research - ERPA's focus is on short- and medium-term research in the
areas of productivity, competitiveness, market structure, framework policies,
business innovation, business investment, and sectoral trends and issues. ... What is
the use of economic research?
Economic analysis, both theoretical and empirical, can generate important
insights into individual and aggregate behavior and relationships, and help in
society's efforts to use scarce resources in a more efficient manner.

i. Health and Sanitation research - Health research refers to the many types of

scientific investigations that aim to test ideas, answer questions, improve treatment
options and increase knowledge about human health. Why is health research
important? Research is essential to find out which treatments work better for
patients. Research can find answers to things that are unknown, filling gaps in
knowledge and changing the way that healthcare professionals work. Some of the
common aims for conducting research studies are to: Diagnose diseases and health
problems.

j. Nursing and Medical field research - Nursing research is research that provides
evidence used to support nursing practices. Nursing, as an evidence-based area of
practice, has been developing since the time of Florence Nightingale to the present
day, where many nurses now work as researchers based in universities as well as in
the health care setting. General Purpose of nursing research is to answer the
questions or solve problems of relevance to the nursing profession.

METHODS OF RESEARCH

Methods of research refer to how the research is to be carried out. It is an operational

framework within which the facts are placed so that their meanings may be seen more clearly.
Other institutions call it a RESEARCH DESIGN. Research design is a PLAN, structure and strategy
of investigation conceived in order to obtain answer to research problems.

A. QUANTITATIVE METHODS OF RESEARCH

These methods use statistics to analyze and interpret the data. The quantitative
methods of research are descriptive and experimental.

The descriptive research is the most popular approach use in research project. The word
descriptive is derived from a Latin word ‘de’ meaning ‘from’ and ‘scribe’ meaning ‘to write’.

According to Manuel and Medici, descriptive research describes what is. It involves the
description, recording, analysis, and interpretation of the present nature, composition or
processes of phenomena.
 According to Aquino, descriptive research is fact-finding with adequate interpretation.

According to Good and Scates, descriptive research is simply to describe particular

phenomena as they are.
Descriptive research definition: Descriptive research is defined as a research method
that describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. ... The
descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic
segment, without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs.

In short, descriptive research describes currents events and that the research questions
or problems raised are based on the appreciation of the present phenomena, events or state
affairs. The purpose of the descriptive method is to describe WHAT IS. It deals with the
prevailing conditions of objects, people and events.

THE DESCRIPTIVE METHODS ARE:

1. Descriptive Survey Method – Survey comes from Latin ‘sur’ or super which means
‘above’ or ‘view’ and vey which means ‘to look’ or ‘to see’, thus the word SURVEY
means ‘’to look over’’ or ‘’beyond’’. Descriptive survey research uses surveys to gather
data about varying subjects. This data aims to know the extent to which different
conditions can be obtained among these subjects. For example, a researcher wants to
determine the qualification of employed professionals in Aurora province. Descriptive
research design is a scientific method which involves observing and describing the
behavior of a subject without influencing it in any way.
Advantages of the Descriptive Survey Method
- It’s a typical, average or normal against which the behavior or performance of an
individual can be judged or evaluated.
- The result of the survey may be used for prediction. This is especially true in
correlation studies or even in status studies.
- It makes possible the formulation of generalizations because the sample has high
degree of representativeness.
- It reveals problem for which timely remedial measures may be instituted.

2. Descriptive Normative Method - A descriptive-normative survey combines two research

methods: gathering information to describe the object of study as it is, has been or is
viewed (descriptive method); and critiquing of the object to identify ways to improve it
(normative method). A descriptive-normative survey combines two research methods:
gathering information to describe the object of study as it is, has been or is viewed
(descriptive method); and critiquing of the object to identify ways to improve it
 (normative method). Descriptive-normative surveys do not involve making or testing
recommended improvements.

3. Descriptive Correlational Method - A descriptive correlational study is a study in which

the researcher is primarily interested in describing relationships among variables,
without seeking to establish a causal connection. Example: Relationship of HOME-
SCHOOL PARTNERSHIP and PUPILS ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMEMENT

4. Descriptive Evaluative Method - Descriptive evaluation studies describe the process

and impact of the development and implementation of a system. The findings are
often contextualized within the implementation environment, such as — for our
purposes — the specific healthcare organization. Evaluative research, also known as
evaluation research or program evaluation, is a type of research you can use to
evaluate a product or concept and collect data that helps improve your solution. The
process of evaluation research consisting of data analysis and reporting is a rigorous,
systematic process that involves collecting data about organizations, processes,
projects, services, and/or resources. Evaluation research enhances knowledge and
decision-making, and leads to practical applications.

