CHAPTER 1

The Nature of Science

What is science?

The word "science" undoubtedly brings up a wide variety of images, such as a thick textbook, white
lab coats and microscopes, an astronomer staring through a telescope, a naturalist in a tropical forest,
Einstein's equations scrawled on a whiteboard, the launch of the space shuttle, and bubbling beakers.
Since science has so many facets, each of those photos only reflects a small portion of what science
is about:

 Science is both a body of knowledge and a process. In school, science may sometimes
seem like a collection of isolated and static facts listed in a textbook, but that's only a small part
of the story. Just as importantly, science is also a process of discovery that allows us to link
isolated facts into coherent and comprehensive understandings of the natural world.
 Science is exciting. Science is a way of discovering what's in the universe and how those
things work today, how they worked in the past, and how they are likely to work in the future.
Scientists are motivated by the thrill of seeing or figuring out something that no one has before.
 Science is useful. The knowledge generated by science is powerful and reliable. It can be
used to develop new technologies, treat diseases, and deal with many other sorts of problems.
 Science is ongoing. Science is continually refining and expanding our knowledge of the
universe, and as it does, it leads to new questions for future investigation. Science will never
be "finished."
 Science is a global human endeavor. People all over the world participate in the process of
science. And you can too!

 Science as a broad body of knowledge. Physical Sciences consist of disciplines such as

physics (the science of physical objects), chemistry (the science of matter), and astronomy
(the science of celestial objects). Earth Sciences consist of disciplines such as geology (the
science of the earth).
 Science as a set of skills. The Science process skills form the foundation of scientific
methods. There are six basic science process skills: observation, communication,
classification, measurement, inference, and prediction. These basic skills are integrated when
scientists design and carry out experiments. All basic skills are important individually as well
as when they are integrated.
 Science as an intellectual activity. Science is the intellectual, practical, and systematic
study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and
experiment.
 Science as a social activity. Science is a social activity shaped by history, institutions,
beliefs, and values. Society shapes science and vice versa.
 Science as problem-solving. Problem-solving skills are necessary in all areas of life, and
the science class provides the students opportunity to develop and utilize their problem-
solving skills, which include the ability to critically analyze a problem, determine all its
elements, and prepare a feasible solution. These are valuable skills one can acquire in life.
 Science as a career. Individuals who have devoted themselves in studying and doing
science have established careers in science, such as biologists, chemists, environmentalists,
astronomers, medical practitioners, among others.
 Science as a global human endeavor. Science is a result of human imagination, ingenuity,
and creativity. Individuals and teams from many nations and cultures have contributed to
science and to advances in technology.
 Science as a process. The scientific method is a set of steps for verifying and building
scientific knowledge. When performing this process, one employs skills necessary to
research a topic, develop a plan and timeline, and draw conclusions from research results.
 SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The information in the Science Textbooks is the result of many scientific investigations which may
have been 1st published in a scientific journal.

 Scientist- Are people who are basically Curious about the world around them. Because of their
natural curiosity, they have the inclination to probe answers to the questions.

 Scientific Method- The process and logical approach to explain events, occurrence and
phenomena

5 STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

 Observation
 Forming a hypothesis
 Testing the Hypothesis
 Drawing Conclusions
 Communicating results

1. Observation – Keenly observe things around you esp. naturally occurring phenomena and ask
questions. Your questions lead you to formulate a problem.

2. Forming a hypothesis – a tentative explanation or prediction that guides inquiry or scientific

investigation- a possible answer to a scientific question based on scientific knowledge and it must be
logical.

3. Testing the Hypothesis

 Falsifiable- possible to make observation that would disprove the hypothesis if it is really false
 Make predictions( forecast results) based on the hypothesis or assumptions formed.

