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Effects of Ambient Temperature and Relative Humidity on Subsurface Defect

Detection in Concrete Structures by Active Thermal Imaging

Article  in  Sensors · July 2017

DOI: 10.3390/s17081718

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 sensors
Article
Effects of Ambient Temperature and Relative
Humidity on Subsurface Defect Detection in Concrete
Structures by Active Thermal Imaging
Quang Huy Tran 1 ID , Dongyeob Han 1 , Choonghyun Kang 1 , Achintya Haldar 2 and
Jungwon Huh 1, * ID
1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Chonnam National University, Yeosu, Chonnam 59626,
Korea; 157042@live.jnu.ac.kr (Q.H.T.); hozilla@chonnam.ac.kr (D.H.); kangsmile@chonnam.ac.kr (C.K.)
2 Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721,
USA; haldar@u.arizona.edu
* Correspondence: jwonhuh@chonnam.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-61-659-7247

Received: 27 June 2017; Accepted: 25 July 2017; Published: 26 July 2017

Abstract: Active thermal imaging is an effective nondestructive technique in the structural health
monitoring field, especially for concrete structures not exposed directly to the sun. However, the
impact of meteorological factors on the testing results is considerable and should be studied in
detail. In this study, the impulse thermography technique with halogen lamps heat sources is used to
detect defects in concrete structural components that are not exposed directly to sunlight and not
significantly affected by the wind, such as interior bridge box-girders and buildings. To consider
the effect of environment, ambient temperature and relative humidity, these factors are investigated
in twelve cases of testing on a concrete slab in the laboratory, to minimize the influence of wind.
The results showed that the absolute contrast between the defective and sound areas becomes more
apparent with an increase of ambient temperature, and it increases at a faster rate with large and
shallow delaminations than small and deep delaminations. In addition, the absolute contrast of
delamination near the surface might be greater under a highly humid atmosphere. This study
indicated that the results obtained from the active thermography technique will be more apparent if
the inspection is conducted on a day with high ambient temperature and humidity.

Keywords: concrete deterioration; active thermal imaging; ambient temperature; relative humidity;
infrared thermography; nondestructive testing

1. Introduction
Concrete deterioration such as cracking, delamination, and spalling is often the result of a
combination of factors such as corrosion of embedded metals, accumulative effect of freeze-thaw
successive cycles, chemical attack, alkali-aggregate reactivity, or cracking due to shrinkage [1]. On the
other hand, abrasion or overloading on bridge decks and highway pavements due to traffic operations
can lead to cracking on the structure’s surface. Of these factors, the corrosion of embedded reinforcing
steel in a concrete structure is the most common factor [2]. As a result, delaminations are initially
developed at or near the level of the reinforcing bars because rust occupies a greater volume than
steel, creating unexpected tensile stresses in the concrete [1,3]. Cracking and delaminations might
be invisible upon visual inspection until the deterioration develops into a spalling condition in its
later stages, as shown in Figure 1. This raises safety concerns, especially for the traffic passing under
overpass bridges.
To address this problem, thermal imaging/infrared thermography (IRT) has proved to be an
effective inspection tool in detecting subsurface deteriorations among other nondestructive techniques

Sensors 2017, 17, 1718; doi:10.3390/s17081718 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 2 of 18
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 2 of 18

techniques
(NDT) such(NDT) such as impact-echo,
as impact-echo, coin tapping,
coin tapping, ultrasonic ultrasonic surfaceor
surface waves waves
groundor ground penetrating
penetrating radar.
radar.of One
One of the
the most most significant
significant advantages advantages
of the IRT of technique
the IRT technique
is its shortisdetection
its short time
detection
comparedtime
compared
to to other techniques,
other techniques, and it is
and it is possible to possible to qualitatively
qualitatively evaluate the evaluate
area andthedepth
area of
and depth of a
a subsurface
subsurface delamination
delamination [4–7]. However, [4–7]. quantifying
However, quantifying
the delaminationthe delamination
depth appears depth appears
to be to be a
a considerable
considerable
challenge, andchallenge,
only a fewand only a few
researchers haveresearchers
attempted to have attempted
evaluate to evaluate
the depth the depth
of delamination usingof
delamination
active using concrete
IRT to inspect active IRT to inspect
structures. concrete
In addition, whilestructures.
changes in Inenvironmental
addition, while changes
conditions in
have
aenvironmental conditions
significant effect have a significant
on experimental effect
results, the on experimental
ambient temperature, results, thehumidity,
relative ambient clouds,
temperature,
wind
relativeand
speed, humidity, clouds, wind
solar radiation should speed, and solar during
be considered radiation should
field be [8].
testing considered
Currently, during field studies
previous testing
[8]. Currently,
have just focusedprevious
on thestudies
passivehave just focused
IRT technique on the
when passive IRT
considering thetechnique wheninfluence
environmental considering on the
environmental
concrete influence
detection, on the concrete
as mentioned in detaildetection,
in Section as mentioned
2, while in detail
the impact in Section
of the 2, while
environment on the
impactIRT
active of the environment
technique is still on the active
an open IRT technique is still an open question.
question.

Figure 1.
Figure Crack, delamination,
1. Crack, delamination, and
and spalling
spalling caused
caused by
by expansion
expansion of
of corroded
corroded steel.
steel.

The aim of of this

this study
studyisisto tosurvey
surveyconcrete
concretestructural
structuralcomponents
components that
that are arenotnot exposed
exposed directly
directly to
to the sunlight and are less affected by the wind, such as inside a bridge
the sunlight and are less affected by the wind, such as inside a bridge box-girder, areas between the T box-girder, areas between
theI-girder
or T or I-girder and diaphragms,
and diaphragms, and other andstructural
other structural
components components in the of
in the interior interior of buildings
buildings and
and factories,
factories, and so on. The impulse thermography technique, one
and so on. The impulse thermography technique, one of the active IRT techniques, is applied with of the active IRT techniques, is
applied
six withhalogen
500-watt six 500-watt lamps halogen
working lamps workingheat
as external as external
sources heat sources
to transfer to transfer
heat flux intoheat
the flux into
concrete
the concrete
specimen. specimen.
The impulseThe impulse thermography
thermography technique istechniqueconsidered is throughout
considered throughout
twelve casestwelve cases
of different
of different
ambient ambientand
temperature temperature and relative
relative humidity conditions humidity conditions
on a concrete slab in onthe alaboratory.
concrete Our
slabpurpose
in the
laboratory.
in this studyOur is topurpose
describeinseveral
this study is to describe
important several important
characteristics characteristics
of heat transfer that affectoftheheat transfer
inspection
results of concrete with different environmental conditions, and propose a preliminary selection of aa
that affect the inspection results of concrete with different environmental conditions, and propose
preliminary
suitable weatherselection of a suitable
conditions weather conditions
for site inspection when usingfor thesite inspection
active thermographywhen using the active
technique.
thermography technique.
2. Related Work
2. Related Work
An early application of IRT in the civil engineering field related to health monitoring of concrete
structures
An early wasapplication
performedofby IRT Clemena
in the civil et al. in 1978 [9].
engineering Their
field research
related to healthfound that more
monitoring severely
of concrete
delaminated
structures was regions induceby
performed a stronger
Clemenathermal et al. incontrast
1978 [9]. and delaminated
Their research concrete
found that wasmore
warmer than
severely
non-delaminated
delaminated regions concrete
inducewhen directly
a stronger exposed
thermal contrastto sunlight. Other studies
and delaminated concrete were
wasconducted
warmer than by
Cielo et al. in 1987concrete
non-delaminated [10] and whenby Maldague
directlyin 1993 [11],
exposed focusing on
to sunlight. delamination
Other studies were depth. In theseby
conducted studies,
Cielo
they
et al.observed
in 1987 [10] changes
and by in the surfacein
Maldague temperature of delaminated
1993 [11], focusing layers anddepth.
on delamination the observation time to
In these studies,
estimate the depth
they observed of delamination.
changes in the surfaceIntemperature
2013, Vaghefi of[5] tested fourlayers
delaminated concreteandslabs with delaminations
the observation time to
placed
estimate at the
various
depth depths to confirm the
of delamination. technique
In 2013, proposed
Vaghefi by Maldague
[5] tested four concrete [11].slabs
In 2008,
withPollock et al. [4]
delaminations
conducted active depths
placed at various thermaltoimaging
confirm inspections
the technique onproposed
six concrete specimens[11].
by Maldague withInembedded
2008, Pollockartificial
et al.
[4] conducted
air active thermal imaging
voids and post-tensioning inspections
ducts (PT-ducts) to on six concrete
simulate specimensbox
post-tensioned with embedded
girder bridges. artificial
It was
air voids
shown thatandthepost-tensioning
PT-ducts and simulatedducts (PT-ducts)
voids in theto simulate
20 cm thickpost-tensioned
specimens were box more
girderapparent
bridges.thanIt wasin
shown
the thatthick
30 cm the PT-ducts
specimens. and simulated
Also, PT-ducts voids
were inmuch
the 20clearer
cm thick andspecimens
more visible were inmore apparent
the thermal than
images
in the
of the thinner
30 cm thick specimens.
specimens. However,Also,it PT-ducts
was found werethat much clearer
two factors andtomore
need visible in accessibility
be considered: the thermal
images ofthe
(whereby theheat
thinner
source specimens.
needs to be However,
placed insideit was thefound that two
box girder) andfactors need tothe
cost (whereby be technique
considered: is
accessibility (whereby
time-consuming the heatfor
when testing source needs
relatively to be
deep airplaced
voids).inside the box girder) and cost (whereby
the technique
For assessing is time-consuming
the influence ofwhen testing forconditions
environmental relativelyon deep
the air voids).
passive IRT results, in 2009 Washer
et al.For
[12]assessing
developed theguidelines
influence on of environmental
how to use theconditions technologyonand thewhere
passive IRT results,
it could in 2009
be applied by
Washer et al. [12]
characterizing the developed
environmental guidelines
conditionson how(i.e.,tosolar
use loading,
the technology
diurnaland where it could
temperature be applied
variations, wind
by characterizing the environmental conditions (i.e., solar loading, diurnal temperature variations,
wind speed, and relative humidity) necessary for effective thermography in the field. In Washer’s
 Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 3 of 18
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 3 of 18

