NDT&E International 125 (2022) 102562

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NDT and E International

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Identifying void defects behind Tunnel composite lining based on transient

electromagnetic radar method
Qingqiao Geng a, *, Ying Ye b, c, Xiaoliang Wang d
a
School of Traffic and Transportation, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, 100044, China
b
Beijing Municipal Engineering Research Institute, Beijing, 100037, China
c
Beijing Key Laboratory of Underground Construction Forecasting and Warning, Beijing, 100037, China
d
Beijing 3rd Construction Engineering Quality Inspection and Testing Institute Co., Ltd., Beijing, 100037, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Void defects behind the linings are typical in most operating tunnels, and effective methods are needed to
Composite lining identify them. This study presents a self-developed non-destructive detection method called transient electro­
Void defect magnetic radar (TER). Measures and algorithms were proposed to improve TER according to the characteristics
Transient electromagnetic radar (TER)
of the composite lining. The detection depth was increased by adjusting the transmitter current and reducing the
Underdamped antenna
Apparent resistivity
primary magnetic field turn-off time. The image resolution was improved using the transient electromagnetic
signal enhancement algorithm. Data noise was suppressed using the hybrid algorithm of bipolar superposition
and multi-period sampling. The improved TER was subjected to indoor physical model tests and try-outs in a
defective railway tunnel to evaluate its actual detection capacity. The results showed that the improved TER had
excellent distinguishing capacities on lining-related media and boundaries between different lining layers. It was
capable of effectively detecting void defects over 10 cm in size behind the linings. Compared with ground-
penetrating radar (GPR), TER is less interfered with by steel bars, and the radar image is more intuitive and
clearer. The actual features of the void defects were more accurately reflected with the TER approach, indicating
its great superiority in the recognition capacity. This study could help the evaluation of void defects and the
subsequent maintenance.

1. Introduction
Tunnels are crucial underground transportation infrastructure for
daily commute. However, hydraulic erosion, frost heave, and landslides,
could cause various damages and defects in operating tunnels [1,2].
Void defects behind the lining are the main perils in tunnels after
long-term operation. As shown in Fig. 1, void defects could lead to
reduced bearing capacity, cracks, and peeling in the lining, which
greatly affects the safety and durability of tunnels and shortens their
service life [3,4]. Therefore, appropriate methods are needed to accu­
rately detect and locate void defects [5–7].
Recently, non-destructive methods have become the mainstream of
void defect detection as they cause no damage to the lining [8].
Commonly used methods include acoustic wave prospecting,
ground-penetrating radar (GPR), impulse response, and infrared ther­
mometry [9,10]. GPR is widely used for its large-scale and rapid
detection capacity [11,12]. However, GPR is not without limitations. Its
radar waves are easily interfered with by metal parts in the tunnel, its
output data is complex to interpret, and its detection range is shallow
[13–15]. Besides, a fast and non-contact inspection technique can also
detect void defects behind the lining, different from GPR, the detection
speed of this technique can reach 50–70 km/h, which is of great sig­
nificance for long-distance and large-scale tunnel detection. However,
improving the accuracy and reliability of the detection results is still an
urgent problem [16–18]. In addition, other non-destructive detecting
methods, such as infrared thermometry and impulse response, cannot
accurately detect void defects behind the lining of most tunnels due to
environmental interference and complex operations [19–21]. Mean­
while, the existing methods cannot distinguish the media in and around
the lining, and the detection results cannot directly and clearly reflect
the defects. Therefore, a new void detection approach is urgently needed
to overcome these shortcomings [22,23].
Transient electromagnetic method (TEM) is an artificial source
electromagnetic detecting method based on the principle of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: 20114066@bjtu.edu.cn (Q. Geng).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ndteint.2021.102562
Received 18 April 2021; Received in revised form 1 October 2021; Accepted 12 October 2021
Available online 14 October 2021
0963-8695/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Q. Geng et al.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the void behind tunnel lining.
Fig. 2. The basic principle of TEM.
Fig. 3. Transient electromagnetic radar (TER).
electromagnetic induction [24]. With a deep detection range and
sensitivity to low-resistance objects [25,26], TEM has been widely used
in mineral explorations and hydrogeological surveys [27–29]. However,
the application of TEM in engineering is limited, especially the void
defect detection in underground structures such as tunnels [30].
Therefore, a self-developed non-destructive detection technique tran­
sient electromagnetic radar (TER) is proposed to compensate for these
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NDT and E International 125 (2022) 102562
deficiencies and provide new ideas for tunnel lining inspection. TER
adopts the on-site acquisition mode of ordinary radar and uses the
positive and negative square wave superimposed acquisition method to
perform fast-moving scanning on the target. At present, TER has been
applied to perform advanced geological predictions in subway con­
struction, urban underground pipeline detection, and underground
cavity detection [31]. However, the environment of the tunnel lining is
more complex and random than other urban underground structures,
and the results need to be more accurate [32–34]. Therefore, the existing
TER techniques must be improved to meet the requirement of tunnel
lining inspection.
Given the above limitations, algorithms were applied according to
the characteristics of composite linings to improve the detection depth,
image resolution and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the TER technique
and realize non-destructive detection for composite linings. The various
media in and around the lining were clearly distinguished for the first
time. Void defects over 10 cm in size behind the lining can be effectively
detected according to the different apparent resistivities of the media,
including concrete, air, and metal. Compared with the traditional GPR
technique, the improved TER technique offered more intuitive and
clearer results that could help effectively distinguish the different lining
layers and more accurately reflect the actual features of the void defects,
thus showing great superiority in the recognition capacity. This paper
presents a new non-destructive technique to identify void defects behind
composite linings, and the findings could provide technical guidance for
the qualitative detection and subsequent repair of railway tunnels. The
rest of this article is arranged as follows. In Section 2, the basic principles
and detailed parameters of TER are explained, and the feasibility of TER
for void defect detection is analyzed through forward numerical simu­
lations. Section 3 describes the measures and the corresponding algo­
rithms for increasing the detection depth, weak signal processing, and
SNR improvement. Section 4 is the discussion on the improved TER’s
identification capacity for different media and void defects in different
ranges through indoor tests. Section 5 is the discussion on the practical
application of the improved TER in railway tunnels and the comparative
detection analysis with GPR. Finally, section 6 concludes this article.
2. TER system and detection feasibility
2.1. Theoretical background
The TER method is based on the TEM theory, and its basic principle is
shown in Fig. 2. The transmitting coil emits a pulsed magnetic field into
the ground and causes eddy currents. During the intermittent pulse, the
eddy currents will not disappear immediately but induce a secondary
magnetic field, which decays with time in the surrounding space. The
attenuation pattern of the secondary magnetic field could reflect the
conductivity, volume scale, and depth of the abnormal object [35].
Therefore, abnormal objects can be achieved detected by obtaining the
secondary magnetic field through the receiving coil.
As electromagnetic data is captured by the receiving coil, its internal
response can be calculated with the characteristic equation below:
d2 V(t) dV(t) 1
+ 2δ + ω2 V(t) = ε(t) (1)
dt2 dt LC
δ = (rC + L / R)/2LC (2)
ω = (r / R + 1)/LC (3)
Where ε(t) is the theoretical electrical signal, t is the receiving time, ω
represents the resonance frequency, V(t) is the output electromotive
force, δ is the damping coefficient, r is the internal resistance of the
receiving coil, and C, L, and R represent the receiving capacitance, the
receiving inductance, and the configuration resistance, respectively.
According to the theory of electromagnetic system oscillation, the
Q. Geng et al. NDT and E International 125 (2022) 102562

