Energy Storage and Tranporation of Energy

Review of Energy Storage and Transportation of Energy
Nasrullah Khan a,*, Saad Dilshad a, Rashid Khalid a, Ali Raza Kalaira, Naeem Abas b,
a
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, COMSATS University, Islamabad,
Pakistan
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Gujrat, Hafiz Hayat Campus, Gujrat,
Pakistan
*
Corresponding author: Nasrullah Khan
Email address: nasrullahk@yahoo.com
Mailing address: Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, COMSATS,

University, Islamabad, Pakistan
Tel: 92-300-6490048
This article has been accepted for publication and undergone full peer review but has not been
through the copyediting, typesetting, pagination and proofreading process which may lead to
differences between this version and the Version of Record. Please cite this article as doi:
10.1002/est2.49
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Declarations of interest: none

Abstract:
Energy storage and transportation are important keys to make sure the continuity of energy to the
customer. Electric power generation is changing dramatically across the world due to the
environmental effects of Greenhouse gases (GHG) produced by fossil fuels. The unpredictable
daily and seasonal variations in demand of electrical energy can be tackled by introducing the
energy storage systems (ESSs) and hence mitigating the extra GHG emission in the atmosphere.
Energy storage techniques can be mechanical, electro-chemical, chemical or thermal, etc. The
most popular form of energy storage is hydraulic power plants by using pumped storage and in
the form of stored fuel for thermal power plants. The classification of ESSs, their current status,
flaws and present trends, are presented in this paper. The present status of fossil fuel reserves,
their production, consumption and as a consequence of these the CO2 emissions are also
discussed. The main energy carriers coal, oil and gas are not evenly distributed along the globe.
Long distances are involved in transporting these energy carriers and transportation and delivery
of these key resources to the prime customers is always necessary. The different methods to
transport the energy from the source end to demand end is also discussed in this paper. The
assessment of different energy storage methods on the basis of several factors and present status
and development of storage and transportation of energy in Pakistan is discussed.
Keywords:
Energy Storage; Energy Transport; Fossil fuels; Coal, Gas; Oil; Batteries; Pumped Hydro
Storage (PHS); Global Warming Potential (GWP); Thermal Energy; Natural Gas (NG); Oil;
Coal; DWT; Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG); Compressed Natural Gas (CNG); Natural Gas
Hydrates (NGH); CO2 Emission
Word count: 28702
Acknowledgment:
Energy Storage requires that all authors disclose any potential sources of conflict of interest. Any
interest or relationship, financial or otherwise, that might be perceived as influencing an author’s
objectivity is considered a potential source of conflict of interest. These must be disclosed when
directly relevant or indirectly related to the work that the authors describe in their manuscript.
Potential sources of conflict of interest include but are not limited to patent or stock ownership,
membership of a company board of directors, membership of an advisory board or committee for
a company, and consultancy for or receipt of speaker’s fees from a company. The existence of a
conflict of interest does not preclude publication in this journal. If the authors have no conflict of
interest to declare, they must also state this at submission. It is the responsibility of the

corresponding author to review this policy with all authors and to collectively list in the cover
letter (if applicable) to the Editor-in-Chief, in the manuscript (in the footnotes, Conflict of
Interest or Acknowledgments section), and in the online submission system ALL pertinent
commercial and other relationships.
Nomenclature
IEA– International energy agency
Mtoe – Million tonnes of oil equivalent
EES – Electrical energy storage
GWP – Global warming potential
PHS – Pumped Hydro Storage
bcm – Billion cubic meter
GHG – Greenhouse Gases
IPCC – Intergovernmental panel on climate change
CAES – Compressed air energy storage
EPRI – Electric power research institute
SMES – Superconducting magnetic energy storage
UPS – Uninterruptible power supply
IHS – Information Handling Services
DL – Double layer
LTSC – Low temperature superconductors
HTSC – High temperature superconductors
MRI – Magnetic resonance imaging
NOx – Nitrogen oxides
SOx – Sulfur oxides
FC – Fuel cell
PAFC – Phosphoric acid FC
AFC – Alkaline FC
PEMFC – Polymer electrolyte membrane FC
MCFC – Molten carbonate FC
SOFC – Solid oxide FC

DMFC – Direct menthol FC
SHS – Sensible heat storage
PCMs – Phase change materials
EPS Ltd – Environmental process systems limited
DWT – Dead weight ton
NG – Natural gas
LNG – Liquefied natural gas
CNG – Compressed natural gas
NGH – Natural gas hydrates
STS – Short term storage
DES – Distributed energy storage
LTS – Long term storage
CCS – Carbon capture and storage
PSPS – Pumped storage power station
ECES – Electro chemical energy storage
NATO – North Atlantic treaty organization
RPM – Revolutions per minute
MJ – Mega Joule
EFDA – European fusion development agreement
R&D – Research and Development
b/d – barrels per day
tcm – Trillion cubic meters
toe – tonnes of oil equivalent
btu – British thermal unit
psig – Pound per square inch gauge
scf – Standard cubic foot
HVAC – High voltage AC
CIS – Commonwealth of independent states
GTL – Gas to Liquid
GTW – Gas to wire

HFO – Heavy fuel oil
MPa – Mega Pascal
WEC – World energy council
HSD – High speed diesel
IPI – Iran-Pakistan-India
TAPI – Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India
MMCFD – Million cubic feet per day
SSGC – Sui southern gas company
CSC – Convertible static compensator
NTDC – National transmission & despatch company
1 Introduction
The socio economic development of a country is measured by the energy consumption per
capita. Energy is a key to the modern mechanical world. Continuous supply of energy to the
machines is compulsory. Supply includes extraction, storage and transportation of energy, the
energy is mainly supplied by the major sources like: sun, wind, water and fossil fuels. Fossil
fuels are very dear to humanity since long. The demand of energy has increased substantially due
to the rapid increase in world population and consumer habits to utilize this energy. According to
International Energy Agency (IEA) the demand of energy has increased 2.1 % in 2017 than the
0.9% in 2016. This increase was 0.9 % on average for past five years.1 Similarly, according to
the BP Statistical Review of World Energy the primary energy consumption growth averaged
2.2% in 2017 than the 1.2% in 2016.2 The world cannot meet this energy demand by only
relying on conventional ways of its energy production. The total global energy demand reached
to 13,511 Million Tonnes of Oil Equivalent (Mtoe) in 2017, when compared to 11,558 Mtoe in
2007.2 Hence, the use of new methods like renewable energy and storing the surplus energy is
necessary to meet the demand in a sensible way. The energy storage means the use of different
methods for foundation of energy, which can be utilized in future when required.3
Electrical Energy is imperceptible, universal product which is readily available at the
lowest possible cost in most cases in the world and now it has been considered as common
consumer good.4 The storage of electricity is not an easy task and it is normally done by
converting it into other forms of energy.5 This energy can be transformed to mechanical,
chemical, heat and other forms when required. The demand of electricity is projected to rise 40%
in the final consumption to 2040.6 Almost one third of the increases is in electricity demand is

from the industrial electric motors. The rise in income, the introduction of smart connected
technologies in the market and installation of new cooling systems are the key factors for the
increase of power demand.6
Similarly, electricity demand varies throughout the day and the cost of electricity also varies
accordingly. During the peak load time, electric utilities had some expensive power generation
plants. Those plants operate with the base load power plant to meet the demand. It also refers to
the selection of fuels based on the studies done on economic dispatch for different types of
power plants. In this scenario, a sufficient Energy Storage System (ESS) is always required to
cope the sudden load changes. Mostly in hydraulic power plants it is done by using pumped
storage and in the form of stored fuel in case of thermal power plants. Hence, by storage of
energy this peak hour demand can be met easily without using costly power generation plants.
The renewable energy like PV and wind energy plants can provide this energy supply needed in
peak load hours. This extra energy can be stored in a storage system to reduce the generation
costs. As per statistical surveying firm HIS Markit, the worldwide energy storage market is
developing exponentially to a yearly installation size of 6 gigawatts (GW) in 2017 and more than
40 GW by 2022 — from an initial base of just 0.34 GW introduced in 2012 and 2013.7
This study is organized as follows: Overview of energy and fossil fuels, energy
consumptions by fossil fuels and CO2 emissions are discussed in the next subsection. The
significance of energy storage, its detailed classification and comprehensive review are presented
in section 2. The different methods of transportation of fossil fuels are presented in section 3. The
assessment and comparison of different energy storage technologies are presented in section 4.
Section 5 is composed of present energy storage and transportation of energy status of Pakistan.
In the end, section 6 summarizes the concluding remarks and future work.
1.2 Overview of Energy and Fossil Fuels