speed,a and
project, largerelative
concrete humidity)
test blocknecessary
was made forwith
effective
embeddedthermography
targets toin the field.
model In Washer’s
the subsurface project,
defects
at depths ranging from 25 to 127 mm (1 to 5 inches) in concrete. Data were collected for six months at
a large concrete test block was made with embedded targets to model the subsurface defects
anddepths
wereranging
analyzed from to25determine
to 127 mmthe (1 toenvironmental
5 inches) in concrete. Datathat
conditions werewould
collected
makefor six months of
detection and
were analyzed to determine the environmental conditions that would make
subsurface delaminations more possible during practical bridge inspections. This research trend detection of subsurface
delaminations
continued morewith
until 2013, possible
Rilyaduring practical
Rumbayan’s workbridge
[13].inspections.
RumbayanThis research
developed trend continued
a numerical modeluntil
to
2013, thermal
predict with Rilya Rumbayan’s
contrasts work [13].
in subsurface Rumbayanbased
delamination developed a numerical
on a given model
set of data fromto Washer’s
predict thermal
[12]
contrasts
research. in subsurface
These studies have delamination
just focused based on passive
on the a given IRT
set of data from
technique Washer’s
when [12] research.
considering These
the impact
of studies have justonfocused
environment on the passive
the concrete IRT technique
detection. Therefore,when considering
in this study, antheextensive
impact of environment
experimentalon
the concrete detection. Therefore, in this study, an extensive experimental
investigation was carried out on the size and depth of sub-surface delaminations with investigation was carried
variousout
on the size and depth of sub-surface delaminations with various
environmental conditions focusing on the active IRT technique as mentioned above. environmental conditions focusing
on This
the active
paperIRTis technique
organizedasasmentioned above.the fundamentals of infrared thermography are
follows. First,
introduced in Section 3 with discussion on First,
This paper is organized as follows. the fundamentals
the appropriate of infraredforthermography
input parameters setting up theare
introduced in Section 3 with discussion on the appropriate input parameters
infrared (IR) camera. Section 4 contains the preparation of testing specimen, testing method, for setting up andthe
infrared (IR) camera.
instrumentation. Section 4 contains
The experimental results arethediscussed
preparation of testing
in Section specimen,
5, where testing method,
the analysis focuses onand
instrumentation. The experimental results are discussed in Section 5,
the impact of meteorological factors on the testing results on both area and depth detection of where the analysis focuses
on the impactFinally,
delaminations. of meteorological
the conclusion factors
is in on the testing
Section 6. results on both area and depth detection of
delaminations. Finally, the conclusion is in Section 6.
3. Fundamentals of Infrared Thermography
3. Fundamentals of Infrared Thermography
IRT is known as a technique that measures the infrared radiation emitted by an object and
IRT is known as a technique that measures the infrared radiation emitted by an object and converts
converts the energy detected into a temperature value [14]. Each pixel then represents a thermal spot
the energy detected into a temperature value [14]. Each pixel then represents a thermal spot that is
that is shown on a display or image, the so-called thermal infrared image. However, when measuring
shown on a display or image, the so-called thermal infrared image. However, when measuring an
an object, the IR camera not only receives the radiation emitted from the object, but also the radiation
object, the IR camera not only receives the radiation emitted from the object, but also the radiation
from other sources such as surrounding objects or the atmosphere, as illustrated in Figure 2.
from other sources such as surrounding objects or the atmosphere, as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure
Figure 2. Principle
2. Principle of of
anan infrared
infrared (IR)
(IR) thermal
thermal camera
camera receiving
receiving radiation.
radiation.

The total
The radiation
total radiation(W(Wtot)tot
received
) receivedbyby
thethe
IRIR
camera
cameracomprises
comprises the
theemission
emission ofof
the object,ε·τε·W
object,
the τWobj,obj ,

thethe
emission
emissionofofthe surroundings
the surroundings and
andreflected
reflectedbybythe object,(1(1−−ε)τW
theobject, ε)·τ·W
refl,refl
and thethe
, and emission
emission of of
thethe
atmosphere,
atmosphere,(1 (1 − τ)atm
− τ)·W ·W, atm
[14–16]
, [14–16] as follows:
as follows:

Wtot=εε·ττ · W  1  ε   τ  W · W   1 +τ (1W−atmτ) · W

Wtot obj + (1 − ε) · τrefl
Wobj re f l , atm , (1) (1)
= ε· ετ ·τσ σ· T 4 +
4
 Tobj
obj
 (11−ε ε)τ· τσ · T 4
f l   σ− Tτatm
4 1 +τ (1
σrefl· Tre 4
)4 · σ · Tatm

The
Thetemperature
temperatureof objectcan
of an object canbebe calculated
calculated from
from Equation
Equation (2), where
(2), where σ is theσStefan-Boltzmann
is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant
constant (=5.67 10−8 W/m
× (=5.67 × 10−82W/m
·K4 ).2·K4). Other parameters must be set up in the camera, including
Other parameters must be set up in the camera, including the
the emissivity of the object material (ε), the transmittance of the atmosphere (τ), the reflected
temperature (Trefl), and the atmospheric/ambient temperature (Tatm).

Wtot   1  ε  τ  σ  Trefl
4
  1  τ   σ  Tatm
4

Tobj  4
, (2)
ε τ  σ
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 4 of 18

emissivity of the object material (ε), the transmittance of the atmosphere (τ), the reflected temperature
(Trefl ), and the atmospheric/ambient temperature (Tatm ).
s
4 − (1 − τ) · σ · T 4
Wtot − (1 − ε) · τ · σ · Tre
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 4 fl atm 4 of 18
Tobj = , (2)
ε·τ·σ
According to Equation (2), three parameters are needed to automatically calculate the
According
atmospheric to Equation (2),
transmission (τ) three
using parameters are needed
the IR camera: to automatically
survey distance, calculate
relative the atmospheric
humidity, and
transmission (τ) using the IR camera: survey distance, relative humidity,
atmospheric temperature. The formula used by the FLIR camera is as follows [17,18]: and atmospheric temperature.
The formula used by the FLIR camera is as follows [17,18]:
h √   √
i
 
 h √ 
  d ,    K atm  exp   d  1   1     1  K atm   exp   d  2   2   ,
√
i (3)
τ (d, ω ) = Katm · exp − d α1 + β 1 ω + (1 − Katm ) · exp − d α2 + β 2 ω , (3)
 % , Tatm   %  exp  2
2
3
3