Table 1 connected to the computer. The parameters of each part are shown in
Device parameters of TER. Table 1 [36].
Transmitter Receiver Fig. 4 is the working flow of TER. When in operation, the transmitter
sends electromagnetic waves to the ground through the detection an­
Time of current <100 μs Sampling frequency 4.096–52.734
turned off kHz tenna. When the signal is triggered, the system collects and transmits the
Transmitting 0.0625–222 Hz A/D resolution ratio 24Bit high data to the computer. The TER system records the distance by converting
frequency precision the pulse number of the measuring wheel. After setting the distance
Launching mode Measuring Dynamic range 175 dB parameter, the wheel speed is measured by the sensor and converted
wheel
Trigger mode Rising edge Delay time window 1000 ms
with distance, and the distance and position are calibrated during the
Current supply 0–10A Times of 1–9999 detection.
superimposition
Current waveform Bipolar square Synchronous mode Cable
2.3. Forward simulation
wave

A forward simulation is conducted on the numerical model of lining

defects to verify the theoretical feasibility of using TER to detect void
defects behind the lining. Table 2 shows the parameters of each layer in
the model. The concrete lining is regarded as a homogeneous medium
with an apparent resistivity of 1000 Ω m and a thickness of 40 cm. The
apparent resistivity of the surrounding rock is 100 Ω m, and the thick­
ness is much larger than that of the lining. The size of the defects is 20
cm. After the model is established, forward simulation is carried out to
analyze the changes in apparent resistivity under defective and non-
defective conditions.
Fig. 5 shows the forward simulation diagram of different contact
states behind the lining. On the right side of the image is the established
model, on the upper left is the apparent resistivity change curve, and on
the lower left is the curve of the induced voltage. Since the voltage
induced by TEM decays with time [37], the attenuation speed varies in
different media, and the relationship between apparent resistivity and
the induced voltage can be expressed as:
[ ]
Iρ 2 ( ) 2
U(t) = 3 3erf (u) − √̅̅̅ u 3 + 2u2 e− u (6)
a π
Fig. 4. Working flow of TER.
∫ u
2
(7)
2
erf (u) = √̅̅̅ e− t dt
Table 2 π 0

Parameters of the forward model. √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