According to Best and Kahn, this method answers the following questions.
- What are the goals and objectives of the programs being evaluated?
- What are the intended results of the program?
- Are the intended results of the program achieved?
- Are there other unintended results of the program? If there is, were they
positive or negative?
- Are the results of the program sufficient to warrant continuation?

5. Descriptive Assessment Method – this study judged the goodness of an existing

program. It is directed to whether or not a particular program achieved its goals or not.
No hypotheses are proposed or tested.

6. Descriptive Comparative Method - In descriptive-comparative research, the researcher

considers 2 variables that are not manipulated, and establish a formal procedure to
conclude that one is better than the other. This method provides an explanation about
the extent of relationship between two or more variables. The researcher examines the
relationships including similarities or differences among several variables.

For example:
- an examination body wants to determine the better method of conducting tests
between paper-based and computer-based tests.
- A researcher might compare the spelling performance of the same group of
college students or those separate group of college students in another
department.
 Advantages of Comparative Study

- Research variables can easily be selected.

- Comparative results of this study can be known immediately
- Comparative method is easily conducted.

Disadvantage of Comparative Study

- The findings of the study are very much limited because it cannot show the
cause of a change in another variable

7. Descriptive Continuity Method – the researcher is knowledgeable about the operation

of natural or social forces which may be obtained by watching them analytically at
stated intervals in their development over a long period of time as seen desirable and
possible. This is also called generic method.  Generic methods provide one space
where researchers can play and make advances by deviating from methodological
prescriptions, what is generic methodology? The definition of a generic qualitative study
is clearest when it is defined in the negative: it is research that “is not guided by an
explicit or established set of philosophic assumptions in the form of one of the known
[or more established] qualitative methodologies” [Caelli et al., 2003, p.1].
8. Descriptive Trend [tendency] and Perspective Method – this descriptive research is
based upon a longitudinal consideration of recorded data, indicating what has been
happening in the past, what the present situation reveals, and on the basis of these data
it projects what is like to happen in the future. This method is generally used to project
the demands that will be made in the future.

9. Descriptive Narrative Method – Narrative studies are those that talks about the results
of the study. There is no comparative nor correlational analysis made.

Example of Narrative method:

- The Use of Virgin Coconut Oil in the Cure of Cancer: This type of study without
the use of statistics, belongs to ethnographic method of research. A literary form
of qualitative research, narrative research is all about collecting and telling a
story or stories (in detail). Researchers write narratives about experiences of
individuals, describe a life experience, and discuss the meaning of the experience
with the individual. Narrative research is a term that subsumes a group of
approaches that in turn rely on the written or spoken words or visual
representation of individuals. These approaches typically focus on the lives of
individuals as told through their own stories. The emphasis in such approaches is
on the story, typically both what and how is narrated.
Narrative research can be considered both a research method in itself but also
the phenomenon under study.
10. Descriptive Ex-Post Facto Method - An ex post facto research design is a method in
which groups with qualities that already exist are compared on some dependent
variable. This type of descriptive research is also known as causal-comparative research
or after-the-fact research. In this method, the researcher wants to find out the answer
to questions but cannot manipulate the independent variable/s or for practical ethical
reasons.

Examples of topics for Descriptive Ex-post Facto are:

- Teaching Strategies Applied by Mothers in Teaching their Sons with Learning

Difficulties
- The Effect of Pangasinense dialect on the Students’ Oral and Written
Communication

Ex -post Facto research is widely used in education and behavioral sciences.

Limitations of Ex-Post Facto Research:

 The information used in this study may not be complete. The researcher may not have
sufficient information about all the events and variables that were occurring at the time
of the study.
 Causes are often multiple rather than single.
 Lack of knowledge on the part of the researcher regarding what variables were
controlled makes this type of research very difficult to do.
 Independent variables cannot be manipulated.
 Subjects cannot be randomly assigned to treatment group.
11. Descriptive Case Study Method - A descriptive case study is a story about a real-world
situation facing people or groups and how they addressed it. They require research,
but the research furnishes concepts and content for the case narrative. Writing this type
of case is very different from writing a research article. A descriptive case study is
one that is focused and detailed, in which propositions and questions about a
phenomenon are carefully scrutinized and articulated at the outset. The main goal of
the descriptive case study is to assess a sample in detail and in depth, based on an
articulation of a descriptive theory.

This type of descriptive research is widely used in psychology, anthropology,

sociology, criminology, medicine, penology, education, health sciences and business.

The data for a case study may be obtained from several sources such as direct
observation by the researchers, information provided by the researchers’ informants,
interviews, psychological tests, questionnaires and inventories, recorded data from the
 newspapers, schools, courts, clinics, government agencies, and archival records or
documents.