 h1  h2  Tatm  h3  Tatm  h4  Tatm ,  (4)
ω (ω% , Tatm ) = ω% · exp h1 + h2 · Tatm + h3 · Tatm + h4 · Tatm , (4)
Here, ω is the coefficient indicating the content of water vapor in the atmosphere and ω% is the
Here, ω is the coefficient indicating the content of water vapor in the atmosphere and ω% is
relative humidity. Other parameters include distance (d), the scaling factor for the atmosphere
the relative humidity. Other parameters include distance (d), the scaling factor for the atmosphere
damping (Katm = 1.9), attenuation for atmosphere without water vapor (α1, α2), attenuation for water
damping (K = 1.9), attenuation for atmosphere without water vapor (α , α2 ), attenuation for water
vapor (β1, β2atm
), and h1 = 1.5587, h2 = 6.939 × 10−2, h3 = −2.7816 × 10−4, and h4 =1 6.8455 × 10−7.
vapor (β1 , β2 ), and h1 = 1.5587, h2 = 6.939 × 10−2 , h3 = −2.7816 × 10−4 , and h4 = 6.8455 × 10−7 .
The characteristics were specified using Equations (3) and (4) by Minkina et al. [17], and shown
The characteristics were specified using Equations (3) and (4) by Minkina et al. [17], and shown in
in Figure 3 with specific parameters of α1 = 0.0066, α2 = 0.0126, β1 = −0.0023, and β2 = −0.0067.
Figure 3 with specific parameters of α1 = 0.0066, α2 = 0.0126, β1 = −0.0023, and β2 = −0.0067.

(a) (b)
Figure 3. Characteristics
Figure 3. Characteristics of
of atmospheric
atmospheric transmission
transmission coefficient
coefficient ττ == f(d)
f (d) for
for longwave
longwave band
band LW
LW
ThermaCAM PM 595 camera: (a) Function of the relative humidity ω%; (b) function
ThermaCAM PM 595 camera: (a) Function of the relative humidity ω%; (b) function of the atmospheric of the
atmospheric temperature
temperature T [17]. Tatm [17].
atm

As shown in Figure 3, the atmospheric transmission (τ) is close to 1.0 when the survey distance
As shown in Figure 3, the atmospheric transmission (τ) is close to 1.0 when the survey distance is
is fairly small (e.g., a common distance for active IRT is from approximately 3 to 5m). Therefore, only
fairly small (e.g., a common distance for active IRT is from approximately 3 to 5 m). Therefore, only
the emissivity (ε) and the reflected temperature (Trefl) in Equation 2 are necessary for measuring the
the emissivity (ε) and the reflected temperature (Trefl ) in Equation 2 are necessary for measuring the
target object under a survey at a near distance. Furthermore, the emissivity of a dry concrete surface
target object under a survey at a near distance. Furthermore, the emissivity of a dry concrete surface
has been shown to be a stable value of 0.95 through many studies, and is commonly specified in
has been shown to be a stable value of 0.95 through many studies, and is commonly specified in
textbooks, camera user manuals [15,16,19], and by the American Concrete Institute (ACI) for infrared
textbooks, camera user manuals [15,16,19], and by the American Concrete Institute (ACI) for infrared
thermography methods [20]. In addition, an aluminum foil was used to evaluate the emissivity of the
thermography methods [20]. In addition, an aluminum foil was used to evaluate the emissivity of
concrete specimen, and the result was very close to 0.95. Therefore, in this study, the emissivity is
the concrete specimen, and the result was very close to 0.95. Therefore, in this study, the emissivity is
fixed at a value of 0.95 throughout all tests. The reflected temperature is the same as the atmospheric
fixed at a value of 0.95 throughout all tests. The reflected temperature is the same as the atmospheric
temperature for measuring an object with high emissivity in most cases [16]. Hence, for the IR camera
set-up, it is considered that the reflected temperature corresponds to the ambient temperature.

4. Experimental Design and Procedure

4.1. Preparation of Testing Specimen

To assess the influence of environmental conditions on the subsurface delamination detection, a
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 5 of 18

temperature for measuring an object with high emissivity in most cases [16]. Hence, for the IR camera
set-up, it is considered that the reflected temperature corresponds to the ambient temperature.

4. Experimental Design and Procedure

4.1. Preparation of Testing Specimen

To assess the influence of environmental conditions on the subsurface delamination detection,
aSensors 2017, specimen
concrete 17, 1718 was fabricated with the design compression strength of 28 MPa. The concrete 5 of 18
mixture ratio of water, cement, sand, and aggregate are 0.5, 1.0, 1.2, and 2.6, respectively. The thermal
diffusivity (α)
diffusivity (α) ofof the
the concrete
concrete specimen
specimenisisestimated
estimatedto tobe
be1.636
1.636cmcm22/min
/min as
as described
described below. Twelve
below. Twelve
delaminations were simulated with different dimensions and depths embedded
delaminations were simulated with different dimensions and depths embedded inside the concrete inside the concrete
specimen. The
specimen. The delaminations
delaminations considered
considered in in this study are
this study are square
square shapes
shapes ofof polystyrene,
polystyrene, denoted
denoted
hereafter as a capital letter “D”, with the size of 10 cm × 10 cm, 7 cm ×
hereafter as a capital letter “D”, with the size of 10 cm × 10 cm, 7 cm × 7 cm, 5 cm × 5 cm, 7 cm, 5 cm × 5 cm, and 3 cm
and×
3 cm at 1 cm deep (D9 to D12), 2 cm deep (D5 to D8), and 3 cm deep
3 cm × 3 cm at 1 cm deep (D9 to D12), 2 cm deep (D5 to D8), and 3 cm deep (D1 to D4) from (D1 to D4) from the specimen's
surface
the as shown
specimen's in Figure
surface 4. The
as shown delaminations
in Figure are simulatedare
4. The delaminations using polystyrene,
simulated the thermal
using polystyrene,
conductivity of which is 0.027 W/m·°C, which is◦ similar to that of air (0.024
the thermal conductivity of which is 0.027 W/m· C, which is similar to that of air (0.024 W/m W/m·°C [21]) and is [21])
·◦ C thus
expected to behave in a similar manner to that of an air void when receiving heat
and is thus expected to behave in a similar manner to that of an air void when receiving heat flux [22]. flux [22].

Figure 4. Concrete specimen with embedded artificial delaminations.

Figure 4. Concrete specimen with embedded artificial delaminations.

4.2.
4.2. Testing
Testing Method
Method
Twelve
Twelve cases
cases are
are considered
considered in in aa series
series of
of experiments
experiments thatthat are
are carried
carried outout in
in the
the laboratory
laboratory on on
different days under different environmental conditions. Six halogen lamps
different days under different environmental conditions. Six halogen lamps (providing a maximum (providing a maximum
energy
energyoutput
outputofof3000
3000watts)
watts)asasillustrated
illustrated in in
Figure 5 were
Figure placed
5 were at 1.2
placed atm from
1.2 the specimen
m from the specimenand were
and
applied as an external
were applied heat source
as an external heat by providing
source heat fluxheat
by providing to theflux
concrete
to thespecimen. For this technique,
concrete specimen. For this
the specimen
technique, thewas heated for
specimen was15heated
min and fora long-wavelength IR thermal camera,
15 min and a long-wavelength FLIR SC660
IR thermal [23],FLIR
camera, was
used to record the variation in temperatures of the specimen every 10 s during
SC660 [23], was used to record the variation in temperatures of the specimen every 10 s during both both the heating and
cooling periods.
the heating and The major
cooling technical
periods. Thedata of the
major cameradata
technical are listed
of theincamera
Table 1.areThe camera
listed was placed
in Table 1. The
at 2.9 m from the specimen and was set at a constant emissivity value
camera was placed at 2.9 m from the specimen and was set at a constant emissivity value of of 0.95 for all cases of 0.95
testing.
for
The ambient
all cases temperature
of testing. was measured
The ambient using an
temperature wasambient
measuredtemperature
using anand humidity
ambient meter (CEM
temperature and
DT-615), ◦ C to 21.9 ◦ C for the twelve cases, and the corresponding relative humidity
humidityranging
meter from
(CEM15.8 DT-615), ranging from 15.8 °C to 21.9 °C for the twelve cases, and the
was varied from
corresponding 71% tohumidity
relative 35%. Half was ofvaried
the experimental
from 71% tocases35%.were
Half tested
of the on rainy dayscases
experimental whilewere
the
other
testedhalf
on was
rainytested
dayson sunny
while thedays.
otherThe detailed
half valueson
was tested of the
sunnymeteorological conditions
days. The detailed for the
values of IRT
the
inspection are given in Table 2. The atmospheric transmission can be automatically
meteorological conditions for the IRT inspection are given in Table 2. The atmospheric transmission calculated by the
camera based on the calculated
can be automatically information byof thecamera
cameradistance,
based onambient temperature,
the information and relative
of camera distance,humidity,
ambient
as mentioned previously.
temperature, and relative humidity, as mentioned previously.
humidity meter (CEM DT-615), ranging from 15.8 °C to 21.9 °C for the twelve cases, and the
corresponding relative humidity was varied from 71% to 35%. Half of the experimental cases were
tested on rainy days while the other half was tested on sunny days. The detailed values of the
meteorological conditions for the IRT inspection are given in Table 2. The atmospheric transmission
can be2017,
Sensors automatically
17, 1718 calculated by the camera based on the information of camera distance, ambient
6 of 18
temperature, and relative humidity, as mentioned previously.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Photograph
Photograph of
of the
the thermography
thermography system.
system.