Material Apparent resistivity (Ω⋅m) Thickness (cm) μ0 a2
u= (8)
4ρt
Lining concrete 10,000 40
Air 1 × 1012 20
Surrounding rock 100 80 Where I is the measured current, U(t) represents the voltage induced by
TEM, ρ represents the apparent resistivity, a, t, and u represent the radius
of the transmitting coil, the detection time, and a parameter associated
critical coefficient K of circuit oscillation can be expressed as: with the detecting instrument, respectively. erf(u) is the error function,
( )
δ √̅̅̅ 1 √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ 1 √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ μ0 is a constant equal to 4π × 10− 7 H/m.
K= = α L/C + r C/L (4) As shown in Fig. 5, curves 1 and 2 are the forward simulation results
ω 2R 2
on models without defects behind the lining. As the electromagnetic
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
⃒ ⃒ wave transmits towards the surrounding rock, the apparent resistivity
α = ω ⃒K 2 − 1⃒ (5)
decreases, and the induced voltage decays slowly with time. Curves 3
and 4 are the forward simulation on models with void defects behind the
Where K > 1, K = 1, and K < 1 represent the overdamped state, the
lining. As the electromagnetic wave reaches the air first and then the
critically damped state, and the underdamped state, respectively. The
surrounding rock, the apparent resistivity increases significantly before
signal reception is different in the three states. The early signal is rela­
decreasing, and the induced voltage decays sharply with time. The
tively complete in the underdamped state, and the received magnetic
different trends show that the void defects significantly affect the results
field is relatively stronger. Therefore, the underdamped antenna is most
of the forward simulation, and the results could help determine the
commonly used in TER for underground detection.
presence of void defects behind the lining. Accordingly, adopting TER to
detect void defects behind tunnel lining is reasonable and feasible.
2.2. Composition and principle
3. Performance improvement of TER
The composition of the TER system is shown in Fig. 3, which includes
measuring wheels, detection antenna, electromagnetic receiver and Although the forward simulations have shown the theoretical feasi­
transmitter, and a computer. The transmitting system includes a trans­ bility of using TER to detect void defects behind the lining, the existing
mitting antenna, an output stage, a driver, and a waveform transmitter, TER technique is still not capable of reflecting their actual features, thus
which can continuously emit low-frequency electromagnetic pulses. The not meeting the requirements of accurate detection. In this study, the
receiving system includes a receiving antenna, an ARM, a filter, a signal detection depth, image resolution, and SNR of the TER technique were
amplifier, an FPGA, and an A/D converter. The data output terminal is improved according to the features of the composite lining.

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Fig. 5. A forward simulation comparison of two working conditions.

Fig. 6. Induced voltage attenuation curve: (a) Curve of the center loop; (b) Curve of the overlapping loop.

3.1. Detection depth 2

μ0 (I) a3 L
ηT = 0.155 ( )( ) φ(αt) (10)
High-frequency antennas are often adopted to improve the resolu­ ηT t d4 1 + L2 2 1 + 2L2
tion of radars. Nevertheless, the penetration of those antennas is weak
due to their low power and low interference resistance, which restricts ∑∞
6 L(αt)
the detection depth [38–40]. The radars must have enough detection φ(αt) = = 25 exp( − πk)2 αt (11)
25 t
depth to explore deep geological bodies such as void defects behind k=1

tunnel lining [41]. As TER already has low frequency, high detection
Where dT is the detection depth, σ is the conductivity, a is the radius, I is
power, and good penetration performance, its detection depth was
the transmitter current, ηT is the transient response SNR, nT is the
improved by reducing the turn-off time of the primary field and
electromagnetic noise per unit area, L is the side length of the coil, d is
increasing the electromagnetic transmitter current.
the depth of the sphere center L = L/d, t is the measuring time, α = 1/
3.1.1. Increasing the transmitter current μ0 σ a2 is the signal transition characteristics, μ0 = 4π × 10− 7 H/m. It is
Many factors affect the detection depth of TER. In addition to the safe to conclude that a greater transmitter current corresponds to a
dynamic range, sensitivity, and electromagnetic receiver sampling rate, stronger excitation field and an increase in the detection depth.
there are also the current magnitude, the turn-off delay time, and
waveform. When detecting the TEM response of a point with the center 3.1.2. Reducing the turn-off time
coil, the conductive target can be regarded as a sphere whose center is The turn-off time of the primary magnetic field is crucial for TER to
directly below the center coil on the same vertical axis. The relationship acquire the geological body signals. The earlier the turn-off time, the
between detection depth and transmitter current can be expressed as: more complete the signal. Turning off the current causes the transmitter
current to drop sharply and the primary magnetic field to decrease
[ ]1/4 [ ]1/4
I⋅a L
2
rapidly. Shortening the turn-off time as much as possible could cause a
dT = 1.09 ( )2 ( ) (9) stronger primary eddy current field and secondary magnetic field, which
ηT nT σ 1+L
2
1 + 2L
2
further increases the detection depth. Fig. 6 shows the attenuation
curves of the induced voltage with different turn-off times. The induced
voltage gradually decreases with the increase of turn-off time, and it

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Q. Geng et al. NDT and E International 125 (2022) 102562

Fig. 7. TER Images of a reinforced concrete floor: (a) 1 cm/point; (b) 5 cm/point.

tends to be consistent if delaying the turn-off long enough. In contrast, if −

When i ≤ j, if log(Vi ) − log(V i ) − C1 ⋅d ≥ 0, then there are:
the turn-off time is short enough, the number of components will in­ [ ( )]
crease, and the received signal becomes more conclusive. ( ) −
e = log Vj − log V i ⋅C2 (12)