The overview of Energy consumption, fossil fuel reserves and production of fossil fuels is
briefly discussed here. The Figure 1 shows the primary energy consumption in Mtoe on left Y-
axis and world population for three decades on right Y-axis. The primary energy consumption
includes the consumption of oil, Natural gas (NG), coal, nuclear, hydro and renewable
altogether. Energy consumption was 7,162 Mtoe in 1985 which has been increased to 8,565
Mtoe in 1995, 1,0893 Mtoe in 2005, 13,060 Mtoe in 2015 and 13,511 Mtoe in 2017. The primary
consumption growth in the past 10 years has an average of 1.7% per year. Highest percentage
increase and decrease were observed in 2004 and 2009, respectively.2

Figure .1 The primary energy consumption and world population (Source Data: BP Statistics,
Worldometers 2,8)
Fossil fuels are very valued to humans since long and it refers to oil, coal and gas.
Asphalt, which is a form of coal was used in towers and wall construction more than 4000 years
ago. Oil pits were found near Babylon and also on the banks of river Issus. Earliest oil wells dug
in China in 347 AD were 240m deep.9 Crude oil is flammable liquid contains a mixture of
complex hydrocarbons. Oil fields are unevenly distributed across the earth and around 50,000 oil
fields have been discovered so far.10 The average growth of global oil consumption in 2017 was
1.8% Million barrels per day (M-b/d).11
Figure 2 shows that total proven oil reserves in thousands Million tonnes (Mt) at the end
of 2017, it shows that oil reserves are dominated by Middle East (45.69%), South and Central
America (21.4%) and North America (14.3%). The share of Asia Pacific, Africa and
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) are very small and most of the countries in these
regions import oil from other countries.2 The total oil production was 4,321 Mt by 2016 and total
final consumption by fuel includes 47.7% of oil.12

The oil production (Mt) of countries producing most of the world oil in the past three
decades is presented in Figure 3. It shows that the oil production is higher in Saudi Arabia,
United States (US) and Russian Federation and they shared 13%, 12.8% and 12.6 % of total
production in 2017, respectively.2 The optimists believe that quantity and production of oil will
increase in 2100 at the rate of 105 M-b/d and will decrease to 40 M-b/d by 2400. But, according
to pessimists the oil era has been ended now.13
Figure 2. Total proved oil reserves in world in thousand Mt (Source data: BP Statistics)

Figure 3. Trends of oil production for past three decades in different countries (Source data: BP
Statistics)
NG was used by the Chinese to convert sea water to salt. NG fires were considered as
holy fires in Persian regions. It is the second dearest fossil fuel so far.14 Total NG proven reserves
in Trillion Cubic Meters (tcm) are presented in Figure 4. It was dominated by the Middle East,
CIS and Asia Pacific with a share of 40.9%, 30.61% and 19%, respectively. NG reserves in
world were 128.1, 163.5, 193.5 tcm in 1997, 2007 and 2017, resspectively.15
Total production of NG was 3164.6 Mtoe at the end of 2017. The production of NG is
dominated by US and Russian Federation with 631.6 and 546.5 Mtoe, respectively. Whereas,
production is decreased in Canada in the last decade as shown in Figure 5. Production of NG has
been increased significantly in Iran since 2004. US, Russian Federation, Iran and China shared
20%, 17.3%, 6.1% and 4.1% of total production in 2017, respectively.2

Figure 4. Proved reserves of NG in tcm (Source data: BP Statistics)

gure 5. Trends in NG production (Mtoe) for past three decades in different countries (Source
data: BP Statistics)
Fi
Most of the proved reserves of coal are in Asia Pacific (40.99%), North America (25%),
nd CIS (21.57%). Figure 6 shows total coal reserves in different regions in the world.2 The
a re of coal in primary energy is only 27.6% because of the higher GHG emissions, it is
shaommended to reduce its consumption for a better environment
16
in the future. Total proved
recerves of coal are 1,035,012 Mt by the end of 2017. 16These proven reserves of coal are
onsidered sufficient to meet 134 years of global production.
res
c Trends in production of coal are very significant for China and therefore shown in right
axis in Figure 7. Whereas, the left Y-axis is used for the rest of the countries. China is
Y-oducing the highest amount of coal since last two decades. The share of China in total world
pr l production is 46.6%, whereas share of US, India and Indonesia 9.9%, 7.8% and 7.2%,
coa

respectively.2 Production of coal in China and US was very close up-to 1993, they production as
well as consumption got a boost in China. This boost in production and consumption was due to
the large number of coal fueled power plants in China.
Figure 6. Total proved coal reserves in world in Mt (Source data: BP Statistics)

Figure 7. Trends in production of coal in different countries in past three decades (Source data:
BP Statistics)
1.3 Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions

Consumption of fossil fuels depends upon the need of energy of any country, sometimes they
import to fulfill it or use the local resources. The consumption of energy from fossil fuels and
CO2 emissions are closely related to each other. The trend is CO2 emissions are most in the
countries which are consuming more fossil fuels. The oil consumption was highest in Asia-
Pacific (35%) and North America (23%) by 2018.17 NG consumption was highest in North
America (23%), Asia-Pacific (20%) and Europe (16%) by 2018.18 Consumption of coal was only
increased by 1% in 2017 and highest growth was observed in 2013. Growth in consumption of
coal was highest in India (18 Mtoe) and China (4 Mtoe).19
The Figure 8 shows the trend in consumption of oil from different countries. It shows that
consumption of oil has been led by US for long and it is also increasing in China for past two
decades. The other most oil consuming countries are India, Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia,
Japan and South Korea.

The NG consumption trend for the past 3 decades is shown in Figure 9. It shows that
consumption of NG is dominated by the US and Russia Federation since 1985. It has also
increased significantly in China and Iran for last 10 years. The consumption of NG of US,
Russian Federation, China and Iran was 635.8, 365.2, 206.7 and 184.4 (Mtoe), respectively, by
the end of 2017.2