Table 1. Technical data of FLIR camera SC660 [23].

Items Parameters
IR resolution 640 × 480 pixels
Thermal sensitivity/NETD <30 mK @ + 30 ◦ C
Field of view (FOV) 24◦ × 18◦ /0.3 m
Spatial resolution (IFOV) 0.65 mrad
Focal Plane Array (FPA) Uncooled microbolometer
Wavelength 7.5~13 µm
Temperature range −40 ◦ C~+120 ◦ C
Accuracy ±1 ◦ C or ±1% of reading

Table 2. Various meteorological conditions for the infrared thermography (IRT) Inspection.

Measurement No. Meteorological Conditions Ambient Temperature (◦ C) Relative Humidity (%)

1 sunny day 21.9 35
2 sunny day 21.4 44
3 sunny day 21.3 45
4 sunny day 20.7 36
5 cloudy after the rain 19.6 66
6 sunny day 19.0 37
7 light rain 18.7 64
8 cloudy after the rain 18.6 68
9 showers 17.7 70
10 moderate rain 16.4 71
11 sunny day 16.3 58
12 light rain 15.8 70

5. Analysis of Experimental Results

In evaluating the defective depth and the percentage of delaminated areas in the concrete
specimen, it is critical to consider the parameter of the maximum thermal contrast between the
sound and defective areas, herein termed the “absolute contrast”. The thermal image clearly shows
that as the absolute contrast increases, the detectability of the sub-surface defects increases. Therefore,
this parameter is the main subject for analysis under the influence of atmospheric temperature and
relative humidity, with the aim of taking a holistic view when applying this active thermographic
method for concrete structures in the field.

5.1. Correlation between Ambient Temperature and Relative Humidity

The variation in the relative humidity occurred because the saturated vapor pressure is determined
by the air temperature. As the water vapor content stays the same, the temperature increases,
the relative humidity decreases substantially, and as the temperature drops, the relative humidity rises
substantially [24]. The same behavior was shown for the twelve test cases in this study. When sorting
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 7 of 18

all ambient temperature data in descending order, the general trend of relative humidity increased
correspondingly, except for some test cases which showed low values of relative humidity, such as
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718
tests number 4 and 6 as shown in Figure 6. 7 of 18

Figure 6.
Figure Correlation between
6. Correlation between ambient
ambient temperature
temperature and
and relative
relative humidity.
humidity.

temperature and relative humidity

The ambient temperature humidity might
might influence
influence the test results in different
ways. For
Forexample,
example,ififthethesurrounding
surrounding ambient
ambient temperature
temperature is higher
is higher thanthan
thethe temperature
temperature inside
inside the
the concrete,
concrete, heatheat
fluxflux
willwill conduct
conduct into
into thethe concretetotoachieve
concrete achievethermal
thermalequilibrium.
equilibrium.The
Therate
rate of
of heat
transfer from the outside atmosphere to the concrete is controlled by convection [12]. However, However, since
this study focuses on structures that are less affected by the wind speed, the heat transfer typically
depends only on the heat conduction from the ambient air. In addition, the relative humidity of the
atmosphere appears to influence the convection characteristics.
characteristics. It is expected that the heat flux would
be transferred
transferred to tothe
theconcrete
concretemore
morequickly
quickly in in a humid
a humid atmosphere
atmosphere thanthan
in ain a atmosphere
dry dry atmosphere
[25]. [25].
This
This
leadsleads
to an to an increase
increase of the of the thermal
thermal gradientgradient
between between the outside
the outside surfacessurfaces
and the and
core the core
of the of the
concrete.
concrete. In this
In this study, study, therefore,
therefore, thecontrast
the absolute absoluteincontrast in the area
the defective defective area is separately
is separately investigated
investigated under the
under
effects the effects oftemperature
of ambient ambient temperature
and relative and relativein
humidity humidity
Sectionsin5.2Sections
and 5.3,5.2 and 5.3, respectively.
respectively.

5.2. Effect
5.2. Effect of
of Ambient
Ambient Temperature
Temperature on
on the
the Absolute
Absolute Contrast
Contrast
From the
From theexperimental
experimental data, defective
data, areas areas
defective are easily
are identified as hotter than
easily identified other surrounding
as hotter than other
sound areas because the delamination interrupts the heat transfer through
surrounding sound areas because the delamination interrupts the heat transfer through the the concrete. Theconcrete.
area can
be calculated
The area can be bycalculated
counting the number of
by counting thepixels
numberon the thermal
of pixels on images.
the thermal As images.
mentionedAs previously,
mentioned
as the thermal gradient increases, the defective boundaries become easier to
previously, as the thermal gradient increases, the defective boundaries become easier to identify. identify. In this study,
In
the temperature gradient, ∆T(t), (also termed the absolute contrast [6], or thermal
this study, the temperature gradient, ΔT(t), (also termed the absolute contrast [6], or thermal contrast contrast [26])
between
[26]) the surface
between temperature
the surface of theofdefective
temperature the defective Td (t),Tand
area, area, d(t), that
and of theofbackground
that sound
the background area,
sound
T (t),
area,
s can be defined by the following equation [6],
Ts(t), can be defined by the following equation [6],

∆T   
 TTss (tt),,
T(t)t = TTdd (tt) − (5) (5)

The absolute contrast was obtained

absolute contrast obtained by taking the average
average surface temperature within the
boundaries
boundaries of of an area above the suspected
suspected defect minus the average temperature
temperature on the perimeter
around the suspected defect as illustrated in Figure 7 [5]. The sizes of these two squares were changed
according to the size of each delamination. ThisThis method
method has
has been
been shown
shown to be the most effective as it
diminishes
diminishes the
the variability
variability in
in selecting
selecting only
only one
one point
point [6,27]
[6,27] or
or aa group of three points in the previous
study [22].
[22].
In Washer et al.’s (2009) study on developing passive infrared thermography inspection
technology for bridges, it was observed that when the rate of change of the ambient temperature was
close to zero (i.e., the ambient temperature is constant), the absolute contrast in the testing concrete
slab began to diminish. However, when receiving heat energy from the sun in the morning, the rapid
change in the air temperature caused the development of the absolute contrast in the test block [12].
Corresponding to the active IRT technology applied on the concrete specimen in this study, similar
outcomes were found to those Washer’s studies using passive thermography. As the ambient
temperature increases, the absolute contrast on the defect also increases, and as the ambient
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 8 of 18

temperature drops, the absolute contrast on the defect also decreases. On the other hand, it is
generally recognized that the absolute contrast increases at a faster rate in the large and shallow
delaminations than in the smaller and deeper delaminations.
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 8 of 18

Figure7.
Figure Newevaluation
7.New evaluationmethod
methodto
tocalculate
calculateabsolute
absolute contrast.
contrast.