3.2. Data signal and image resolution −

Vj = V j + 10e (13)
As a factor affecting the accuracy of TER, image resolution is −
correlated to the sampling method. At present, the most common data If log(Vi ) − log(V i ) − C1 ⋅d < 0, then:
acquisition method in tunnel inspection is sparse sampling, which has { [ ( )]}
−
technical defects such as limited data volume and large single-point data e = ± log(Vi ) − log V i ⋅C3 (14)
coverage in the detection area. As a result, the resolution is low, and the
data detail recording is incomplete [42,43]. In the early stage, the signal −
Vj = V j ± 10e (15)
amplitude is strong and decays quickly. According to the Nyquist theory
[44], to reconstruct a continuous signal with a frequency of f, the When i > j, then there are:
sampling rate of the discrete signal must be greater than 2f. Therefore, { [ ( )]}
−
the sampling rate should be as high as possible to ensure the true e = ± log(Vi ) − log V i ⋅C3 (16)
waveform of the early signal, which is also the premise of improving the
resolution of the TER images. When acquiring the data signal, the −
relative background signal could be too weak and needs to be enhanced. Vj = V j ± 10e (17)
Weak signal enhancement is usually involved in lining inspection In formulas (12)–(17), all the plus-minus signs can be replaced by
methods. However, existing enhancement methods cannot be applied
plus signs when Vj ≥ V j and minus signs otherwise, e is the natural
directly to TEM signals due to their unique nature. Therefore, the
constant, C1, C2, and C3 are adjustable constants, generally C1 ≥ 1, C2 ≥
following signal enhancement algorithm was designed based on the
2, C3 ≥ 0.5.
characteristics of TEM and tunnel lining.
Based on the above algorithm, the radar signal is enhanced by
Defining the number of observation channels as j, then, V j is the reducing the sampling interval of the electromagnetic transmitter, and
average induction electromotive force of the j-th channel at each the resolution is further improved. Fig. 7 shows the TER results on a
measuring point, d is the variance of these values after taking the log­ reinforced concrete floor at different sampling intervals. In Fig. 7(a), the
arithm, and V i is the value of the i-th channel. The value of j can be easily sampling interval is 1 cm/point, and the signal enhancement algorithm
determined through trial calculation.

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Fig. 8. Induced voltage curve: (a) original sampling; (b) Bipolar superposition; (c) Multi-period sampling.

is adopted. In Fig. 7(b), the interval is 5 cm/point, and the enhancement Suppose the sampling starts at tk and continues every T period, then
algorithm is not adopted. the i-th sampling value is:
In Fig. 7, different color codes are set in the USEP software to
f (tk + (i − 1)T) = fk [tk + (i − 1)T] + N[tk + (i − 1)T] (20)
distinguish the apparent resistivity values. Blue represents low resis­
tance, and red represents high resistance. It is evident that Fig. 7(a) has a For periodic signals, there are:
higher resolution and less noise with the thickness of the floor and the
fk (tk + iT) = fk (tk ) (21)
positioning of the internal steel pipe more accurately detected.
After n repeated sampling, the cumulation of all signals is:
3.3. Data noise suppression
∑
n ∑
n
f [tk + (i − 1)T] = nfk (tk ) + N[tk + (i − 1)T] (22)
The tunnel causes different types of noise in the TER results, i=1 i=1

including instrument noise and external electromagnetic noise [45], The accumulated noise after n times will increase according to the
which directly affects the data quality and the final calculation. There­ statistical law, and its geometric average value can be calculated with
fore, bipolar superposition and multi-period sampling were combined to the following equation:
denoise the signal.
∑
n √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
N[tk + (i − 1)T] = N 21 (tk ) + N 22 (tk + T) + ⋯ + N 2n [tk + (n − 1)T] (23)
3.3.1. Bipolar superposition i=1
The secondary magnetic fields in different time domains were
superimposed to eliminate random interference and improve the SNR so Assuming that the effective average noise during each sampling is
that the interference of DC offset and ultra-low frequency noise in the N(tk ), then after n times of sampling:
receiving system can be effectively suppressed. A periodic pulse ∑n
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
[ ]2̅ √̅̅̅
sequence was used to continuously excite secondary magnetic fields so N[tk + (i − 1)T] = n N(tk ) = nN(tk ) (24)
that the conditions of the two measurements in one cycle are consistent. i=1

The noise signal remained unchanged in two measurements and became Therefore, SNR can be expressed as:
zero after subtraction. In this way, the interference of external noise and ( ) ( )
DC offset signal was eliminated. The interference of the 50 Hz power SNR =
S nfk (tk )
= √̅̅̅
√̅̅̅ S
= n (25)
frequency and its harmonics were effectively suppressed by using bi­ N out nN(tk ) N in
polar superposition. The principle is as follows:
Defining the measuring signal as θ, then θ+ is the positive polarity (S/N)out √̅̅̅
= n (26)
measuring signal, θ- is the negative one, θi is the useful input signal, θ50 is (S/N)in
the power frequency interference, Δθ is the system DC offset. The √̅̅̅
After multi-period sampling, SNR decreases to n times of the
measuring signal not considering other interference is: original, which is a significant improvement.
θ+ − θ− (θi + θ50 + Δθ) − ( − θi + θ50 + Δθ) Fig. 8 shows the comparison before and after denoising at a single
θ= = = θi ​ (18) measuring point. As shown in Fig. 8(a), the original voltage curve
2 2
without denoising is full of noise. Fig. 8(b) shows the result with bipolar
Therefore, the measuring signal is the useful input signal, and the
superposition. Although the SNR is significantly improved in the middle
power frequency interference and system maladjustment are eliminated
and late periods, there is still a lot of noise. Therefore, the multi-period
theoretically.
sampling is applied to the results after bipolar superposition, and the
result is shown in Fig. 8(c). Finally, the voltage curve showed good noise
3.3.2. Multi-period sampling
reduction effects.
Although the SNR of the data can be improved using bipolar super­
position, the noise is still so intense that further denoising is required.
4. Indoor verification test
One reliable method is multi-period superimposed sampling, i.e., saving
the sampling signal of each period and taking the average output to
The improved TER was verified for practical application. Indoor
improve SNR. The following is a brief description of the linear accu­
medium discrimination tests and void defects model tests were con­
mulation method.
ducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the improved TER in detecting
Suppose the periodic signal consists of useful signal fk(t) and noise
void defects behind the lining, and the detection accuracy was recorded.
signal N(t), i.e.:
f (t) = fk (t) + N(t) (19)