 A Prediction – is a statement that tells what will happen under certain conditions. It can be
expressed in an if- then statement
 Conduct tests or do an experiment – gather Evidences to test your prediction.
 Evidence- any type of data that may either agree or disagree with a prediction, so it may either
support or disprove a hypothesis

Here you might need some:

 Replicates- is a single repetition or run of an experiment, with all conditions and factors kept
constant except for the treatment being studied. The purpose of replicates is to increase the
precision and accuracy of the results by accounting for variability within the experiment.
 You need some Replicates when scientific experiments are done on an individual
organism.- one must have a large number of organisms.
Make observations of moths with eyespots. Perhaps you observe that birds really do avoid eating
moths. This evidence agrees with the Prediction.

 EXPERIMENTS - is a special type of investigation that is performed under controlled conditions.

VARIABLE- a test of how one variable is affected by another.

A. Dependent variable -the affected variable.

B. Independent variable – the variable that affects the dependent variable.
 Control subject the one that does not receive the treatment; which has not been applied with
fertilizer (unfertilized control subject)
  Experimental subject which receives the treatment(fertilized experimental)

4. Drawing Conclusions –Compare the results of your experiment with the predictions to determine
if the result support or reject the hypothesis/assumptions formed.

 Evidence that agrees with prediction and supports the hypothesis cannot be proven conclusively
true.

5. Communicating results – Share results or publish results of the experiment in scientific journals
so other scientists can either repeat or extend the experimental observations. If you allow others test
your hypothesis and get the same results, they add support to the hypothesis. However, if they get
different results, they may disprove the hypothesis.

Sample Problem :

Observations: It is rainy season but the grass in your lawn appears yellow and dying.

Hypothesis – If the lack of fertilizer is the reason for the poor condition of the lawn, we can then
predict that adding fertilizer will make the lawn lush and healthy again.

Conduct or do experiments – apply fertilizer then, observe the results and reach a conclusion.

Drawing Conclusions - If the lawn is still in poor shape several weeks after fertilizer application,
meaning the results are not as you predicted or hypothesized, you can conclude that the hypothesis
or assumption you made is false. You proceed to formulate and test another hypothesis.

The concept of a ‘control’ – If the entire lawn turns green you reject the hypothesis; if the fertilized half
turns green the results support you hypothesis that the lack of fertilizer was the cause why your lawn
was unhealthy.

Need to replicate – In the case of your lawn, divide the lawn into 10 sections, pick 5 of these
sections at random and fertilize them, leaving the other 5 as controls.
Need to modify one variable at a time. In a scientific experiment, the control must be treated in
exactly the same way as the experiment subject, except for one variable.

For example: The fertilized areas of your lawn were watered more sufficiently than the control areas;
in which case you cannot conclude that the greening was due to fertilizer; it could have been caused
by the extra watering the lawn received

Need to quantify measurements- The results must be quantifiable, that is measurable in terms of
weight, length, and number of individuals.

Bear in mind several points when applying the Scientific Method

 Be cautious in making conclusions – Do not conclude more than your results justify.
 Your hypothesis must be capable of being tested. A supernatural force is preventing my lawn
from growing. Is not a testable hypothesis and is therefore outside the realm of science.
 Carefully record your data observations and data so that experiment can be repeated
 Publish results.
 The Experiment must be done properly. In the case of the lawn, if too much fertilizer is applied the
grass may still die, and the results would not support your hypothesis, even if you lawn needed
fertilizer.
 CHAPTER 2
Goals of Elementary Science Education

Science is a continuous process of learning. Its not just about learning of all sorts of facts. It goes
through a hierarchical order ranging from simple to more complex knowledge and skills.
For every lesson that we are going to introduce to our class we always think of expected outcome in a
form of ILOs in college and OBJECTIVES in high school and elementary. What we expect learners
to be able to do at the end of the topic requires different types of instructions. So our class always
begins with a clearly established learning goals which identify both the academic content and task or
competencies that students will be expected to perform upon the completion of the course. Learner
should understand what they must do to achieve a specified competency.

So what are the 3 domains of learning?

When you write your objectives what are the things that you need to consider?
1. Whats the purpose of your activity?
2. What result do you desire to establish?
3. And of course identify the methodology to be used to get to your goals.