Figure 8. Trends in consumption of oil in different countries (Source data: BP Statistics)
Figure 9. Trends in consumption of NG in different countries (Source data: BP Statistics)
The coal consumption for the past three decades in different countries is shown in Figure 10. It
shows a significantly increasing trend in China and therefore, right Y-axis is used for it.
However, the left Y-axis is used for the rest of the countries. It shows that consumption of coal
is increasing exponentially in China as it was only 814.1 Mtoe in 2002 compared with 1892.6
Mtoe in 2017 and the highest peak was observed in 2013. The Consumption of coal was
maximum during 2005 in the US, and during 2017 in India, it was 545.7 and 424 Mtoe,
respectively. The China, US and India are using coal for most of their electricity production,
hence consumption of coal is more in these countries. The consumption of huge amount of coal

for electricity is not very common in the rest of the world yet.2
Figure 10. Trends in consumption of coal in different countries (Source data: BP Statistics)
The increasing impact of burning fossil fuel for electricity has imposed a serious threat on world
environment like (global warming, ozone layer depletion, pollution and drastic changes in
environment like acid rain and draught, etc.). According to the AR5 report by an
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the world’s Greenhouse gas emissions was
almost 49± 4.5 Gt of CO2 in 2010 and it is continuously rising. The CO2 is responsible for 78%
of GHG emission in planet earth, whereas all other gases account for only 22 % of GHG
emissions. Therefore, it is considered as a major source of climate change on earth today.20,21
The IEA and BP statistics revealed that a large amount of CO2 emission has entered the
atmosphere, mostly from developed countries like China and US, etc.2,22
According to BP Statistics, by the end of 2017, the CO2 emissions of China, US, India, Russia
and Japan has reached to 9232.6, 5087.7, 2344.2, 1525.3 and 1176.6 MtCO2, respectively. BP,
2018 #614} The other countries who are also responsible for CO2 emission are Germany, South
Korea, Iran, Canada, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Mexico, Brazil, and South Africa with their
combine emission of 5099.2 MtCO2 which is less when compared to China alone and almost
equal to US. The graph in Figure 11 shows the trends of CO2 emission of only five countries
which are emitting maximum amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. It shows the US was emitting
more CO2 than all other countries since 2004, then in 2005 China crossed the US in CO2
emission and in US the CO2 emission has decreased since 2007. Therefore, the world must take
preventive steps like use of clean energy, environmental friendly methods for electricity
production and storage of energy, etc. to reduce the CO2 emissions in the atmosphere.23

Figure 11. The CO2 emission (MTCO2) trend of countries with maximum emissions (Data
Source: BP Statistics)2
2 Classification of Energy Storage Systems (ESSs)
The ESSs systems are getting emergence and researchers are finding the possible low
cost, efficient and long term storage applications. The major problem which needs a proper
solution for using ESS technologies is their investment cost and cost of operating should be
within the acceptable limits. Additionally, they should not cause any problem to the
environment. The ESSs can be broadly classified as; mechanical storage system, Electro-
Chemical Energy Storage (ECES), chemical energy storage and thermal ESSs. The detailed
classification of ESS is given in Figure 12. The classification is made on the basis of form of
stored energy.
Figure 12. Classification of ESSs based on the form of stored energy

The IEA estimated that the global warming can be reduced below 2°C, if the installed
capacity of energy storage technologies increases from 140 GW in 2014 to 450 GW in 2050.24
According to the last report for ESSs by Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), total installed
grid connected capacity of ESSs was 140,976 MW in 2014.24,25 Almost 99.3% of which was

stored in the form of Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS) and rest of ̴ 1% was covered by all other
types of technologies.
The amount of ESSs is increasing and up-till now the global installed grid connected
capacity of ESSs is almost 175,823 MW in 2018.26 In which, the PHS is almost 169.557 GW,
which is 96% of the total installed capacity of all energy storage methods utilized in the world.
The share of all other sources has increased to ̴ 4%. Although, the amount of energy storage
devices is increasing, but there is still a need for sharp increase in the future. The detailed pie
chart of installed ESSs is demonstrated in Figure 13 (a and b). All other forms of ESSs; ECES,
mechanical storage (except PHS), chemical (hydrogen) and thermal energy storage have an
operating capacity of 2,051, 1,338, 18 and 2,859 MW, respectively.26
A typical electrical ESS consists of the storage unit and a power conversation unit. The
DC voltages are used to operate the energy storage unit and the inverter is used to convert the
DC voltage from the stored power to AC voltages. This AC power is added to the grid through
AC transmission system. In some electrical ESSs rectifier converts the AC power to DC to be
stored in storage systems. This is how a basic electrical ESS works.27 The reliability of the grid
can be enhanced by exploiting ESS, it can enable the efficient use of base load power by utilizing
cheap power during off-peak hours and producing power and helping the base load plants to
meet the high load demand in peak hours.28
The operational grid connected capacities (MW) in the countries having maximum
energy storage are shown in Figure 14. China is leading the world with the total installed
capacity of 32,064 MW, most of this is from PHS plants in China. Japan and US have the
installed capacity of 28,466 and 25,210 MW, respectively.

(a) (b)
Figure 13. (a) The total grid connected operational capacity (MW) of installed ESSs, (b) Grid
connected operational capacities of all other forms of ESSs (MW)26

Figure 14. The grid connected operational capacity (MW) of ESSs of different countries (Data
Source)26
2.1 Significance of ESSs
Energy can be easily stored in the form of electrical energy. Hence, Electrical Energy
Storage (EES) plays an important role to store electrical energy for different purposes. EES has
great capability for handling the problems faced in electricity production like its highly changing
load demand, production cost and effect of changing climate on electricity. The storage
requirement for electricity is due to the two main primary properties; first the electricity is
consumed at the same time as it is generated and a sufficient electricity must be provided to meet
the varying demand.

2.1.1 Continuously varying load demand
The load demand and its trend are also changing day by day. The imbalance between the
supply and the demand and sudden load changes can cause the power system to loss its
synchronism. The stability of power system is lost due the imbalance of voltage, frequency and
rotor angle stability.29,30 Load balancing is basically done on the prediction of load changes in a
day or in a month and mostly batteries are used for load balancing. A 17 MW/14 MWh battery
bank was commercially utilized for frequency regulation in Bewag, Germany and 10 MW/40
MWh at California Edison Chino substation, US for load leveling and instantaneous frequency
control.31,32
2.1.2 Centralized nature of electricity

The 2nd major drawback of electricity is the highly centralized nature of its production,
the generation is mostly very far away from its consumers. Hence, transmission medium is
needed to supply the power to the consumer end. Therefore, sometime congested power flow is
concentrated in specific transmission lines and causing bottleneck situation for that line.33,34
Transmission lines are always needed and failure of some line causes the interruption in the
supply of power.
2.1.3 Renewable energy resources and energy storage

The renewable energy resources have benefits over the conventional fuel based methods
like free energy and low GHG emissions, etc. However, at the same time they possess some
constraints involved due to the dependency on nature like sun and air, etc. They are majorly
based on getting power from the nature and due to the high cost for making such systems, they
cannot cope with the peak power demand of electricity in the world. The fluctuations in the
power output are very high in terms of seasonal, monthly and in some cases on a daily basis.
Hence, these sources cannot be considered as a primary energy source. The renewable energy
resources have some tremendous advantages over conventional fuel based methods when utilized
with ESSs.35,36
Therefore, a suitable method of storing energy is always necessary to adjust their nature
based power output fluctuations with daily changing demand for energy. Energy from these
sources must be stored when they are producing surplus energy and this energy can be released
when required. Therefore, the energy storage technologies are the integral part of making a
distributed grid, which can add some power from a renewable energy resource. EES techniques
have becoming significant tool due to the addition of more renewable energy by utilities as well
as from customers in the form of net metering. The net metering was common in developed
countries only. But now developing countries like India,37 Pakistan,38 and Malaysia39,40 have also