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Table 3 4.1. Medium discrimination test

Electromagnetic parameters of common media in tunnels.
Medium Conductivity (s/ Relative Transmission speed Apparent resistivity is essential for distinguishing the physical
m) permittivity (m/us) properties of the targets [46]. As shown in Table 3, lining with void
Air 0 1 300 defects can be considered a combination of media with low apparent
Wet sand 0.001–0.01 10–30 95–54 resistivity (steel and water) and media with high apparent resistivity (air
Dry sand 10− 7–0.001 2–6 212–122 and concrete). The different apparent resistivities of different media are
Wet asphalt 0.001–0.1 6–12 122–86 an important basis for adopting TER to detect abnormal bodies behind
Dry asphalt 0.01–0.1 2–4 212–150
Saturated 0.001–0.1 9–16 100–75
the lining. In addition, good media discrimination capacity is essential
hale for identifying the concrete, steel bars, and lining defects. Therefore, a
Dry fill 10− 4–10− 3 4–10 150–95 TER map of the media in and around the lining is necessary.
Dry shale 0.001–0.01 4–9 150–100 The physical parameters of each medium listed in Table 3 are not
Wet fill 0.01–0.1 10–30 95–54
affected by the operating frequency of TER. In structural quality in­
water 10− 6–0.01 81 33
Wet concrete 0.01–0.1 10–20 95–67 spections, the transmitting frequency of TER is often set low between
0.0625 and 222 Hz to ensure good penetration and detection range.
Therefore, the frequency-dependent dielectric polarization was not

Fig. 9. Comparative detection of five media: (a) air; (b) reinforced concrete; (c) plain concrete; (d) water; (e) steel.

Fig. 10. The test tank model: (a) schematic diagram; (b) detailed dimensions.

Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of the concrete components: (a) the first group; (b) the second group; (c) the third group.

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Fig. 12. Dimensions of the concrete components.

Fig. 13. TER images of the test tank model: (a) image acquired with the underdamped antenna at the upper line; (b) image acquired with the critically damped
antenna at the upper line; (c) image acquired with the underdamped antenna at the lower line; (d) image acquired with the critically damped antenna at the
lower line.

Fig. 14. Apparent resistivity curves of the test tank model: (a) 0–30 cm deep in the upper region; (b) 40–70 cm deep in the upper region; (c) contrast curves of the
upper region; (d) 0–30 cm deep in the lower region; (e) 40–70 cm deep in the lower region; (f) contrast curves of the lower region.