 COGNITIVE- knowledge, mental skills, thinking ability. This includes comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis and evaluation are best explained by the TAXONOMY OF LEARNING
DOMAINS formulated by a group of researchers led by Benjamin Bloom

 AFFECTIVE – develop feelings, emotions, and overall well-being of an individual that can
enhance student’s academic performance. If pupils are psychologically strong these are
considered as also tools for the mind. If he has the confidence, goal setting ability for instance
then he would achieve the most productive minds. Here we will integrate values. What attitudes
will be developed or observable student behavior

 PSYCHOMOTOR - this is now the physical movement, manual skills which can be measured in
terms of speed, precision, procedures. Students will show the techniques in executing the activity
or experiment. We will also add interpersonal/ social skill- having to do with interactions with
other through group activity

BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
 Important as it provides a framework in which to plan challenging lessons that help to ensure
student’s progress is maximized – a fundamental tenet of successful teaching..
 It shows us the order/sequence in which we must teach our students various things so that
they can reach the higher levels of thinking that we want them to achieve. Various things
meaning we have to differentiate our lessons from lower level of cognitive skill to that part
which encourage them a great deal of thinking ( higher order-though)
 It is important for teacher as it guides them to be able to come up or what teachers want to
achieve for their students

 It allows to determine whether there is a variety in the complexity of current learning

outcomes
 It’s vital and important because thinking skills are hierarchical, and students must master
content at each level. Students have to apply what they know before they can do something
else at a higher level of thinking and doing with the aide of teachers.
  It’s important because it helps us determine what level of learning you are achieving with your
program.
Key Words
 Hierarchical – determine the level of learning

 Variety in the complexity – always remember the principles of learning INDIVIDUAL

DIFFERENCES. Our lesson should not be on the same level but categorize it as easy,
average, and difficult to be able to cater the different cognitive abilities of our students, the
same holds true with our style of questioning. Create a variety to challenge the bright
students and give chance to the slow learners

 In our ILO – REFER TO THE LISTED KEY VERB under each specific level in stating your
learning intentions. See to it that students can reach the level ANALYZE, EVALUATE AND
CREATE which requires deeper thinking

 In bloom’s taxonomy – the objectives are categorized into levels of complexity starting from
simply attaining rote memorization to the level of higher order thoughts which is the one that
we strongly encourage to our students. In using the bloom’s taxonomy we use action verbs
( pls. refer to the graphics) that denotes the level of learning of expected outcomes. Follow
this with action verb with a statement that describes the knowledge and abilities to be
demonstrated. Plan well your learning activities and exam. to assess students understanding
on a variety of levels that helps us understand how well they know the material and setting
high and challenging standards are integral parts of the learning process.

 We use this to gauge and the exam to asses our strategy and techniques because one
contributing factor in students low academic performance is on how instruction is delivered .
so there is teacher factor to consider. We can use techniques like ANALOGIES, provide
interaction, ask open ended questions, allow reflections and all other methods that would
require our students to expand their knowledge
 REMEMBERING – recalling facts ; whats the technique for you to be able to easily
memorize. Read with comprehension so you can explain it with your own words. But,
we also have to see to it that we can also come up with strategies that can push
students to create their own meaningful, representation of knowledge to be assisted
by their teachers. We should elevate into reaching the higher goal of applying,
analyzing, evaluating and creating
 COMPREHENSION – requires understanding beyond simple recall
 APPLYING – application in a new situation; using your background knowledge in
dealing with a new situation now based it on your own identified problem
 ANALYZING – requires converting into components; drawing conclusion; determining
evidence; letting the students analyze the relationships between the different
components of the ecosystem
- You may present the process of mitosis and meiosis and let them compare and contrast
the 2
 SYNTHESIS – requires making prediction; bringing together parts to form a whole
 EVALUATE – You have to make judgments based on criteria and standards.
Requires offering an opinion. For example discussing both advantages and
disadvantages on the need to shift from teacher centered. You need to weigh here
things out
 CREATE - involves coordination of all skills in all domains. Example; thesis writing,
composing music, writing a play. Incorporate low level to enhance our
understanding of the higher order thinking skills. in every lesson that you are going
to introduce kindly include VALUE INTEGRATION. Example : the awareness of the
consequences of one’s action on the environment.
This is our template in making our exam. If you have a 20 item test you have to identify which of the
items are categorized under surface learning and which are classified as deep learning. Pila ka %
under each category imong question nga easy, average, and difficult.