started net metering and an increased numbers of customers are attracting towards it. Hetter et
al41 has discussed the status of net metering in all states of US. The countries which have been
using net metering are Australia,42 Italy,43 Spain,44 China,45 and Netherlands,46 etc. Although, the
net metering domestic suppliers have very less amount of storage capacities in the form of
batteries therefore they supply their surplus electricity to grid. Hence, in advanced age of
renewable energy technologies the need of EES is necessary and can play a vital role in forming
low carbon energy systems by achieving CO2 reduction from burning fuel.
2.1.4 Low carbon electricity production
The developed technologies to produce low carbon electricity are mainly based on solar
and wind energy. Although, some other technologies are also referred as low carbon electricity
production are nuclear and fuel based technologies when employed with Carbon Capture and
Storage (CCS). The nuclear technology also lacks in load following flexibility and in history it is
deployed along with noteworthy growths of PHS.47 The changes in the output of a nuclear power
plant can also increase the electricity production cost as well as accelerate the aging of the
equipment.48 Therefore, if nuclear technology is being deployed in the future without further
increase in storage technologies, the load following flexibility of nuclear technology should be
considered. Hence, the amendments for increasing flexibility can add much cost in the plant
manufacturing and operation. Which will also increase the electricity production cost. The
deployment of CCS technologies in the world is not enough despite its significant research and
growth through the years. Hence, fossil fuel based technologies are still producing a high carbon
level electricity.49 The impact can be seen by the increase of CO2 emission in China, India, US,
Russia and Japan from fossil fuel use and from cement industry in recent years.50,51 Hence, the
use of energy storages with solar and wind based renewable technologies can help to reduce the
impact of high CO2 emission by fuel based plants.
The classification of ESSs is broadly discussed in next subsections. This paper will go
through the types of ESSs, their mode of operation, their current development, their pros and
cons and their operational grid connected installations in the world.
2.2 Mechanical Storage System

In mechanical ESSs, the energy is stored by doing some mechanical work and energy
from the mechanical work is exploited upon its requirement. The mechanical storage systems
are further classified into three types based on the working principle of the Energy storage; PHS,
CAES and flywheel storage. The detail about each type is next sub-section.

2.2.1 Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS)
The PHS is a method of storing energy in the form of potential energy stored in water.
The water is pumped from a lower reservoir to higher elevation reservoir by using pumps and
this water is utilized. This water is pumped using low cost surplus power during off-peak hours
and during peak-load time this stored water is released through turbines to produce electricity.
The net efficiency of the power system is affected by the pumping process. The price of
electricity production is higher in peak demand time, hence by utilizing PHS a less expansive
power is produced without utilizing the extra burning of fuel. The backflow of water in the PHS
is done by using reversible turbine governor system. It works as a motor and pump water to the
upper reservoir and for utilizing this water for power generation it works as a generator.
A typical PHS power plant has the operating capacity and round-trip efficiency of 10-
5000 MW, and 65-85%, respectively.52-58 The major advantage of a PHS is very negligible self-
discharge rate and a few minutes of response time. The self-discharge time of batteries is very
high as compared to pumped storage. PHS is a LTS with storage duration between several hours
to month and discharge period at rated power of 1-24+ hours. The lifetime and initial capital cost
are 600-2000 US$/kW and 30-60 years, respectively.52-58 All other characteristic of PHS is
presented in Table 21.
According to the Sandia National Laboratories there are 327 operational installed
facilities of PHS with around 169.557 GW capacity in the world. The key operating
characteristic of fuel based generating plants and pumped storage plant are given in Table 1. The
pumped hydro power plants have abilities of daily unit startup, load following, quick startup ( ̴ 3-
10 min), frequency regulation and black start. Other power plants like coal, oil, nuclear and gas
based plants do not possess all these qualities.
The General Electric (GE) has been supplying pumped hydro turbines in the world, a
total number of 139 pump turbine units of 22,000 MW capacity were supplied by them. The
supplied turbines are being used in Zhanghewan China, Alqueva, Portugal, Afourer II Morocco,
Yanyan South Korea, San Chang South Korea and Bissorte II France. The conversion efficiency
of PHPSis almost 65-80%, depending on the equipment working.60 Considering the cycle
efficiency, 8kWh are needed to generate 6 kWh energy.4 The storage capacity depends on two
parameters: the height of the waterfall and the volume of water. The major requirement to use
this technology is the need for a site with a high head of the dam. In literature, researchers have
proposed over 7 GW of new and proposed PHS in US, Europe and Japan with total investment of
approx. 6.7 billion dollars.61

At a country level China, Japan and US are leading the world with 32 GW, 28 GW, 23 GW
operational capacity. Japan was leading the world in PHS capacity with ̴ 25 GW in 2010.61
However, after 2010 China has become the 1st country to operate the most grid connected PHS.
The detail of some large projects in different countries of the world with a capacity of more than
1,600 MW is given in Table 2, it also includes the total installed capacity in different countries
and detail of the total working Pumped Hydro Power Station (PHPS) in these countries.
The development of PHPS in China, Japan, US and India is discussed here.
2.2.1.1 China
China is leading the world in the development of PHPS with an operating capacity of 31999
MW. The first PHPS of 11 MW capacity was installed in 1968 and the second in 1975. After this
the development of new plants was not started until 1990s. Almost all the todays installed
capacity of PHPS was installed after 1990s.62 The rapid economic growth of China in the world
markets and increased demand of electricity are the major factors for installation of PHPS which
are predominantly useful to overcome the peak load demand and hence increasing the grid
reliability. The largest PHPS in China was developed in 2011 Huizhou, with operational capacity
of 2448 MW. The second largest PHPS is operating 8 pump generators and its initial units has
started working in 2007 and 2008.26 The major share of electricity infrastructure in China is
owned by the Government with 95% of the share on installed PHPS. The Chinese government
has a target to achieve the 50 GW power from PHPS in 2020 and have achieved 32 GW with 2
years remaining.63
2.2.1.2 Japan
Japan has the 2nd leading country in the word for its PHPS capacity and Japan has developed
PHPS to lower the burden its nuclear generation.26 Japan is importing its 95% primary energy
supply in the form of fossil fuels and the PHPS are providing and efficient way to tackle its peak
demand. Japan is mostly relying on nuclear power generation working as baseload and the
mountainous landscape is well suited for the operation of hydro power plants. They are operating
almost 42 PHPS and in 2010 Japan was the leading country in PHPS capacity in the world.61 A
sea water PHS plant is also being developed by Japan in Okinawa Island. The electricity sector is
quite liberalized in Japan giving the selection opportunity of the supplier utility to the customers
using over 50 kW electricity. The operation of nuclear power plants has been halted after the east
Japan Earthquake on March 11, 2011. It has damaged several nuclear plants in that area. Hence,
thermal generation accounts for most of its energy mix plan of 2030. Japan has the highest
electricity rates than the rest of the world and have set a target to lower it down to present level.
Their surcharge for purchasing renewable energy in the year 2017 was 2.1 trillion yen. 64

2.2.1.3 US
The most of PHPS in US were developed between 1960 -1990 along with the following increase
in nuclear energy capacity in this time. 47 Denholm et al. observed that after the energy crisis in
1970s, the large change in the prices of oil and gas, the utilities and researchers also started to
think about energy storage and renewable products. 65 The development of PHPS is also is
affected by the consequences of the energy crisis post era. However, after the 1990 due to a
subsequent decrease in oil and gas prices and capital cost of combine cycle gas turbine the
deployment of PHPS is not increasing rapidly in the US. Although the potential of pumped hydro
is suggested more than 1000 GW by some articles. 47
2.2.1.4 India
The first PHPS in India was commissioned in 1981 with 770MW. After this from 1981 to 1998,
further 742 MW of pumped hydro plant was added. 66 Then, the 3450 MW PHPSs were added in
2003-2008. 66 The development of PHS in India is to meet the peak demand, because of the
shortage of 10-15% peak power capacity than peak demand in the most states. Therefore, they
are mostly used to save the energy in off-peak hour and to utilize it in peak time. However, they
PHPSs do not operate to their maximum capacity due to the shortage of electricity in off-peak
hours to store the water in upper reservoirs. Sivakumar, N., et al. has comprehensively presented
current status and the future of PHS in India. 66 The largest PHS projects in India are given in
Table 3.
2.2.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)