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Q. Geng et al.
Fig. 15. Combination form of the concrete components.
Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of the defects: (a) void area; (b) iron area; (c) 10 cm cavity; (d) 6 cm cavity.
Fig. 17. The measuring line.
considered in the indoor verification tests.
Before the model test, a medium discrimination test was conducted
to obtain typical TER images of different media. Fig. 9 shows the TER
images of air, reinforced concrete, plain concrete, water, and steel ob­
tained under the same conditions. According to Fig. 9, air and plain
concrete show high apparent resistivity, while reinforced concrete,
water, and steel show low apparent resistivity. In addition, the apparent
resistivities of water, reinforced concrete, and steel differ significantly.
Thus, the TER images of different media showed sufficient distinguish­
ing capacity and high resolution, and the improved TER could effec­
tively identify the media in and around the lining. The radar images of
each medium could serve as the verification standard in the subsequent
model tests.
4.2. Void defects model test
4.2.1. Test design
Two test models were designed considering the different range of
void defects behind the lining and the convenience of equipment oper­
ation. The first was a test tank model of lining defects, and the second
was a combination model. The design schemes and parameters of the
two models are as follows:
(1) The test tank model
As shown in Fig. 10, the test tank is 100 cm long, 80 cm wide, 80 cm
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NDT and E International 125 (2022) 102562
high, and is cast with C30 concrete. At the back of the test tank is a
concrete wall with a thickness of 30 cm. Two hoisting rings were
inserted into the concrete wall before curing the concrete, which
reached 40 cm in depth. The front side of the concrete wall is a grouting
area with a length of 35 cm, a width of 60 cm, and a height of 40 cm. The
air around the grouting area simulates the void defects behind the lining.
The test tank is sealed with glass for observation and measurement.
(2) The combined model
The combined model with a length of 2 m was simulated by
combining different concrete components. The seven concrete compo­
nents were divided into three groups according to their types and sizes,
as shown in Fig. 11. The first group included two identical cubes with
side lengths of 30 cm. Two steel meshes were embedded into each
component 5 cm from the upper or lower sides. The mashes have a
diameter of 0.8 cm and intervals of 5 cm. Five steel bars were embedded
vertically and horizontally, and their ends were flush with the concrete
surface. The second group also included two cubes with side lengths of
30 cm. PVC pipes with diameters of 10 cm and 6 cm were embedded into
each of the cubes, respectively. The ends of the PVC pipes were not
sealed, and the same mashes as the first group were also made in the
second group. The third group included three identical components with
lengths of 30 cm, widths of 30 cm, and heights of 10 cm. Single-layer
steel meshes were embedded in the same way as that in the first
group. Fig. 12 shows the dimensions of the different components.
4.2.2. Defect detection and results
(1) Detection of the test tank model
In actual detection, the test results obtained with underdamped an­
tenna shall prevail, and critically damped antenna is used to check and
correct the results. With the upper surface of the grouting area as the
boundary, the test tank was divided into the upper and lower areas, each
with a measuring line. Fig. 10(b) shows the layout of the measuring
lines.
The detection results were processed using the shallow apparent
resistivity method in USEP. Fig. 13 illustrates the preliminary analysis
results. Fig. 13(a) is the detection results obtained with the under­
damped antenna on the upper measuring line, where the thickness of the
concrete is 30 cm, and the two hoisting rings symmetrically positioned
10 cm from the left and right edges are characterized by low apparent
resistivity. The area between the two hoisting rings is characterized by
Q. Geng et al.
Fig. 18. TER images of the combined model: (a) Processing results using the shallow apparent resistivity method; (b) Comparison of contour map and SUFER image.
high apparent resistivity and identified as the air behind the concrete.
The test results are consistent with the actual situation. Fig. 13(b) shows
the detection results obtained with the critically damped antenna on the
upper measuring line. The positions of the hoisting rings and air are
consistent with those captured with the underdamped antenna image.
Fig. 13(c) is the results obtained with the underdamped antenna on the
lower measuring line, where the thickness of the concrete is 30 cm, and
the thickness of the grouting area is 65 cm. The distance between the
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NDT and E International 125 (2022) 102562
two sides of the grouting area and the edges of the test tank is 20 cm.
Both sides and the back of the grouting area are characterized by high
apparent resistivity and identified as void defects behind the lining. The
test results are consistent with the actual situation. Fig. 13(d) depicts the
results obtained with the critically damped antenna on the lower
measuring line. The positions of the grouting area and the void area are
consistent with those in the underdamped antenna image.
The detection results were further quantified. The representative
Q. Geng et al.
Fig. 19. Apparent resistivity curves of the combined model: (a) curve of 0–15 cm; (b) curve of 20–30 cm; (c) six curves in comparison.
Fig. 20. The location of the railway tunnel in southwestern China.
data collected using the underdamped antenna were extracted, the
apparent resistivity characteristics of lining defects of different
measuring lines were analyzed, and the apparent resistivity evolution
pattern at different depths was obtained. Seven sets of data were
extracted from the upper measuring line every 10 cm downwards. The
curves in Fig. 14(a) illustrate that as the electromagnetic wave propa­
gates in the concrete, the apparent resistivity shows an increasing trend.
Since 30 cm down is the junction between concrete and air, the medium
changes during the propagation of electromagnetic waves. As the waves
enter the air from the concrete, the apparent resistivity increases
significantly. As shown in Fig. 14(b), since the electromagnetic wave is
less interfered with by the air, the four curves show the same trends, and
the apparent resistivity is relatively higher. Fig. 14(c) shows the com­
parison between the seven curves of the upper measuring line. All curves
show minimum apparent resistivities at the horizontal distance of 15 cm
and 84 cm, the positions of the hoisting rings. At depths below 30 cm,
the apparent resistivity is generally lower, while at depths beyond 30
cm, the apparent resistivity is generally higher. This evolution pattern is
the same as the actual situation, where 0–30 cm is the concrete area, and
30–70 cm is the air area.