The resultsetshown
In Washer in Figure
al.’s (2009) study8on illustrate
developing the absolute contrasts
passive infrared obtained from
thermography delaminations
inspection D4,
technology
D8, and D12it having
for bridges, was observedthe same thatsize
when of the
10 rate
× 10ofcm and different
change depths
of the ambient under the was
temperature twelve closecases of
to zero
dissimilar environmental conditions. The absolute contrast of the shallow
(i.e., the ambient temperature is constant), the absolute contrast in the testing concrete slab began to delamination (D12) shows
adiminish.
higher temperature
However, when thanreceiving
the other heatdelaminations.
energy from the In sun
addition, the groupthe
in the morning, ofrapid
twelve changetest cases
in the
displays different absolute contrasts for each delamination depth
air temperature caused the development of the absolute contrast in the test block [12]. Corresponding under varying atmospheric
conditions.
to the activeInIRT particular,
technology as the ambient
applied on temperature
the concrete decreases
specimen from in this21.9 °C to
study, 15.8 °C,
similar the absolute
outcomes were
contrast
found toofthoseD12,Washer’s
D8, and D4 also decreased
studies using passive fromthermography.
3.03 to 2.45, from 1.35ambient
As the to 1.02, temperature
and from 0.86 to 0.69,
increases,
respectively, as depicted
the absolute contrast on thein Figure 8b. This
defect also can beand
increases, explained by considering
as the ambient temperature that, drops,
when the the ambient
absolute
temperature decreases, the thermal gradient between the surfaces
contrast on the defect also decreases. On the other hand, it is generally recognized that the absolute and core of the concrete also
decreases. Consequently,
contrast increases at a fasterthe rate
heat influx
thetransferred
large and shallowfrom thedelaminations
heat sources than (halogenin thelamps)
smaller to and
the
concrete core
deeper delaminations.decreased. Thus, the absolute contrast was similarly low under low ambient
temperature withshown
The results the same size and
in Figure depth of the
8 illustrate defect, and the
absolute same heating
contrasts obtained time,
from type of heat source,
delaminations D4,
and heat transfer energy.
D8, and D12 having the same size of 10 cm × 10 cm and different depths under the twelve cases
Figure 9aenvironmental
of dissimilar illustrates the linear relationship
conditions. between contrast
The absolute absolute of contrast and ambient
the shallow temperature,
delamination (D12)
in which the correlation coefficient values (R 2) give relatively low values of 0.5352, 0.5695, and 0.5791
shows a higher temperature than the other delaminations. In addition, the group of twelve test
corresponding
cases displays to the delamination
different sizes of 10
absolute contrasts for× 10eachcmdelamination
at 1 cm, 2 cm, depth and 3 cm,under respectively. The slopes
varying atmospheric
of
conditions. In particular, as the ambient temperature decreases from 21.9 C to 15.8 C, the ambient
the results of the linear equations also indicate the positive correlation ◦ between ◦ the absolute
temperature
contrast of D12, and D8, the absolute
and D4 also contrast that was
decreased from developed
3.03 to 2.45,above fromthe 1.35
delaminations
to 1.02, and with from different
0.86 to
depths. Higher R 2 values are obtained than those from the Washer’s field test (with R2 = 0.22). This
0.69, respectively, as depicted in Figure 8b. This can be explained by considering that, when the
might
ambient be temperature
due to the effects of wind
decreases, thespeed,
thermal different
gradient solar loading,
between theand cloud and
surfaces pathcoreduring
of the theconcrete
test. In
addition, the slope
also decreases. tendency the
Consequently, of aheatlinear
fluxline becomesfrom
transferred steeper withsources
the heat shallower(halogendelamination.
lamps) to the In
particular, the slopes of linear regression lines are 0.0723, 0.0409, and
concrete core decreased. Thus, the absolute contrast was similarly low under low ambient temperature 0.024 for delaminations D12,
D8,
withand theD4 at 1 size
same cm, 2and cm depth
and 3 cm depths,and
of defect, respectively.
the same heating time, type of heat source, and heat
The trend
transfer energy. of thermal development on the defective areas due to the increase of ambient
temperature is also investigated for delaminations
Figure 9a illustrates the linear relationship between with different
absolutesizes, although
contrast with thetemperature,
and ambient same depth
as
in shown
which thein Figure 9b. Less
correlation steep slopes
coefficient valuesare (Robtained for smaller
2 ) give relatively lowsizes
valuesof of
delamination;
0.5352, 0.5695, forandexample,
0.5791
the slope of linear regression is only 0.0325 for D9 (3 × 3 cm), whereas
corresponding to the delamination sizes of 10 cm × 10 cm at 1 cm, 2 cm, and 3 cm, respectively. it is 0.047, 0.0544, and 0.0723
for
Thedelaminations
slopes of the D10 (5 ×of5 the
results cm),linear
D11 (7equations
× 7 cm), and alsoD12 (10 × the
indicate 10 cm), respectively.
positive correlation It can be stated
between the
that the absolute contrasts are fairly low for defects with small
ambient temperature and the absolute contrast that was developed above the delaminations with size and deeper depth. Hence, the
temperature
different depths.gradient
Higher on R the defectare
2 values dueobtained
to the change of ambient
than those from the temperature
Washer’s field is found to beRdifficult
test (with 2 = 0.22).
to assess.
This might be due to the effects of wind speed, different solar loading, and cloud path during the
test. In addition, the slope tendency of a linear line becomes steeper with shallower delamination.
In particular, the slopes of linear regression lines are 0.0723, 0.0409, and 0.024 for delaminations D12,
D8, and D4 at 1 cm, 2 cm and 3 cm depths, respectively.
Sensors 2017,17,
Sensors2017, 17,1718
1718 9 of 18
9 of 18
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 9 of 18

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)
Figure 8. (a) Average surface temperature above the defects; and (b) average absolute contrast above
Figure 8. (a) Average surface temperature above the defects; and (b) average absolute contrast above
Figure 8. (a)for
the defects Average surface
a total of 55 mintemperature
for both the above
heatingthe defects;
and coolingand (b) average absolute contrast above
time.
the defects for a total of 55 min for both the heating and cooling time.
the defects for a total of 55 min for both the heating and cooling time.

(a)
(a)
Figure 9. Cont.
Sensors 2017,
Sensors 17,17,1718
2017, 1718 10 of1018of 18

(b)
Figure 9. Relationship between absolute contrast and atmospheric temperature: (a) Same size
Figure 9. Relationship between absolute contrast and atmospheric temperature: (a) Same size
delamination (10 × 10 cm) with different depths of delamination D12 (at 1 cm), D8 (at 2 cm) and D4
delamination (10 cm × 10 cm) with different depths of delamination D12 (at 1 cm), D8 (at 2 cm)
(at 3 cm); (b) same depth (1 cm) with different sizes of delamination D12 (10 × 10 cm), D11 (7 × 7 cm),
and D4 (at 3 cm); (b) same depth (1 cm) with different sizes of delamination D12 (10 cm × 10 cm), D11
D10 (5 × 5 cm), and D9 (3 × 3 cm).
(7 cm × 7 cm), D10 (5 cm × 5 cm), and D9 (3 cm × 3 cm).
5.3. Effect of Relative Humidity on the Absolute Contrast
The trend of thermal development on the defective areas due to the increase of ambient temperature
The rate of convective heat transfer typically depends on the atmospheric temperature and wind
is also investigated for delaminations with different sizes, although with the same depth as shown in
speed [12], and is influenced by the relative humidity of the ambient air surrounding the concrete
Figure 9b. Less steep slopes are obtained for smaller sizes of delamination; for example, the slope of linear
specimen [25]. In particular, a noticeable increase is observed in the convective heat transfer
regression is only 0.0325 for D9 (3 cm × 3 cm), whereas it is 0.047, 0.0544, and 0.0723 for delaminations
coefficient with an increase of the relative humidity. In other words, the effect on the detectability of
D10 (5 cm × 5 cm),
the subsurface D11
defect (7 cm
under × 7 cm),
a humid atmosphere (10 ×be
and D12might 10greater
cm), respectively. It can
than that under beatmosphere.
a dry stated that the
absoluteIn this study, to investigate the effect of relative humidity on the active thermographictemperature
contrasts are fairly low for defects with small size and deeper depth. Hence, the method,
gradient on the defect
data coinciding withdue to the temperature
ambient change of ambient
(0.1 °Ctemperature is found
difference) with to be relative
varying difficulthumidity
to assess. are
considered. These data are divided into three groups with the average atmospheric temperatures of
5.3. Effect of Relative Humidity on the Absolute Contrast
16.35 °C, 18.65 °C, and 21.35 °C, along with three pairs of relative humidity (71% and 58%), (68% and
64%),
Theand
rate(45% and 44%), heat
of convective respectively. All data are
transfer typically plottedoninthe
depends Figure 10, illustrating
atmospheric the change
temperature of
and wind
absolute contrast under similar testing conditions, though with varying humidity. The
speed [12], and is influenced by the relative humidity of the ambient air surrounding the concrete difference of
absolute contrast is more clearly shown in Figure 10a than in Figure 10b,c, especially for shallower
specimen [25]. In particular, a noticeable increase is observed in the convective heat transfer coefficient
delaminations
with an increase from
of theD9 to D12.
relative The absolute
humidity. contrast
In other words,values whenontested
the effect with high humidity
the detectability show
of the subsurface
larger values than those tested in the low humid atmosphere. This might
defect under a humid atmosphere might be greater than that under a dry atmosphere. be due to the significant
relative humidity difference shown in Figure 10a of approximately 13%, compared to 4% and 1% for
In this study, to investigate the effect of relative humidity on the active thermographic method,
other two cases shown in Figure 10b,c, respectively. For deeper delaminations from D2 to D8, the
data coinciding with ambient temperature (0.1 ◦ C difference) with varying relative humidity are
change of absolute contrasts due to the influence of humidity observed from this experiment is not
considered. These data are divided into three groups with the average atmospheric temperatures
significant. It should be noted that this judgment is based on limited data and that uncertainties
of 16.35 ◦ C, 18.65 ◦ C, and 21.35 ◦ C, along with three pairs of relative humidity (71% and 58%),
occurred in the environmental conditions during testing. It is recommended that relative humidity
(68% and 64%), and (45% and 44%), respectively. All data are plotted in Figure 10, illustrating
needs to be considered as a secondary factor in a practical point of view when using active
the change of absolute
thermography in a fieldcontrast under similar testing conditions, though with varying humidity.
application.
The difference of absolute contrast is more clearly shown in Figure 10a than in Figure 10b,c, especially
for shallower delaminations from D9 to D12. The absolute contrast values when tested with high
humidity show larger values than those tested in the low humid atmosphere. This might be due to
the significant relative humidity difference shown in Figure 10a of approximately 13%, compared
to 4% and 1% for other two cases shown in Figure 10b,c, respectively. For deeper delaminations
from D2 to D8, the change of absolute contrasts due to the influence of humidity observed from this
experiment is not significant. It should be noted that this judgment is based on limited data and that
uncertainties occurred in the environmental conditions during testing. It is recommended that relative
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 11 of 18