The excess electrical energy is stored by compressing the air and storing it in a reservoir
called a cavern. This compressed air is used in the combustor chamber of gas turbine for
electricity production. The gas turbine uses 60 % of the its power output of the turbine generator
for compressing the air. Hence, using a CAES this energy is not used from the output of the gas
turbine generator, instead it is used from the already stored compressed air in CAES. A CAES
system with the salt dome as the cavern is shown in Figure 15. There are two possibilities of
storing compressed air in the cavern. The first is by adiabatically and the second is diabatically.
In Adiabatic CAES (A-CAES), air is compressed without gain or loss of heat and in the diabatic
process air is stored after passing through gas cooler.67

In Diabatic CAES (D-CAES) process, compressor compresses the air and it heats during
compression.68 The heat is removed by using an air cooler and compressed air is stored. In the
discharging process of diabatic system the cooled air is then heated by using fuel in combustor
chamber. This heated air is being used to drive the turbine and electricity is produced in the
generator.52,53 The schematic diagrams of D-CAES and A-CAES system are demonstrated in
Figure 16.
Figure 15. CAES in cavern connected with grid69
In A-CAES, the compressed air is stored as it is, the stored heat in the compressed air is
used in discharging process.53,70 The A-CAES increases the efficiency of the system around 20
%.71 The construction of CAES on the ground is probably too large and too expensive due to the
storage reservoir. Hence, the underground reservoirs are considered for CAES. The possible

reservoirs may be caverns, deep aquifers and empty oil and gas reservoirs, salt caverns.
Figure 16. Schematic diagrams of D-CAES and A-CAES71
The world first commercial installation of this system was done by Germany in January
12, 1978. A 290 MW Huntorf plant was developed using a salt cavern. This plant utilizes nuclear
power for compression at night and in peak hours two NG turbines use this compressed air stored
in two salt mines caverns. The efficiency of Kraftwerk Huntorf plant is 42%.72,73 The second
plant was developed in 1991 in McIntosh, Alabama. The system has a capacity of 110 MW for
26 hours. The 19 million cubic foot salt cavern is used to store air at pressure up to 110 psi. The
efficiency of this plant is 54 %. The construction of a project for 2 MW near isothermal
compressed air project is completed in 2012 in Gaines, US.73,74 The benefit of this project is that
it does not require any fuel during discharging. There are some projects of CAES are planned by
Storelectric Ltd. In Cheshire, UK. The projected capacity of this project is 800 MW. A planned
270 MW project in Lowa was canceled due to the financial risks.75 The key parameters of the
current large scale grid connected projects are given in Table 4.
There are total 11 operational CAES projects with total installed capacity of 406.690 MW in the
world. All projects other than Karaftwerk Huntorf and McIntosh are very small in capacities.
The Texas Dispatchable Wind CAES project was installed in 2012 having a capacity of 2
MW.76,77. A 1.5 MW SustainX Inc Isothermal CAES project was developed in 2013, it has 1-
hour backup capacity and designed for 20 years lifetime operation.78 Another 1 MW/ 4 MWh
installed capacity plant was developed by Hydrostor in Toronto Island in 2014.79 There are six
other plants with capacity less than 1 MW are also working in Canada, Switzerland, China,
United Kingdom and US.26The small ESSs can be developed for air storage in vehicles and
aircrafts etc. for transportation. A standard 5 L steel bottle having pressure capacity of 20 MPa
has an approximate weight of 7.5 kg. The high tensile strength carbon fiber or Kevlar can give a
very light weight less than 2 kg in the same size as steel bottle. Thus, such light weight fiber
based bottles can be utilized for energy storage after applying legal safety codes. These
reinforced fiber bottles have almost comparable energy densities as a lead acid battery. The
pressure varies greatly while discharging a compressed air bottle, but batteries supply nearly
constant voltage while discharging. Such systems are in development process and this
technology is not mature yet. The key characteristics of planned compressed energy storage
projects in the world are summarized in Table 5.

2.2.3 Flywheel Storage
The 3rd type of mechanical ESS is flywheel storage. The flywheel ESS works a flywheel with
high speed and during this movement the energy in the flywheel is maintained as rotational
energy. When energy is obtained from the flywheel, the rotation speed is reduced. The flywheels
have been utilized to smooth the pulses in the power plants engines. The advanced flywheel
system consists of a rotor of carbon-fiber and suspended in magnetic bearings, the rotation speed
of the flywheel is from 20,000 to over 50,000 Revolutions per minute (rpm) in a vacuum
enclosure.90 A typical flywheel system is shown in Figure 17. A small flywheel system consists
of motor/generator, genetic bearing and vacuum housing. The energy is stored from utility after
converting through convertor in the flywheel this energy is utilized when needed.
The energy is stored in the flywheel as Kinetic energy stored due to the angular momentum of
the spinning body and it depends on the moment of inertia and the square of its rotational speed.
The expression for kinetic energy is91;
1
K.E= Iω2 (1)
2
Where, ω is the angular speed of the flywheel and I is the moment of inertia of the flywheel.
Normally a disk of mass ‘m’ is used in flywheel which have a radius ‘R’ and moment of inertia
of moving disk is;
1
I disk = mR 2 (2)
2
Hence, the kinetic energy of the flywheel is K.E= 1 R 2 mω2 , it is directly proportional to the
4
square of radius and angular velocity. During charging flywheel is spun by a motor connected to
it and energy is stored in it. This energy depends on the mass, radius and angular speed of the
flywheel rotor. During discharging, the same motor works as a generator, hence converting the
stored energy into electrical energy. The flywheel system can be categorized into low speed
metal rotors and high speed composite rotors. The low speed metal has disadvantages of large
losses and therefor they are only used for medium and high power applications with smaller
duration. The composite rotors are based on carbon fibers based rotor which rotates on very high
speed application. These fibers based rotors are currently in the research phase and they can
rotate at 10,0000 rpm.92 The detailed comparison between these two types of rotors in flywheel
system is summarized in Table 6. Flywheel technology can be used to store power when it is

available from PV or wind energy, this energy is utilized when insufficient power is generated by
these sources.93
The Flywheel energy systems can be utilized in various applications. These applications
include electric vehicle, railway, wind power system, hybrid power system, power network,
marine and space ships, etc. Transportation plays an important role in today’s world and
accounts for one quarter of the world’s CO2 emission in the world.98 The electric vehicles have
low noise and better efficiency than the hydrocarbon fuel powered vehicles. Hence, give a better
solution for mitigation of carbon emissions when operated by renewable energy.99 The concept
of flywheel based hybrid vehicle came out in literature since 1970s, the flywheels have been
used in buses for fuel economy and other applications like cranes, excavators and forklift
trucks.100
In 1999, a novel application of flywheel for vehicles with magnetic bearings was
developed at the university of Austin, Texas.101,102 Later on, this concept of utilizing flywheel in
passenger vehicles was combined with racing cars since 2000s. High speed flywheels rotating at
64,000 rpm were used in formula one racing cars. However, it has shown some disadvantages
like adding a twenty-five kg weight to the car. The use of flywheel in cars can provide three
major functions like regenerative braking of car, load averaging and prime energy source. The
application to work as prime energy source is only based on theoretical research and it has not
been achieved yet due to the high energy density of flywheel.103 There are almost 43 operational
projects of the flywheel in the word, only a few of them are above 20 MW. The application of
flywheel system is ranging from electrical grids to large scale and domestic customers
scale.104,105 A large power capacity is obtained using flywheel systems in the form of banks,
instead of using a single large flywheel.106 The best suitable application of the flywheel is in
power quality application where high power is required for a short duration of time,107 or when
charge and discharge required frequently.105 They are commonly used in power quality
application like frequency and voltage regulation.52,108 They are also used in military
applications which require pulsed power,109 altitude control in space craft,109 load leveling,52 and
electric vehicles,109 wind power plants,110 and other energy storage applications.109 Flywheel
provides storage application both at grid level and at customer levels. The largest operation
flywheel plant is an EFDA JET Fusion Flywheel which has two identical vertical Flywheel
generators capable of supplying up to 400 MW for 30s, another 300 MW power is pulled from
the grid to combine with flywheel to satisfy the peak consumption of the JET pulses. This

flywheel set is normally used for frequency regulations and each system can supply 2600 MJ per
pulses.111
Figure 17. The schematic diagram of Flywheel System112