Advantages of the Descriptive Case Study Method:

 It is a rich source of ideas about behavior. It is a breeding ground or a natural starting

point for hypotheses formulation which may be subsequently pursued with more
vigorous methodologies.
 It may be an opportunity for clinical innovation. Information gained from the case study
may provide guidance to other researchers to try out new technique or to apply existing
techniques.
 It is the method to study rare phenomenon.
 It is a challenge to theoretical assumptions.

Disadvantages of Case Study Method:

 There is a difficulty in drawing cause-effect conclusions.

 There may be bias in interpretation
 There is a possibility of biases in data collection.
 There is a problem in generalizing from a single individual or a single unit. Many
researchers believe that it is impossible to generalize from one case.

Kinds of Information Needed in Case Studies

A complete case history or biographical information containing all kinds of information
about the subject of a case study is needed. The following information of a case study is
needed.

 Identifying the name, sex, date of birth, age, [lace of birth, telephone number
 Identification of the problem
 Health and development history
 Family history
 Educational history
 Social history
 Economic history
 Psychological history

Steps in Case Study Method:

 Identify the problem of the study.

  State the objectives of the study
 Identify the unit as a basis of case study
 Determine the sources of data
 Determine the procedures of investigation
 Collate, analyze, and interpret the data

Limitations or Weaknesses of Case Study Method:

A case study method is one of the best methods of research if the researcher has the
competence and energy in using this method. This method is, very useful in social sciences and
social work activities. However, there are some limitations or weaknesses of the case study
method. Among these are:

 The researcher may select convenient cases, which are not typical for a case study.
 The researcher may find difficulty selecting the factors to be studied due to different
environmental settings and sampling size.
 Hypotheses cannot be tested due to small sampling size and limited numbers of
variables; and
 Reliable and genuine data may not be obtained in some case studies due to limited
primary source.

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS ARE:

1. True Experiment Design - A type of experimental design where the researcher randomly

assigns test units and treatments to the experimental groups. Examples of true
experimental designs are: pre-test - post-test control group, post-test only control
group, and a Solomon four group, six-study design.
2. Quasi Experimental Design - A quasi-experimental design is one that looks a bit like an
experimental design but lacks the key ingredient – random assignment. ... You will see
that the lack of random assignment, and the potential nonequivalence between the
groups, complicates the statistical analysis of the nonequivalent groups design.
3. Field Experiment - Field experiments are studies using experimental design that occur
in a natural setting. ... The context in which the experiment is conducted changes.
Instead of a laboratory setting, the experiment is carried out in the field, or the real
world. Examples: Field experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment
of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the independent variable, but in
a real-life setting (so cannot really control extraneous variables). An example is Holfing's
hospital study on obedience.

B. QUALITATIVE METHODS OF RESEARCH

a. Historical Method of Research

 History is the search for knowledge and the truth – it is searching to find out.
History is any integrated narration or description of the past vents or facts written to
inquire for the whole truth.
Meaning of Historical Method of Research. Historical research deals with the
meaning of events. History is merely a transcript of the over-flowing stream of events
and the inexorable changes in human life and its institutions: its language, customs, at,
philosophies, and the life of those who command the attention of their contemporaries
– the mega-figures. The heart of historical research, as with any type of researches, is
not the accumulation of facts, but the INTERPRETATION of these facts to give their
meaning. The interpretation of data is he central in all research. Without it, there is no
historical research. Historical method answers the question: ‘’what was?’’
Examples of Historical Researches
Historical that depicts Social Life
- Mass Media from Pre – Spanish to American Period
- Dating Procedures of Adolescence from Spanish Regime to American Regime
- Memories of Ferdinand Marcos from 1943 to His Death
Cultural in Nature
- Characteristics of the Filipina Dress from 1902 to 2000
- Pictorial Evolution of Philippine Hats from 1861 to 1945
- Child – Rearing Practices of the Pangasinense
Political and Economic in Nature
- Philippine Currency from 1850 to 19590
- The Value of the Peso in the Early 1900 – 2004
- Personality Characteristics of the Past Presidents
Why historical method is important?
The historian's role is to make the past intelligible in terms that will allow people of the
present to understand better what has shaped their world and their lives.

b. Content Analysis Method - Content analysis is a research technique used to make

replicable and valid inferences by interpreting and coding textual material.
By systematically evaluating texts (e.g., documents, oral communication, and graphics),
qualitative data can be converted into quantitative data. Content analysis is a qualitative
research tool or technique that is used widely to analyze the content and its features.  It is an
approach used to quantify qualitative information by sorting data and comparing different
pieces of information to summarize it into useful information.
 
Holsti (1969) has defined content analysis as,

  “Any technique for making inferences by objectively and systematically identifying

specified characteristics of messages.”
 Content analysis is also referred to as documentary analysis. It may be used as primary
[principal] method of research or a secondary method of research. Often, content analysis
method is utilized in descriptive researches as an auxiliary method

c. Ethnographic Method - Ethnographic methods are a research approach where you

look at people in their cultural setting, with the goal of producing a narrative account of
that particular culture, against a theoretical backdrop. As part of this you will look at:
How they interact with one another, and with their social and cultural environment.