Seven sets of data were extracted from the lower measuring line. As
shown in Fig. 14(d), when the horizontal distance is 0–19 cm and
80–104 cm in the 30 cm depth curve, the apparent resistivity is
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NDT and E International 125 (2022) 102562
significantly higher, and the positions of these two intervals are
consistent with the void areas on both sides of the grouting area. The
reason is that the depth of 30 cm is the junction of the lining and
grouting area. Fig. 14(f) shows the comparison between the seven curves
of the lower measuring line. Due to the grouting area and void areas on
both sides, the curves at the depths of 40–60 cm have the same trends as
that of 30 cm. However, the curve at 70 cm tends to be stable as elec­
tromagnetic waves leaving the grouting area and entering the air. The
evolution pattern is consistent with the actual situation where 0–30 cm
is the lining, 30–60 cm is the grouting area, and 70 cm is the air.
The detection results of the test tank model showed that when the
lining material is plain concrete, the improved TER could distinguish the
thickness of the lining, the thickness of the grouting area, and the po­
sition of the steel bars inside the lining, which could help evaluate the
contact state between the lining and the structure behind it. In addition,
when the range is over 20 cm, the void area in the TER image has a clear
boundary with other structures. Thus the void location and range can be
quantitatively identified.
(2) Detection of the combined model
As shown in Fig. 15, the concrete components are combined to
simulate void defects in different ranges. Components No. 1 and No. 5
Q. Geng et al.
Fig. 21. Lining detection platform.
Fig. 22. RAMAC GPR.
simulate the lining without defects. Component No. 2 simulates the void
defect behind the lining, and the PVC pipes of different diameters in No.
3 and No. 4 are used to simulate the internal cavities of the lining. Be­
tween components No. 3 and No. 4 is an iron plate with a length of 50
cm, a width of 30 cm, a thickness of 0.3 cm, and a height consistent with
that of the upper steel bar. Moreover, behind the iron plate is a void area
for comparison with other components. The specific characteristics of
defects in each component are shown in Fig. 16.
There was a certain degree of edge effect since the size of the
underdamped antenna is equivalent to the concrete component. How­
ever, when detecting along the measuring line shown in Fig. 17, the edge
conditions of each component along the detection direction are the
same, so the results of the edge parts in the TER image are basically the
same, that is, the edge effect will not have a significant impact on the
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NDT and E International 125 (2022) 102562
detection results, nor will it affect the identification of void location and
size. In addition, the edge effect is not significant compared with the
apparent resistivity characteristics of the steel bar and void defects.
Therefore, the edge effect along the measuring line was not considered.
In actual detection, data collection is carried out along the measuring
line, and the result of the shallow apparent resistivity method in USEP is
shown in Fig. 18(a). Since the defects in the combined model are rela­
tively small, the form of the apparent resistivity contour map shown in
the upper part of Fig. 18(b) was adopted for a more accurate quantita­
tive analysis, which is described by the contour and the apparent re­
sistivity of each position. The red part is the apparent resistivity contour,
and the black background has no meaning. In addition, the specific
location and size of the void defects cannot be represented by only one
expression form. Thus, the contour map was imported into SUFER to
obtain the figure shown in the lower part of Fig. 18(b). A comprehensive
explanation is made by comparing the two figures, where the abscissa is
the horizontal detection distance, and the ordinate is the detection
depth.
When the detection distance is 0.3–0.5 m, the apparent resistivity is
high at 25.256 Ω m, which is identified as the void defect behind the
lining in component No. 2. When the distance is 0.7 m, a small cavity
appears in the lower part of the image, and the apparent resistivity is
high at 22.389 Ω m, which is identified as the 6 cm cavity in component
No. 3. In addition, the thickness image at distances of 0.9–1.4 m is quite
different, and the apparent resistivity is low at 19.522 Ω m. As the depth
increases, the apparent resistivity increases to 25.256 Ω m, which is
identified as the iron plate and the air behind it. When the distance is 1.6
m, the cavity in the lower part of the image is larger than that at 0.7 m,
and the apparent resistivity is high at 22.389 Ω m, which is identified as
the 10 cm cavity in component No. 4.
The detection results were further quantified. The detection data was
extracted to obtain the evolution pattern of apparent resistivity at
different depths, as shown in Fig. 19. Six sets of data were extracted
every 5 cm downwards. As shown in Fig. 19(a), the apparent resistivity
curve at a depth of 5 cm is overall low due to the upper steel mesh. When
the detection distance is 0.4 m, the apparent resistivity is relatively high,
which is consistent with the position of the void defect in component No.
2. When the distance is between 0.9 and 1.4 m, the apparent resistivity is
below average, and the interval is consistent with the position of the iron
plate. In Fig. 19(b), the three curves have similar trends. Due to the
shielding effect of the iron plate, the characteristics of the curve at
distances between 0.9 and 1.4 m are opposite to those of the curve at a
depth of 5 cm. When the distance is 0.7 m and 1.6 m, two wave crests
appear on the curve, which is identified as the cavity features in com­
ponents No. 3 and No. 4. Fig. 19(c) shows the comparison of apparent
resistivities at depths from 0 to 30 cm. When the depth is 5 cm, the
apparent resistivity is the lowest. When the depth is 20–30 cm, the
apparent resistivity decreases due to the underlying steel bars. More­
over, the apparent resistivity of the iron plate area increases with the
depth as the electromagnetic wave reaches the iron plate first before
leaving the iron plate and entering the air. The further away from the
iron plate, the higher the apparent resistivity.
The detection results of the combined model showed that when the
lining material is reinforced concrete, the improved TER could identify
the thickness of the lining, the depth of the steel bars, the voids behind
the lining, and the cavity inside the lining. The radar image is less
interfered with by steel bars and can accurately identify the location and
range of the defects. When the voids behind the lining are 10–20 cm,
they can be quantitatively described by the TER image. When the voids
are below 10 cm, the positions and voids level can be distinguished, but
their exact range cannot be quantitatively identified.
5. Engineering environment verification
The detection capacity of the improved TER in actual engineering