2.3 Electro-Chemical Energy Storage
The ECES systems are further classified as batteries energy storage, flow batteries, electrostatic
energy storage and SMES. The grid connected operational installed capacity of ECES system is
shown in Figure 18. It shows that Li-ion based batteries have 1629 MW installed grid connected
capacity and the rest of the all electrochemical devices have combined capacity of
approximately 405 MW capacity.26 First discussing the simple electrochemical batteries, there
are many types of electrochemical batteries. The detail about each type is given in subsections.
The battery storage cell sales in US$ thousand in different regions are given in Figure 19.

Figure 18. The grid connected operational capacity (MW) of ECES systems26
Figure 19. Battery storage cell sales in US$ thousands in different regions113

2.3.1 Batteries Storage
The electrochemical devices which have the ability to readily store the electrical energy and
provide it when needed are called batteries. The electrochemical batteries are widely in use at
earth and in space without any geographical contemplation.114
Both the both input and output are in the form of electrical energy and this electricity is stored in
the batteries in the form of chemical energy. Batteries can be either non-rechargeable (primary)
or rechargeable (secondary). Secondary batteries are considered for large-scale energy storage
only. The energy recovery efficiency of the batteries ranges from 75-95%, depending upon the
types of batteries. A simplest battery consists of an anode, a cathode and electrolyte enclosed in
some packing. During discharging cations flow towards the cathode and anions toward anode
resulting a flow of electrons from anode to cathode when a load is connected. In charging
process, the flow of electricity is stored in the battery in a reverse process. The typical charging
and discharging of the simple battery is demonstrated in the Figure 20.
Figure 20. Charging and discharging of electrochemical battery

2.3.1.1 Lead acid battery
Lead acid batteries are the oldest rechargeable batteries which were invented by French
Physicist Gaston Planté in 1859. It consists of electrodes of lead (Pb) and lead oxide (PbO2)
dipped in the electrolyte of dilute sulfuric acid. During discharging few changes occurs in the
cell like electrolyte converted into water and electrodes into lead sulphate (PbSO4). There are
two basic types of lead acid batteries; flooded and sealed and valve regulated batteries. The
efficiency range of lead acid batteries is around 70-90 % and have a low cost US$200-400kWh.52
These batteries are mostly used in Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) systems. However, they
lack in terms of cycle efficiency and energy density as their life cycles are 500-1000 cycles and
energy density of 50-90 Wh/L. The energy density is high due to high energy density of lead
electrodes. They show poor performance with temperature changes, therefore a cooling system is
sometimes required to get the best efficiency from lead acid batteries. They are mostly used for
power quality and UPS systems with energy capacity of some 100s Ampere hour (Ah) range.
However, lead acid batteries commercially utilized for large scale applications. Some details of
large scale system and detailed reaction occurring in lead acid battery and cell voltages are given
in Table 7.
The major drawback of these batteries are environmental concern and the risk of
explosion. A large amount of lead acid batteries is running in vehicles on the road and some lead
compound are extremely toxic. Hence a long term exposure to these batteries can cause brain and
kidney problems and learning problems in children. The risk of explosion is due to excessive
charging of the battery, which causes the gassing phenomenon to occur. Oxygen and hydrogen
are emitted from the battery in normal operating conditions, these gases recombine on the cell.
But a malfunction can cause the gas to build up and this pressure can cause the internal
explosion. The explosion can break the casing of the battery and if the batteries are placed in the
battery banks then this damage can be more severe. Some new developments in lead acid
batteries are Carbon-enhanced designs, carbon negative current collectors, carbon negative
electrodes, super capacitor/battery hybrids, and bipolar lead-acid batteries, etc.115
2.3.1.2 Nickel cadmium (Ni-Cd) battery

The Nickel cadmium battery (Ni-Cd) is a mature battery. It was invented in 1899 by a Swedish
Scientist Waldmar Jungner.108 Nickel cadmium battery (Ni-Cd) has nickel hydroxide as positive
electrode and cadmium hydroxide as the negative electrode. Ni-Cd batteries usually come in a
metal case with the sealing plate having a self-sealing safety valve.52 It has a nominal cell
voltage of 1.2 V and chemical reaction occurring in this battery is given in Table 7. The major
advantages of Ni-Cd battery are; its high energy density (60-150 Wh/ L and 50–75 Wh/ kg), low

maintenance, and high consistency. However, it has a comparatively low cycle life of around
2000 to 2500. Due to these advantages, it was widely used in power applications, portable
devices, mobile phones, generator starting, emergency light and in UPS systems. The high cost
of (US$ 800-1500/kWh) Ni-Cd battery is due to the costly industrial equipment is required for
manufacturing. That’s why, the use of these batteries is replaced by other batteries over the past
decade.52
The toxic nature of the cadmium (Cd) metal poses issues with the disposal of Ni-Cd
batteries. Ni-Cd batteries additionally experience the “memory impact”, where the batteries will
just take full charge after a series of full discharge. Legitimate battery management system can
be used to alleviate this effect.
2.3.1.3 Lithium Ion (Li-ion) battery

Lithium ion battery some time referred only Lithium battery consists of lithium metal or
its compound like (LiCoO 2 , LiMO 2 , and LiNiO 2 , etc.) as cathode and anode of graphite carbon
with layered structure.116 Lithium salt ( LiPF6 ) in organic solvent is used as an electrolyte in Li-
ion battery. Lithium moves from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during
discharging and opposite direction during charging process. The energy density of the Li-ion
battery is three times more than the lead acid battery. This happens due to low atomic mass of
6.9u as compared to 207u for lead and higher cell voltage of 3.6 V as compared to 2.1 V of lead
acid battery. Thus, cell size and cost is reduced because less cells are required to connect in
series.117
The major advantage of Li-ion battery is the lightweight, safe, abundant and low cost or
cathode material. They provide energy densities around 200-500Wh/L and have very less
environmental impact due to the recycling of lithium salts and oxides. However, a special
packaging is required for Li-ion due to internal overcharge protection circuit in Li-ion batteries
which makes them relatively expensive. The development in Li-ion batteries by Yo Cui have
provided much more capability in storage capacity. These advanced Li-ion batteries include
nanowires of silicon. Instead of storing carbon, by storing the lithium in a mesh of tiny silicon
nanowires with a diameter 1000th time less than the thickness of paper, a signification increase in
the amount of lithium stored in a battery can be achieved and increased charged densities in
achieved.118 This development has increased the electrical capability to 10 times than the existing
Li-ion batteries.118 Now they are widely used in mobile applications and electric cars.
The self-discharge rate of ordinary Li-ion battery is around 5% a month provide that
battery life of up-to 1500 cycles. The lifetime of Li-ion battery is also temperature dependent.