Just familiarize the action verbs that corresponds to each level of thinking in formulating objectives.
We have to put now Blooms into action. Our goal here is to create a variety of appropriate learning
outcomes for our students. And these below are my instructions:
1. Use the verb chart to categorize your learning outcomes by Bloom’s 6 levels
Adjust or create new outcomes using the Verb Chart
2. Determine which levels are appropriate for you topic.
3. Consider appropriate teaching practices to help students achieve your
Objectives/Expected Outcomes. See to it that the strategy you use in the
presentation of your lesson will take the students thro a thought process of
analyzing for example. You may read the sample of Instructional Practices given
in your notes.
Reminders:
a. Show that the different learning domains are integrated and the affective
domain DO NOT FORGET
b. The method of delivery should match not only with the learning outcomes but
with the grade level of the students you are handling
c. Since we are elementary teachers, as you enter the class,you must be filled
with energy and enthusiasm as students become active participants. Play
games. Having fun is a way of building a love of learning. The more students
are engaged, the less likely the students will show a disruptive behavior. If the
students are not happy with the way the topic is taught they may show
disinterest and a boring and uninteresting class is detrimental to students
learning
d. You have to act it out as if you are now into the actual practice of teaching with
one lead student and the rest of the group will behave as his pupils

The Science Teacher

A. Innate Qualities
1. Aptitude- refers to an individual’s native ability, talent or inclination. It indicates a natural
capacity to learn certain skills. Science teachers must possess an aptitude, first for guiding
and teaching children, and second, strong interest in learning and teaching the sciences.
2. Mental Ability A science teacher must possess an above average or higher mental ability.
To initiate and sustain interest in scientific investigations, the teacher should show
outstanding ability to pursue the said activities. Specializing in science subjects clearly
requires sharp and precise thinking and reasoning.

B. Personal Traits- are characteristics and qualities that help define you as a unique individual.
1. Nurtures students' curiosity
2. Encourages scientific thinking
3. Develops scientific literacy
4. Integrates science with other subjects
5. Uses classroom assessments to support student learning

C. Attitudes and Values

A science teacher should be a model of the following scientific attitudes and values:
1. Critical-mindedness- the possession of certain cognitive skills in relation to evidence and
the way it is obtained, regarded and used.
2. Creativity and Flexibility-
 Creativity- is defined as the tendency to generate or recognize ideas, alternatives, or
possibilities that may be useful in solving problems, communicating with others, and
entertaining ourselves and others.
Flexibility- the ability to change or be easily changed according to the situation
3. Honesty and Sincerity
Honesty- is the quality of being truthful and straightforward in one’s actions and words.
Sincerity- it is the act of expressing oneself honestly and truthfully, without any pretense
or deceit.
4. Open-mindedness- is the willingness to search actively for evidence against one’s favored
beliefs, plans, or goals, and to weigh such evidence fairly when it is available.
5. Objectivity- the fact of being based on facts and not influenced by personal beliefs or
feelings
6. Humility- the feeling or attitude that you have no special importance that makes you better
than others
7. Sharing and Caring Attitude