humidity needs to be considered as a secondary factor in a practical point of view when using active
Sensors 2017, 17,in
thermography 1718
a field application. 11 of 18

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 10. Relationship between absolute contrast and relative humidity: (a) for the ambient
Figure 10. Relationship between absolute contrast and relative humidity: (a) for the ambient
temperature from 16.3 C to 16.4 C; (b) for the ambient temperature from 18.6 C to 18.7 C; (c) for
temperature from 16.3 ◦ C to 16.4 ◦ C; (b) for the ambient temperature from 18.6 ◦ C to 18.7 ◦ C; (c) for the
the ambient temperature from 21.3 C to 21.4 C.
ambient temperature from 21.3 ◦ C to 21.4 ◦ C.
In addition, while larger delaminations are normally more expected for higher temperatures
In addition,
than smaller while larger delaminations
temperatures at a similar are normally
depth, more expected
delamination for higher
D7 indicates temperatures
unusual than
behavior.
Particularly,
smaller the testatresults
temperatures shown
a similar in Figure
depth, 10 indicate
delamination D7that the absolute
indicates unusualcontrast of delamination
behavior. Particularly,D7
the
(7 cm × 7 cm) has a higher temperature value than that of the larger delamination, D8 (10 cm × 10 cm)
at the same depth of 2 cm. This could be due to non-uniform heating on the specimen surface and/or
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 12 of 18

Sensors
test 2017, 17,
results 1718 in Figure 10 indicate that the absolute contrast of delamination D7 (7 cm × 12
shown of 18
7 cm)
has a higher temperature value than that of the larger delamination, D8 (10 cm × 10 cm) at the same
due to the reflection of the heat from the concrete surface, as reported by Vaghefi [5]. It is also
depth of 2 cm. This could be due to non-uniform heating on the specimen surface and/or due to the
observed in this research that the existence of tiny air voids in the concrete cover above both defects
reflection of the heat from the concrete surface, as reported by Vaghefi [5]. It is also observed in this
of D6 and D7 are due to the low compaction when fabricating the specimen. This leads to several
research that the existence of tiny air voids in the concrete cover above both defects of D6 and D7 are
hotter points above the defect location that might increase the average temperature of the defective
due to the low compaction when fabricating the specimen. This leads to several hotter points above
area. It is noted that the selection of a suitable defective zone plays an important role in absolute
the defect location that might increase the average temperature of the defective area. It is noted that
contrast analysis.
the selection of a suitable defective zone plays an important role in absolute contrast analysis.
It is also important to note that absolute contrast values are significantly dependent on the
It is also important to note that absolute contrast values are significantly dependent on the method
method by which they are obtained. In the selection of the reference background temperature using
by which they are obtained. In the selection of the reference background temperature using the one-
the one- or three-point method as mentioned previously, the absolute contrast can easily vary if the
or three-point method as mentioned previously, the absolute contrast can easily vary if the reference
reference point is moved. To deal with this problem, in this research the reference background
point is moved. To deal with this problem, in this research the reference background temperature is
temperature is obtained by taking the average of all pixels on the perimeter of the square around the
obtained by taking the average of all pixels on the perimeter of the square around the defect; using
defect; using this approach, it is expected that mistakes in selecting the background temperature can
this approach, it is expected that mistakes in selecting the background temperature can be avoided,
be avoided, as shown in Figure 7.
as shown in Figure 7.
5.4. Depth
5.4. Depth Detection
DetectionUnder
UnderEnvironmental
EnvironmentalEffect
Effect
Thedepth
The depthof ofdefect
defecthas
hasbeen
beenquantified
quantifiedthrough
throughthe
theobservation
observation time
time (t)
(t)shown
shown as
asthe
thevertical
vertical
dashed arrows in Figure 11. It is defined as the time when the absolute contrast remains constant
dashed arrows in Figure 11. It is defined as the time when the absolute contrast remains constant or or
increasesto
increases tothe
themaximum
maximumcontrast
contrastafter
afterthe
theheating
heatingtime
time[5,6].
[5,6].

Figure 11. Typical graph for relationship of the observation time and absolute contrast.
Figure 11. Typical graph for relationship of the observation time and absolute contrast.

The
Therelationship between
relationship the observation
between time and
the observation the defective
time and the depth (in thedepth
defective first approximation)
(in the first
can be expressed as [6,12]
approximation) can be expressed as [6,12]
z ≈ (t · α)1/2 , (6)
z  t  α ,
1/ 2
(6)
and the thermal diffusivity can be defined as
and the thermal diffusivity can be defined as K
α= , (7)
ρ ·KC
α , (7)
ρ C
where specific heat capacity (C) refers to a measure of the ability of materials to absorb heat; thermal
conductivity
where specific(K)heat
is the measure
capacity (C)ofrefers
the heat
to atransfer
measurethrough materials,
of the ability and ρ is to
of materials theabsorb
material density
heat; of
thermal
the target object.
conductivity (K) is the measure of the heat transfer through materials, and ρ is the material density
Figure
of the target12object.
illustrates the estimated defective depth values for delaminations D4, D8, and D12,
sortedFigure
in the12descending
illustrates order of ambient
the estimated temperature.
defective The result
depth values shows that the D4,
for delaminations estimated
D8, anddepth
D12,
values fluctuate with different environmental conditions, and the fluctuation is relatively
sorted in the descending order of ambient temperature. The result shows that the estimated depth high for deep
defects. However,with
values fluctuate the overall
differenttrend is maintained,
environmental despite aand
conditions, decline of ambientistemperature.
the fluctuation It can
relatively high for
deep defects. However, the overall trend is maintained, despite a decline of ambient temperature. It
can be inferred that the depth detection might be less affected by the environmental conditions such
as ambient temperature and relative humidity, especially for shallow defects.
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 13 of 18

Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 13 of 18

Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 13 of 18
be inferred that the depth detection might be less affected by the environmental conditions such as
In this
ambient test, the delaminations
temperature D6 and D7
and relative humidity, show thefor
especially maximum contrast immediately after the 15-
shallow defects.
In this test, the delaminations D6 and D7 show the maximum contrast immediately after the 15-
min heating time, indicating that the observation time is considerably
In this test, the delaminations D6 and D7 show the maximum contrast less thanimmediately
1 min. Thus, for these
after the
min heating time, indicating that the observation time is considerably less than 1 min. Thus, for these
delaminations,
15-min the lack
heating time, of information
indicating that the for depth detection
observation caused incorrect
time is considerably estimation,
less than as depicted
1 min. Thus, in
for these
delaminations, the lack of information for depth detection caused incorrect estimation, as depicted in
Figure 13. A number
delaminations, the lackofof
very small air for
information voids thatdetection
depth exist above the delaminations
caused could as
incorrect estimation, have resulted
depicted in
Figure 13. A number of very small air voids that exist above the delaminations could have resulted
in faster thermal dissipation, leading to a reduction or even a loss of observation time.
Figure 13. A number of very small air voids that exist above the delaminations could have resulted in
in faster thermal dissipation, leading to a reduction or even a loss of observation time.
faster thermal dissipation, leading to a reduction or even a loss of observation time.