The aging phenomenon is much faster at higher temperature and life of the battery is shortened
due to the deep discharge. These factors limit the use of Li-ion batteries for such application
where the complete discharge is frequent. The maximum changing and discharging current of Li-
ion batteries is also limited. The cell voltage of normal Li-ion cell is 3.6 to 3.85 volts. The
reactions occurring at anode and cathode of lithium ion battery are given in Table 7. The largest
grid connected Li-ion battery storage is in operation at Germany Residential ESSs with storage
capacity of 188 MW. It is used for electric bill management with renewable energy. Another
large plant of 100 MW/129 MWh is operating in Hornsdale Power Reserves in Australia.119
2.3.1.4 Sodium Sulfur (NaS) battery

Sodium Sulfur battery composes of two active materials; molten sulfur as the positive electrode
and molten sodium as the negative electrode. The battery is often referred as NaS battery due to
the chemical abbreviations of its two main components, sodium (Na) and Sulfur (S).120 The
electrolyte is made up of solid ceramic sodium alumina and it also separates the electrodes.121
These batteries operate at a temperature of around 300°C, which makes it most suitable for large-
scale energy storage such as for the power grid.121 Numeric values of cell voltages, reactions and
electrolyte, commercial units and their locations are presented in Table 7.
The life cycles of NaS batteries are more than lead acid batteries in the range of 2500
cycles. NaS provide six times pulse power capabilities than their continuous rating. The major
problem faced with NaS battery is the requirement of energy to make the heat source. Because
the operating temperature of this battery is higher than other batteries, it operates at 300-350 oC.
Hence, it definitely lowers the overall efficacy of these batteries.52 The initial cost of NsS battery
is high, but as the manufacturing capacity is increasing, this cost is expected to fall. The
application for these batteries are grid connected systems, in space and prototype was
demonstrated in the automobile industry in 1991.122 In November 1997, the NaS battery was
installed on the STS-87 mission and it had demonstrated a 10 day experimental operation.123
2.3.1.5 Sodium nickel chloride battery (Na-NiCl2)

Sodium nickel chloride battery (NaNiCl2) is mostly known as ZEBRA battery and mainly
consists of sodium and the nickel chloride cell. This battery evolves from the concept of sodium
sulfur battery. It has nickel chloride as positive electrode and sodium as a negative electrode. The
nominal operating voltage of this cell is between 270-350 °C. The major applications or ZEBRA
battery are vehicles, marine and telecommunication. The major advantages of ZEBRA batteries
used in hybrid and complete electric vehicles are the availability of self-contained single package
with the microprocessor based controller system and adequate thermal management system. The

complete package is free from maintenance and access to each cell is not possible. The ZEBRA
battery has passed the safety test by the European Car Manufacturers.128 The two main types of
ZEBRA batteries for electric cars are Z12 and Z11 battery. The Z11 battery was first installed in
the BMW-3 series car with a liquid cooling system.129 It has shown more specific energy as
compared to Z12 battery. However, the car has shown same performance for both batteries. The
Z12 battery has a heat exchanger which is connected with car’s heating and liquid cooling
system and it was first installed on Mercedes car.130 The characteristics of the different types of
ZEBRA batteries are given in Table 8.
2.3.1.6 Metal Air Battery

It is an electrochemical battery consisting of metal anode and external cathode of ambient air
with aqueous or aqueous with polymer membrane electrolyte. The major advantage of metal air
battery is the higher specific capacity and density than other electrochemical batteries.
Sometimes, the metal air battery is also called a special type of FC, it uses metal as fuel and air
as oxidant. They have a compact design and low cost. The cost of metal air battery is 100-250
US$/kW, which is very less when compared to other electrochemical batteries (around 500+
US$/kW). However, the efficiency of metal air battery is less than 50 %.52 The major hurdles in
the commercialization of these batteries is the complication associated with metal anodes,
catalysts and electrolytes.131,132 The key characteristic and chemical reactions occurring in the
cell are given in Table 7.
2.3.2 Flow Batteries
Flow batteries are the second type of ECES systems in which the two electrolytes are used for
energy storage, with one is dissolved in other electrolyte. These electrolytes flow through the cell in
which electrical energy is produced from chemical energy. This process is also reversible and allow the
flow battery to charge and then discharge. The extra electrolyte is stored in tanks and it is pumped into the
cell if required. The reactions in the flow batteries are same as like secondary battery storage. However,
the basic difference between secondary batteries and flow battery is the moving electrolyte in flow
batteries. In conventional secondary batteries, the reactions occurring in the battery create solid
compounds which deposit on the electrodes of the cell hence reducing the capacity of the battery.
However, in the flow batteries the products making during charging and discharging do not deposit on the
electrodes. These byproducts dissolve in the electrolytes and the efficiency of these batteries is not
affected.
The major reactions, occurring in redox flow batteries like; all Vanadium Redox Battery (VRB),
vanadium-polyhalide, Polysulfide Bromide (PSB), iron-Chromium, H 2 -Br2 , Zinc-Bromine Battery
(ZBR), and zinc-cerium are given in Table 9. It also includes the electrolyte detail as well as major
installations in the world. According to the Sandia National Laboratories, there are 73 operational grid
26
connected redox flow batteries with an operating capacity of 71.87 MW in the world. Only 11 of them

have 1 MW or more capacity and all other installations have few kW capacities. The largest installed
facility is 25 MW/ 1000 MWh by Primus Power in Astana, Kazakhstan.133,134 A 15 MW/ 60MWh redox
flow battery bank was installed by Hokkaido Electric Power Co. Inc. and Sumitomo Electric Industries
Ltd. in Hokkaido, Japan.135,136 All other grid connected installations of redox flow batteries are less than 6
MW.
2.3.3 Capacitor Storage

The capacitors are third type of ECES systems, they are normally used to store energy in
electrostatic field when charged. The normal used capacitor in electrical appliances having the
capacity of some micro (10-6) or nano (10-9) farads (F). However, for the application of energy
storages it needs a large amount of storage capacity of some kilo (103) F range. These high
capacity capacitors are called super capacitors and they offer a very high surface area for
electrostatic storage by the use of thin layers of electrolyte as dielectric between them. They
resemble to simple capacitors, but offers very high capacitance in small packages. Basically
super capacitors depend on the separating charges at a distance of fractions of nanometer. The
basic difference of capacitor storage with battery storage is the capacitor store the static charge
rather than a chemical process occurs in a battery.
Super capacitors are classified into basic three types; Electrochemical Double Layer
(DL) capacitors, Pseudo-capacitors and hybrid capacitors. The DL capacitors consist of carbon
electrodes immersed in electrolyte and a separator is used between the electrolyte.137,138 The
porous active carbon works as electrodes, recently carbon aerogels and carbon nanotubes are also
being used. The electrolyte is made up of organic or aqueous solution of acid or base and gives
the lower nominal voltage of 1 V. The acetonitrile is employed as organic electrolyte and yields
nominal voltages up to 3V. The DL capacitors are classified on the basis of electrodes used as;
activated carbons, carbon nanotubes and carbon aerogels. The structure of DL capacitor can be
observed in Figure 21. The pseudo-capacitors have a conducting polymers or metal oxide
electrode with a high amount of electrochemical pseudo capacitance.137 The new technology of
hybrid capacitor consists of composite type, asymmetric type and battery type hybrid capacitors.
The total installed capacity of grid connected capacitor application is 30.903 MW.
The use of super capacitor for energy storage application is not very common todays and
this technology is still in R&D demonstration and pre-commercial stage. Due to the very small
storage duration the energy rating of the capacitors is only 0.001-10 kWh. However, the energy
cost (300-2000 $/kWh) is very high for capacitor storage, which makes them default for their
commercialization.