Ethnography is a systematic process of observing, detailing, describing,

documenting, and analyzing the cultural beliefs, practices, rituals, and customs of a
cultural group in order to obtain information about their culture in a particular
environment.
For ethnographic studies, the researcher uses ethnographic method. The process
of conducting ethnographic studies involves intensive field researches to discover and
describe accurately and comprehensively the culture of the people being studied; the
researcher has to live with the people and become part of their culture.
To be able to understand more the cultural environment of the
subjects/respondents, the researcher must be able to understand a little of their
language, beliefs, practices, attitudes and be familiar with their cultural environment.
This qualitative method of research is more popular in the field of sociology and
anthropology.
Data are usually collected through participant observation and direct interview.
By participant observation, the researcher, ethnographer must, if possible, stay with the
subjects all throughout the period of observation. The interview is done informally and
in their dialect. Pictures have to be taken. In every area of the study, it must be
documented.
To be able to comprehend accurately and reliably the cultural patterns of the
subjects, the researcher/ethnographer should put aside his own personal bias. He must
be objective in describing and analyzing the data.
Ethnographic studies require less statistic and sometimes no statistics at all. The
study has no hypothesis but the report is thick in description, consisting of pictures,
records, and documents.

Examples of topics that can be investigated using the ethnographic method are:

- Cultural Beliefs and Practices of the Dumagats in Aurora

- Circumcision Rituals among the Ibanag Menfolks
- Child-Rearing Practices among the Ifugaos of Northern Luzon
- Wake and Burial Beliefs and Practices among the Bicolanos of Rinconada Area,
Camarines Sur
 d. Phenomenological Method.

This method of studies examines human experiences through the description

provided by the people involved. These experiences are ‘’live experiences’’ of the
people themselves.
In other words, the subject of the phenomenological studies is the human world.
The people [subjects] are asked by the researcher to describe experiences as they
perceive them; hence, the purpose of the phenomenological study is to describe the
meaning of experiences that hold for each other.
To understand the live or primary experiences of the subjects, the researcher
must first identify what he wants to discover. This is known as the bracketing.
In the analysis of data, the researcher has to uncover the meaning of the live
experience of the subject. Theme and pattern are sought in the data such as
individualism, self-determination, and affection, wholeness of being, uniqueness of
personality, caring attitude, and all qualities of humanness.
Phenomenological studies are common in sociology, psychology, philosophy,
education, criminology and other social sciences. T is also useful in nursing research.
Purposive sampling technique is usually the type of sampling used in this study.

Examples of topics using phenomenological studies are:

1. Mother’s Experiences Living with a Graduating Child Dying of Cancer

2. Stress and Anxiety of Engineering Students During Licensure
Examination
3. Experiences of Five Baler Fishermen Drifting in the Sea for Ten Days
4. Living Under the Earthquake Rubbles without Food, Water and Light for
Five Days

GUIDELNES IN CONDUCTING PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCHES

1. Investigate a particular phenomenon.

The researcher must have intuitive grasp of the phenomenon, that is, he must
have a heightened awareness of his subject. Then he must identify the
constituents f the observed phenomenon in his consciousness. Then, he
describes the phenomenon by way of analogy.
2. Investigate the general essence.
The researcher must order or sequence the particular phenomenon in his
consciousness according to their similarities; the he interprets intuitively what
 constitute the essence of his phenomenon that he and the subject experience
together.
3. Relate essential relationship among essences.
The researcher must relate essential relationship among essences through
synthetic process.
4. Watch mode of appearance.
This can be done by the researcher through shading of the phenomenon in his
field of awareness.

5. Watch the constitution of phenomenon.

The researcher may describe the phenomenon as it unfolds to him and emerges
in his consciousness.
6. Relate things in general essence.
The researcher may theorize from his own experiences and connect his insights
with existing theories.
7. Perform creative synthesis.
This can be done by interpreting the phenomenon or by making implications of
the phenomenon.

The phenomenological approach aims to study a phenomenon as it is

experienced and perceived by the participant and to reveal what the phenomenon is
rather than what causes it or why it is being experienced at all.

Examples of phenomenological research include exploring the lived experiences of

women undergoing breast biopsy or the lived experiences of family members waiting
for a loved one undergoing major surgery.

METHODS OF RESEARCH END OF MODULE

ACTIVITIES:
1. What are the types of research according to their distinctive features?
2. What are the three types of research which are widely used by undergraduate and
graduate researchers?
3. What is descriptive method of research? What are its classifications?
4. Hoe does quantitative differ from qualitative method of research?