projects was verified with try-outs in a railway tunnel under
Q. Geng et al.
Fig. 23. Detailed TER image of the lining vault in D2K542 + 564–577.
construction in Panzhihua City, southwestern China (Fig. 20). The
tunnel has been built for four years with a maximum depth of 893 m.
Due to problems such as void defects and thin lining, a comprehensive
inspection of the tunnel lining is required.
Six measuring lines were arranged along the tunnel, and circumfer­
ential measuring lines were arranged for the parts with severe lining
defects so that the contact state behind the lining can be thoroughly
evaluated. A large streetlight vehicle supported by four rigid legs, which
can reach higher positions such as the vault and waist of the tunnel, was
adopted as the lining detection platform (Fig. 21). The improved TER
was adopted as the main detecting equipment, and GPR the auxiliary
equipment (Fig. 22). The two radars were used on parts with severe
defects, such as the arch waist on both sides and the lining vault. In
addition, the actual speed of TER was set to 40 km/h to ensure greater
detection range and higher detection accuracy, which meets the speed
requirements for tunnel inspection.
The radar image of the vault with the most severe void defects
behind the lining was selected for analysis, and the detection interval is
D2K542 + 564–577. The upper part of Fig. 23 is the initial TER image
processed in USEP. In order to eliminate the noise interference in the
later stage of the image, the original data was imported into SUFER, and
the image in the lower part of Fig. 23 was obtained through denoising,
which made the positions and sizes of the void defects more intuitive
and clearer.
As shown in Fig. 23, the boundaries between the surrounding rock,
the primary and secondary linings are distinct. The area at depths of
0–40 cm is the secondary lining, and the area at depths of 40–60 cm is
the primary lining, where the characteristics of the apparent resistivity
are more obvious than those of the secondary lining. When the mileage
stake number is at D2K542 + 566 and D2K542 + 576, the TER image
shows a clear gap with high apparent resistivity, which is identified as
the junction between the two linings. When the mileage stake number is
at D2K542 + 565, the image shows two apparent void defects with a
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NDT and E International 125 (2022) 102562
length of 20 cm and a height of 50 cm behind the lining. When the
mileage number is between D2K542 + 569 to 570, two void defects of
50 cm are identified behind the lining. When the mileage number is
D2K542 + 573–574, a void defect of 60 cm in length and 60 cm in height
is identified. The analysis results showed that the improved TER could
effectively identify void defects of different sizes.
Fig. 24 shows the comparison between the GPR results and the TER
results of the same segment. The upper part is the results generated in
USEP, while the lower part is the GPR results. When the mileage stake
number is D2K542 + 566, a gap of the linings is identified in the GPR
image, and the position is consistent with that in the TER image. How­
ever, when the mileage stake number is D2K542 + 576, no gap is
identified. Moreover, void defects are identified between D2K542 + 568
and 571, but the sizes of the defects are larger than those obtained with
TER. Besides, void or under-thickness defects are identified between
D2K542 + 573–574 and D2K542 + 575–577, but the defects are not
apparent. To sum up, although GPR could qualitatively detect void de­
fects, it cannot clearly distinguish the different lining layers, and the
detecting results cannot accurately and comprehensively reflect the
specific range and characteristics of void defects.
The analysis above showed that the improved TER could evaluate
void defects more accurately, comprehensively, and intuitively in
composite lining than GPR. Thus, the field verification in the railway
tunnel further proved the effectiveness and accuracy of the improved
TER in detecting void defects behind tunnel lining. In the actual detec­
tion, the wireless transmission between the collected data and TER
makes it possible to rapidly detect the voids, process the results on-site,
and visualize the specific depth of the defects. Meanwhile, the equip­
ment is relatively lighter and easy to operate by a single person inde­
pendently, which significantly saves human resources and material
resources.
Q. Geng et al.
Fig. 24. Comparison between TER and GPR results in D2K542 + 564–577.
6. Conclusion
This study aimed to detect void defects behind tunnel linings. The
non-destructive TER technique was improved by increasing the detec­
tion depth, enhancing the weak signal, and suppressing data noise using
algorithms selected based on the characteristics of the composite lining.
Firstly, the detection depth was extended by increasing the transmitter
current and reducing the primary magnetic field turn-off time. Secondly,
the weak signal was enhanced using the transient electromagnetic signal
enhancement algorithm, and the image resolution was improved.
Thirdly, SNR was improved with bipolar superposition and multi-period
sampling.
The actual detection capacity of the improved TER was evaluated
through indoor physical model tests and try-outs in a defective railway
tunnel. The results showed that the improved TER could accurately
identify the lining thickness, the position and depth of the reinforce­
ment, and effectively distinguish the boundaries between the sur­
rounding rock, primary lining, and secondary lining. Meanwhile, the
improved TER distinguished the media in and around the lining and
effectively detected void defects over 10 cm in size behind the lining.
Compared with the traditional GPR, the improved TER was less inter­
fered with by steel bars and located the void defects with higher accu­
racy. Moreover, the radar images of the improved TER were more
intuitive and clearer and showed great superiority in recognition ca­
pacity. These findings could provide guidance for analyzing the severity
of void defects and the subsequent maintenance.
In addition, some aspects still require attention in future studies. In
this study, only void defects behind composite linings were detected,
while TER could be applied to other linings. With enough practical ap­
plications in actual tunnels, the improved TER could effectively detect
14
NDT and E International 125 (2022) 102562
void defects behind different linings. Furthermore, improving the
detection speed remained a problem to solve. In the following research,
efforts will be made to continuously improve the detection speed while
ensuring accuracy so as to realize fast and accurate detection.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Qingqiao Geng: Methodology, Investigation, Validation, Formal
analysis and Writing. Ying Ye: Conceptualization, Supervision, Project
administration. Xiaoliang Wang: Investigation, Data curation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of
China (Grant No. 71340020).
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