D. Competencies
A measure of a science teacher’s competence includes the following abilities:
1. Knowledge of the Subject Matter
A competent science teacher has a mastery of the subject matter she has to teach. She
possesses adequate background of the body of concepts, theories, and principles of a
particular branch of science. A 15-unit course work in science qualifies one to teach in the
elementary level.
2. Process Skills
The teacher is presumed to have gained the necessary skill in employing the inquiry
processes. The basic science processes are: a) observing; b) measuring; c) inferring; d)
predicting; e) controlling variables; f) formulating hypothesis; and g) experimenting.
A skilled teacher should be able to plan investigative activities wherein children learn to
apply the appropriate processes with ease and accuracy.
A strong indication that a teacher possesses inquiry skills is when she is able to conduct
an original research, a field investigation or a project that calls for quantitative and
qualitative observations.
3. Science Teaching
Equipped with sufficient knowledge and skilled in using inquiry processes, the last test
is how she will develop the same competence among the young. She should be able to
demonstrate some teaching methodologies that are effective in presenting science lessons.
A teacher who is innovative can vary her techniques in introducing new topics. Teaching
will be less routine and boring.
E. Professional Growth
A measure of a teacher’s competence is how she is growing professionally. An ideal
science teacher is one who is highly desirous to improve herself as a person and as a
professional through time. It may not be achieved immediately but if the motivation to seize
opportunities for growth is sustained, the ensuing improvement is assured. Satisfaction with
what was learned before and complacency may lead to inactivity and isolation from the movers.
Some initiatives that could guarantee continuous professional education are;
1. Attending short-term and school-based sessions with department members for
demonstration teaching, presentation of new techniques and highlighting trends.
2. Attending seminar-workshops conducted by science associations and science experts.
3. Conducting educational trips to exhibit centers, museums, landmarks, and science
institutions.
4. Growing through self-instructional materials and developing own teaching units.
5. Acquisition of new professional books, research journals, and modern teaching devices.
6. Enrolling classes for advanced credits.
7. Joining professional associations, and special interest organizations.
 8. Undertaking research and field studies.
The longer one stays in the teaching profession the more intense the motivation to improve and
mature should be felt. Then, progress and academic advancement will be easy to achieve.

NOTES ON LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 The present goals of science education intended for the elementary level is the DEVELOPMENT
OF SKILLS IN THE BASIC SCIENCE PROCESSES rather than on the mastery of science facts.

 Parrot-like recitations of high sounding technical terms and pure recall of memorized laws and
theories have NO PLACE IN A PROCESS-ORIENTED classroom instruction. Rather than
emphasize the learning of content perse at such an early age present teaching methodologies
are geared instead towards the development of scientific thinking, internalization of desirable
values, and eventually close adherence to a scientific and systematic way of doing things. It is a
truism that one with a scientific attitude will always employ the science processes whether it is for
simple verification or for seeking new information.

 While science content may be forgotten especially when acquired through repetitious recall or
may someday be superseded by new findings, developed skill in the basic investigative
processes becomes a part of the child’s behavior patterns. Once these skills are gained during
the early formative years they remain long enough to be of use throughout their adult life.

 Science education is anchored on the rationale that the processes of obtaining information are
more important than the information itself. Hence, a corresponding thrust focusing on the
processes rather than on the products has emerged.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 What are the ABCs of Learning Objectives?

 Audience
 Behaviour
 Condition

 The ABCD approach to learning outcomes. By using this formula, you will be able to create a
clear and effective objectives.

 Instructional Objectives are written for the student and they state what the student is expected to
do following instruction.

 OBJECTIVES are specific. Observable and measurable learning outcomes.

 Writing Measurable Goals- the ABCD Method
 A = Audience
 the learner or the student

 B = Behavior
 the specific actions the learner is to perform, demonstrate or exhibit
 What is it we are watching for?

 C = Condition
 context in which the learner will perform the skill or decrease the undesired
behavior
 Where will this happen?
 What is needed for it to happen?
  D = Degree
 the criteria for an acceptable level of performance
 How will we know the student is being successful or meeting the goal.

 S = Specific
 Learning outcomes is written in clear, direct language to tell learners what
they need to learn and the desired behaviors they should be able to
demonstrate after learning.
 Clearly State your Goal
 Plan effectively with specific targets in mind
 Use unambiguous action verb, enabling the result to be observed or
measured in some way

 M = Measurable
 Success in achieving a learning outcome can be measured by an observable
action.
 Avoid using verbs like ‘know’ or ‘understand’ when writing learning
outcomes as they cannot be observed as tangible actions.
 Can be measured through assessment/evaluation
 Ensure you can measure success. Track your progress and evaluate along
the way
 How will you know if you’ve successfully met your goal?