Figure 12. Relationship between depth of defects and ambient temperature.

Figure 12.Relationship
Figure12. Relationshipbetween
betweendepth
depthofofdefects
defectsand
andambient
ambienttemperature.
temperature.

Figure 13. Absolute contrast versus time for delaminations D8, D7, and D6 at similar depths (case 8).
Figure 13. Absolute contrast versus time for delaminations D8, D7, and D6 at similar depths (case 8).
Figure 13. Absolute contrast versus time for delaminations D8, D7, and D6 at similar depths (case 8).
For small and deep defects, which normally show low absolute contrast (e.g., lower than 0.5 ◦ C
For small and deep defects, which normally show low absolute contrast (e.g., lower than 0.5 °C
according to theand
For small American Society which
deep defects, for Testing and Materials
normally show low(ASTM)
absolute requirement for field
contrast (e.g., lower testing [28]),
than 0.5 °C
according to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) requirement for field testing
itaccording
was shown tothat
the the temperature
American values
Society with time
for Testing andcontain noises
Materials and therequirement
(ASTM) thermal curves forare nottesting
field clear
[28]), it was shown that the temperature values with time contain noises and the thermal curves are
enough
[28]), it to
wasestimate
shownthe thatobservation time [22].
the temperature Therefore,
values with time while the noises
contain depth might
and thehave beencurves
thermal detectedare
not clear enough to estimate the observation time [22]. Therefore, while the depth might have been
incorrectly, the defects
not clear enough on the thermal
to estimate image aretime
the observation still visible, except forwhile
[22]. Therefore, the delamination
the depth might withhave
a ratio of
been
detected incorrectly, the defects on the thermal image are still visible, except for the delamination
width-to-depth
detected incorrectly, of equal
thetodefects
or lower
on than 1.0 [5,11,22].
the thermal imageTheareabsolute contrast
still visible, exceptvalue of delamination
for the delamination
with a ratio of width-to-depth of equal to or lower than 1.0 [5,11,22]. The absolute contrast◦ value of
D1 (3 acm
with × 3ofcm
ratio at 3 cm deep)ofwith
width-to-depth equalthe
to width-to-depth
or lower than 1.0 ratio of 1.0 The
[5,11,22]. is lower thancontrast
absolute 0.15 Cvalue
for allof
delamination D1 (3 cm × 3 cm at 3 cm deep) with the width-to-depth ratio of 1.0 is lower than 0.15 °C
cases of testing,D1
delamination which
(3 cmis× impossible
3 cm at 3 cmtodeep)
visualize
withwith the naked eye. ratio
the width-to-depth However, thelower
of 1.0 is defect might
than 0.15be°C
for all cases of testing, which is impossible to visualize with the naked eye. However, the defect might
detectable
for all casesif aofhigh-quality
testing, whichIR camera havingtohigh
is impossible resolution
visualize withand thermal
the naked sensitivity/Noise
eye. However, the defect Equivalent
might
be detectable if a high-quality IR camera having high resolution and thermal sensitivity/Noise
Temperature
be detectable Difference (NETD) is used,
if a high-quality and thehaving
IR camera tests are conducted
high resolutionunder a less
and uncertain
thermal environment
sensitivity/Noise
Equivalent Temperature Difference (NETD) is used, and the tests are conducted under a less
(e.g., an indoor
Equivalent test with virtually
Temperature no wind
Difference effect).isAsused,
(NETD) shown in Figure
and 14, the
the tests are average
conducted absolute
under contrast
a less
uncertain environment (e.g., an indoor test with virtually no wind effect). As shown in Figure 14, the
uncertain environment (e.g., an indoor test with virtually no wind effect). As shown in Figure 14, the
average absolute contrast for the twelve cases of D1 is around 0.12 °C; this is measured by the FLIR
average absolute contrast for the twelve cases of D1 is around 0.12 °C; this is measured by the FLIR
SC660 camera because most of the values are higher than the thermal sensitivity of the camera (30
SC660 camera because most of the values are higher than the thermal sensitivity of the camera (30
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 14 of 18

Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 14 of 18

for the twelve cases of D1 is around 0.12 ◦ C; this is measured by the FLIR SC660 camera because most
mK or 0.03 °C) [29]. Although visually undetectable, the delamination with the width-to-depth ratio
of the values are higher than the thermal sensitivity of the camera (30 mK or 0.03 ◦ C) [29]. Although
of 1.0 might be detected by an image processing method with the correct selection of background
visually undetectable, the delamination with the width-to-depth ratio of 1.0 might be detected by an
temperature.
image processing method with the correct selection of background temperature.

Figure 14. Absolute contrast of defect with width-to-depth ratio of 1.0.

Figure 14. Absolute contrast of defect with width-to-depth ratio of 1.0.

Thermal
Thermal diffusivity
diffusivity must
must be be acknowledged
acknowledged as as an
an important
important parameter
parameter influencing
influencing thethe depth
depth
estimates,
estimates, such as an observation time. Unlike metal materials, the density of concrete relates to
such as an observation time. Unlike metal materials, the density of concrete relates to air
air
voids [30], which can lead to a change in thermal diffusivity. As seen in Equation (7),
voids [30], which can lead to a change in thermal diffusivity. As seen in Equation (7), a lower material a lower material
density
density can
can cause
cause aa higher
higher diffusivity,
diffusivity, thus
thus aa shorter
shorter observation
observation time
time of
of the
the defect.
defect. InIn other
other words,
words,
the
the estimated defective depth will be less than the actual depth. Many researchers [10,11,31] have
estimated defective depth will be less than the actual depth. Many researchers [10,11,31] have
found
found that
that the
the thermal
thermal diffusivity
diffusivity of of the
the material
material relates
relates to
to the
the time
time ofof thermal
thermal wave
wave propagation.
propagation.
Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, the the results
results for
for concrete
concrete differ
differ somewhat
somewhat depending
depending on on the
the material
material density,
density, type
type of
of
aggregate, and the methods used to obtain this parameter. Moreover, the diffusion
aggregate, and the methods used to obtain this parameter. Moreover, the diffusion process weakens process weakens
the
the heat
heat as
as itit moves
moves deeper
deeper into
into the
the material
material [5].
[5]. Therefore,
Therefore, the
the diffusivity
diffusivity isis difficult
difficult to
to estimate
estimate for
for
concrete. The reference values obtained from several previous works are summarized
concrete. The reference values obtained from several previous works are summarized in Table 3. in Table 3.

Table 3. Values
Table 3. Values of
of thermal
thermal diffusivity
diffusivityof
ofconcrete.
concrete.