 A = Achievable
 For learning outcomes to be achievable, learners must have sufficient
knowledge, time and resources to fulfill them. However, learning outcomes
should also not be too easy to achieve.
 Inject the right amount of challenge to stretch learners and help them to
master new competencies.
 Is the level of learning achievable
 Set Goals you know you can achieve
 Must be realistic and reasonable.
 Set realistic goals that are challenging but achievable

 R = Relevant
 Learning outcomes should be practical for learners to apply at work and
demonstrate their functional competencies.
 This makes classes worthwhile for learners to attend.
 Set Goals Relevant to your Career or Education
 The goal must relate to what you’re hoping to accomplish
 Ensure the goal serves a relevant purpose.
 Consider whether this worth your time and relevant to your life
 It should be aligned with current objectives that are aligned in a specific area;
include the expected result. Why am I setting this goal now?

 LEARNING OUTCOMES: describe the measurable skills, abilities, knowledge or values that
student s should be able to demonstrate as a result of completing a course. Denotes actionable
attributes

 They are student-centered rather than teacher-centered, in that they describe what the students
will do, not what the instructor will teach.
 Positive learning outcomes. Good teachers want to ensure that each student walks away from
their course with a strong understanding of the materials taught and the confidence that each
student will retain that information throughout their lives and careers.

 Learning outcome: describes the overall purpose or goal from participation in an educational
activity. Courses should be planned with a measurable learning outcome in mind. Help focus on
what is important.

 Objectives: are used to organize specific topics or individual learning activities to achieve overall
learning outcome.
 Tips on formulating a Good Objective
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
 Explain the concept of force and motion
 Show participation in the group activities
 Identify the importance of force and motion in our everyday lives
 Demonstrate understanding about the force and motion

CHARACTERS OF A GOOD TEACHER

 An academic brain - A teacher’s mind works in mysterious ways but what we do know is that the
vast majority have an academic brain, with 96 per cent educated to degree level or higher. A
brilliant mind hungry for knowledge.
 Quick Witted - if you’re a primebary school teacher you need to be quick witted. Don’t be caught
out by a sharp student - know your spellings and sums to avoid any embarrassing moments.
 Creative - A creative mind can go a long way at primary school. How do you make grammar fun?
You will need tons of ideas to keep lessons interesting and engaging!
 Stamina – Every teacher knows that the working day doesn’t finish when the school bell rings.
You have lots of planning and prepping to do before you can unwind but it’s totally worth it!
 Broad shoulders – teachers need to be more accepting, prepared and broad minded. Many
parents are adamant about accepting their child’s mistakes. Individual students are also
continually complaining and moaning about school holidays. Hence, they should have a broad
shoulder and be able to brush off these problems. The ability to accept multiple demands and
responsibilities. Can handle young learners responsibly esp. those inquisitive mind. Broad
shoulders symbolizes strength that closely resembles the masculine figure.

 Strong knees – Strengthening teachers’ leg muscles allows him or her to stay active throughout
the day.

 Big Heart – A teacher must be loving, affectionate, passionate, caring, warm and adoring to his
students. Filled with passion and desire to help and educate students

 Extra Eyes – sensitive with details and can perceive the student’s needs

 Shoes – Always ready, always on the go, anytime, anywhere

 Glasses – a lens for a better view of the students around the room

 Hands – helping to reach out to students who are in need

 Strong immune system - Your physical self is the one in which you routinely pay attention to
and honor your own emotional, spiritual, and bodily requirements over the course of your
everyday activities.
 Value and respect yourself as a person. It affects how you take care of yourself, emotionally,
physically and spiritually.
 When we take care of ourselves mentally, emotionally and physically we are actually allowing
ourselves the opportunity to be more productive, to live a healthier and happier lives and to
maintain healthy relationships
 How to develop your physical Self- image
1. Dress in clothing that makes you feel good
2. Stay active