Researcher Density, ρ Type of Aggregate Thermal

Thermal Diffusivity
Diffusivity α = K/ρ C Method
Researcher Density,3 ρ Type of Aggregate Method
(kg/m ) α(cm
= K/ρ C
2 /min)

Maldague, 1993 [11] (kg/m

24003) - (cm0.318
2/min)
-
Maldague, 1993
Maldague, 2001 [32]
[11] 2400
2400(dry) -- 0.318
0.318 --
2500 (moist) - 0.336 -
Maldague, 2001[30]
Lamond, 2006 [32] 2400 (dry)
- -
Quartz 0.318
1.317 CRD-C- 36, 37
2500 (moist) -
Quartzite 0.336
1.017 CRD-C- 36, 37
Lamond, 2006 [30] - Limestone
Quartz 0.917
1.317 CRD-C 36,
CRD-C 36,37
37
Basalt 0.417 CRD-C 36, 37
Quartzite
Expanded shale 1.017
0.250 CRD-C 36,
CRD-C 36, 37 37
Vollmer, 2010 [19] - Limestone
- (at 20 ◦ C)
0.3960.917 CRD-C- 36, 37
Ahlborn, 2015 [6] - Quartz 1.425 IRT 1
Basalt 0.417 CRD-C 36, 37
1
Note: Value taken by back analyzing the IRT on concreteshale
slabs for defects with different
Expanded 0.250 sizes, shapes,CRD-C
and depths.
36, 37
The value of thermal diffusivity is estimated from the linear regression relationship between observation time and
Vollmer, 2010 [19]
2
defect depth (R = 0.896). - - 0.396 (at 20 °C) -
Ahlborn, 2015 [6] - Quartz 1.425 IRT 1
Note:
In this1 Value taken
research, byconcrete
the back analyzing the IRT
specimen wasonmade
concrete
of slabs
gneissforand
defects with aggregates
granite different sizes,
and shapes,
designed
with and depths. ratio
a mixture The value of thermal
of water, cement,diffusivity
sand, andis estimated
aggregate from the linear regression
components relationship
as 0.5, 1.0, 1.2, and 2.6,
between The
respectively. observation
sizes oftime
fineand defect depth
aggregates range = 0.896).
(R2 from 4.75 to 12.5 mm (approximately 60%), whereas
thoseIn
ofthis
coarse aggregates range from 12.5 to 25 mm (approximately
research, the concrete specimen was made of gneiss and granite 40%). aggregates and designed
with a mixture ratio of water, cement, sand, and aggregate components as 0.5, 1.0, 1.2, and 2.6,
respectively. The sizes of fine aggregates range from 4.75 to 12.5 mm (approximately 60%), whereas
those of coarse aggregates range from 12.5 to 25 mm (approximately 40%).
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 15 of 18
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 15 of 18
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 15 of 18

To estimate
To
To estimate the
estimate the thermal
the thermal diffusivity
thermal diffusivity of
diffusivity of the
of the concrete
the concrete specimen,
concrete specimen, back-analysis
specimen, back-analysis from
back-analysis from the
from the linear
the linear
linear
relationship between
relationship
relationship between
betweenthe the actual
theactual depth
actualdepth ofofeach
depthof each
each delamination
delamination
delamination and
and
and thethe
the observation
observation
observation time
time waswas
time
was carried out
carried
carried out
as plotted
outplotted
as as plottedin Figure 15.
in Figure
in Figure Missing data
15. Missing
15. Missing for the
datathe
data for over-heating
forover-heating and
the over-heating depth information
and depth
and depth are
information
information ignored in
are ignored
are ignored the
in the
analysis.
in The linear
the analysis.
analysis. The linear
The regression line with
with line
linear regression
regression line aa high
high
withcorrelation coefficient value
a high correlation
correlation coefficient value (R2 == 0.8995)
coefficient
(R
2 0.8995)
value (R indicates
2 the
= 0.8995)
indicates the
reliability
indicates of
the the data
reliabilityset.
ofThe
thediffusivity
data set. of
The the concrete
diffusivity specimen
of the can
concretebe estimated
specimen
reliability of the data set. The diffusivity of the concrete specimen can be estimated approximately by approximately
can be estimatedby
inverting
approximately
inverting the slope
the slope of the
by inverting equation,
the slope
of the equation, α =
α of 1/0.6113 =
the equation,
= 1/0.6113 1.636
= 1.636 cm 2/min. This value can
= 1/0.6113
α cm 2/min. This= 1.636
valuecm
2
can be
/min. applied to
This value
be applied estimate
can be
to estimate
the defective
applied to depth
estimate the for the
defective actual
depth concrete
for the structures
actual concretein the field,
structures
the defective depth for the actual concrete structures in the field, having the same material inhaving
the the
field, same
having material
the same
characteristics.
material characteristics.
characteristics.

15. Observation time vs square

square of actual
actual defective depth.
depth.
Figure 15.
Figure 15. Observation time vs square of
of actual defective
defective depth.

In addition,
In addition, the
the loss
loss of
of contrast
contrast (c)
(c) is
is investigated
investigated to
to confirm
confirm the
the correction
correction of
of its
its relationship
relationship
against the cube of the depth as mentioned by Maldague
against the cube of the depth as mentioned by Maldague [11] [11]
[11]
1
c  113 ,,
c (8)
c ≈ z33 , (8) (8)
z
The absolute
The absolute contrast
contrast values
values versus
versus the
the invert
invert ofof the
the cubic
cubic depth (1/z333)) of
depth (1/z of each delamination
delamination are
The absolute contrast values versus the invert of the cubic depth (1/z ) of each
each delamination are are
also
also plotted
plotted inin Figure 16. Based on the figure, the relationship between the absolute contrast and
and thethe
also plotted in Figure 16. Based
Figure 16. Based on
on the
the figure,
figure, the
the relationship
relationship between the
between the absolute
absolute contrast
contrast and the
inverse of
inverse of the
the cubic
cubic depth
depth (1/z
(1/z33)) is
3 is relatively accurate
accurate with aa linear
linear correlation coefficient
coefficient value
value (R
(R ) of
2
inverse of the cubic depth (1/z ) isrelatively
relatively accurate with
with a linear correlation
correlation coefficient value (R22)) of
of
0.8004.
0.8004. It
It should
should be
be noted
noted that
that the
the data
data are
are limited
limited for
for only
only three
three different
different depths,
depths, four
four different
different sizes,
sizes,
0.8004. It should be noted that the data are limited for only three different depths, four different sizes,
and twelve
and twelve cases
cases of
of dissimilar
dissimilar environmental
environmental conditions.
conditions.
and twelve cases of dissimilar environmental conditions.

Figure 16. Absolute contrast vs. 1/z333.

Figure16.
Figure 16. Absolute
Absolute contrast
contrastvs.
vs. 1/z
1/z ..
Sensors 2017, 17, 1718 16 of 18

This type of test should be carried out as many times as possible to obtain a large dataset relating
to absolute contrast versus defective depth with a given external heating system (i.e., similar type
of heat source, heating time, distribution layout, and distance of heat source). Then, similar to the
process for the field test, with known environmental conditions, size of detect (observed from thermal
image or camera screen), absolute contrast above defective area, and thermal characteristics of concrete,
the depth of defect can be interpolated via the relationship obtained from the known data set without
the need for the time-consuming task of analyzing the cooling curve to obtain the observation time for
each delamination.

6. Conclusions
Active thermography test data obtained from a laboratory experiment were analyzed under
different environmental conditions. The research focuses on the effects of different ambient
temperatures and relative humidity conditions on the defective depth detection and the absolute
contrast between the defective and non-defective areas of delaminations. Results of the experiment
show that the absolute contrast between defective and sound areas increases with the increase of the
ambient temperature and that the absolute contrast between defective and sound areas decreases
with the decrease of the ambient temperature, and it increases at a faster rate with large and shallow
delaminations than smaller and deeper delaminations.
The existence of a highly humid atmosphere might lead to an increase in the absolute contrast,
especially for shallow delaminations of 1 cm deep. For deeper delaminations, the absolute contrast
shows similar values for the two cases of the test at 71% and 58%, despite the difference in relative
humidity of up to 13%. The results also indicate that, for shallow defects, the depth detection might be
less affected by varying ambient temperature and relative humidity. Despite the deeper delaminations
fluctuating under different environmental conditions, the overall trend indicates a leveling out with a
decline of ambient temperature.
The thermal diffusivity of 1.636 cm2 /min can be used for concrete structures in the field that
have similar material characteristics as those used in this laboratory research. In addition, the loss
of contrast versus cube of defective depth (1/z3 ) can be expressed through a linear relationship
for practical purposes, in order to quickly estimate the defective depth based on a known data set,
without the need for the time-consuming analysis of the cooling curve to obtain observation time
for delaminations.

Acknowledgments: This research was supported by a grant (17RDRP-B076564-04) from the Regional
Development Research Program funded by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport of the
Korean government.
Author Contributions: Jungwon Huh, Dongyeob Han, and Achintya Haldar conceived the idea and designed the
framework; Choonghyun Kang and Quang Huy Tran carried out the experiments; Jungwon Huh, Quang Huy Tran
and Choonghyun Kang analyzed the data; and Jungwon Huh and Quang Huy Tran wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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