Figure 21. A DL super capacitor cell139
2.3.4 Electromagnetic energy storage

The fourth type of ECES system is SMES. The energy is stored in the form of magnetic
field produced by the flow of DC current in the superconductor. The phenomenon of
superconductivity was first discovered by Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911.140 He was also the first
person who produced the liquid helium. After the 75 year, in 1986 Bednorz and Muller have
developed a superconducting material made up of lanthanum having a critical temperature of -
238 oC.141 Then in later years, it was found that yttrium has decreased the critical temperature for
superconductivity to 58 oC than lanthanum. It has the critical temperature of -181.15 oC142.
Superconductors are defined as the materials whose resistivity becomes zero to the flow of
electricity when they are cooled below the critical transition temperature.141 This advancement
has forced the researcher to look into this field and in later years many superconductive materials
were developed. In latest research H2S has shown superconductivity at -70.15 oC at very high
pressure reaching 150 GPa.143 If we reduce the losses in superconductors, they become more
efficient in energy storage. This inherent property of resistance is useful for making filament of
bulb, electric iron and electric heater, etc.
Initially, the alloy NbTi can carry a current of 2000 A/mm2 having 5T field when operated at
temperature -268 oC.

The resistivity of the non-superconducting metals can be described as in Eq. 3;
ρ
= ρ o + α T for T > 0 K (3)
At T =0 K ⇒ ρ = ρ o (4)
For normal metals, their resistivity at T= 0K becomes ρo and ρ (T) deviates linearly
from T=0K. For superconductive materials the resistivity starts after the critical temperature,
below this temperature the material shows zero resistivity. The resistivity of the superconducting
material is given in Eq. 4 and 5;
ρ= ρo + α T for T > Tc K (5)
At T < Tc ⇒ ρ =
0 (6)
The magnetic energy stores in a coil is described as; E = 0.5 LI 2 , where, L is the
inductance. A simple structure of SMES connected with AC grid is shown in Figure 22. A
superconducting magnet is used to store the DC charge in it. A transformer and rectifier system
convert the AC current to DC and vice versa. A very low temperature is required to obtain the
super conductive state, therefore a separate cryostat with a refrigeration system is used to
produce very low temperatures. The refrigeration system makes the SMES costly.

Figure 22. Diagram of SMES system connected with electric AC Grid144
The superconductors are classified on the basis of electrical sources, operating
temperature, material and dielectric. On the root of material, they are divided in two types; Type-I
and Type-II. Type-I superconductors are pure metals and referred as soft superconductors. There
are twenty-seven pure metals present in Type- I form with critical temperature ranging from
Rhodium (Rh) at 0 K to Lead (Pb) at 7.193 K. Type- II superconductors are alloys and exhibit
higher critical temperature line Niobium titanium (NbTi) at 10 K. Depending on the operating
temperature and material the superconductors are divided into two major types, Low Temperature
Superconductors (LTSC) and High Temperature Superconductors (HTSC).145,146
LTSC is basically a metallic type series like Niobium titanium (NbTi). Liquid type
Helium is used for cooling the LTSC. NbTi shows superconductivity at 10 K (-263 oC) but this
low temperature is very difficult to obtain. LTSC based alloys are easy to manufacture but the
cost of liquid helium is very high.147 These types of superconductors are mostly used in Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI) system.148 HTSC is basically a non-metal type substance like oxides of
Bismuth (Bi), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Copper (Cu) and Oxygen (O) etc. They are cooled
by using Nitrogen in liquid form. These materials show superconductivity at a temperature very
higher than the LTSC around 90K (-183 oC). There are many other components which determine
the cost of the system other than LTSC and HTSC. A SMES system was installed in Alaska in
2000, having capacity of 1800 MJ stored energy.149 The SMES magnet maximum operating
current and coil field is 10800 A, 6.1 T, respectively. The cryogenic system consists of a liquid
helium based system working at -268.7 oC. SMES has very high power density with small
discharge time, hence this device cannot be said a high energy density device. The comparison of
SMES with battery energy storage on the bases of actual and theoretical specific energy and
power is shown in Table 10. It shows that SMES has very low actual and theoretical specific
energy (Wh/kg) as compared to batteries. They occupy very large powers in a very small size as
their actual and theoretical specific power (kW/kg) is very high as compared to batteries.
2.4 Chemical Energy Storage
The 3rd type of ESS is the Chemical ESS, the energy is stored in the form of chemical
energy stored in different materials. It is further classified as hydrogen storage and biofuels.
2.4.1 Hydrogen Storage

Energy can be stored and transported in the form of hydrogen. The electrical energy is
utilized to decompose the water into oxygen and hydrogen. These gases can be stored and
transported and again combined to release the stored energy. Normally, oxygen is used from the

air for combining them. Hydrogen is stored in gaseous form (hydrogen pressurization), liquid
form and in metal-hydride form. In gaseous form, hydrogen is stored in underground caverns like
empty NG reservoirs. The liquid form of hydrogen is difficult to maintain due to low boiling
point of hydrogen (20 K). It requires a refrigeration system to maintain the cooling requirement
for storing.
The mature technologies for hydrogen storage are hydrogen pressurization and storage in
metal-hydride form. Hydrogen is stored in reversible metal hydride form. These metal hydride
releases the absorb energy when required. The technologies for maintaining the liquid form of
hydrogen and absorption of hydrogen on carbon nanofibers are still in development stages. The
storage in gaseous form depends on the high material permeability of hydrogen and their
mechanical stability under extreme pressure. The steel tanks store hydrogen at 200-250 bar,
however the ratio of stored hydrogen to weight is very small. Although composite fibers and
aluminum liner tanks are being used to store hydrogen at near 350 bar with higher ratio of stored
hydrogen to weight. The high storage capacity can be obtained by storage pressure of 700 bar
with inevitable supplementary energy requirements for the compression.93 Research is underway
for finding a vessel to hold such high pressures of hydrogen for its storage. The second mature
approach is the use of metal hydride to store hydrogen; the compounds are obtained through the
direct reaction of certain metals or their alloys with hydrogen. The reactions for obtaining metal-
hydrides are reversible and can be replenished when required. These metal-hydrides can be
transported in conventional fuel tanks. The example of a magnesium hydride is given below91;

Charge
Mg 2 Ni + 2H 2 ← → (Mg 2 Ni)H 4 + Heat

Discharge
The major drawback of the metal-hydride is its low mass absorption capacities. However,
magnesium hydrides show high mass absorption capacity. The containers need to be cooled using
a running water through pipes. Mostly earth metals like lanthanum, nickel, magnesium and
aluminum are used for metal-hydrides based hydrogen storage. The liquefaction of hydrogen is
somehow limited due to the cost of storage medium to handle such high pressures and the lower
temperature for maintaining hydrogen in liquid state. The boiling point of hydrogen is 20K, hence
it needs a liquid nitrogen of liquid helium based cooling apparatus. This is how a lot of energy is
already being used for these storages yielding a very small amount of efficiency of this storage
technique. Another disadvantage of this approach is the self-discharge of the liquid hydrogen
from tanks, it may reach almost 3 % daily and 100% in months.93 The largest grid connected
projects of hydrogen storage are 6 MW Audi e-gas ESSs150 and 6 MW Energiepark Mainz,
Germany.151,152

The stored hydrogen is utilized as a fuel in the Fuel Cell (FC) along with pure oxygen or
air as oxidant. FC is an energy conversion device which converts chemical energy of the fuel
directly into electrical energy. It produces electricity by the continuous supply of fuel at anode
side and oxidant at cathode side. It also requires a continuous removal of water, spent oxidant,
heat and spent fuel.91,153 It is known as cell due to some similarities with primary cell. However,
the active materials are generally supplied from outside. The major benefit of a fuel cell is the
pollution free exhaust which is water in case of (pure hydrogen fuel and pure oxygen oxidant)
and if air is used as oxidant then nitrogen is also produced in spent air. However, in case of
hydrocarbon fuel, CO2 is also produced, but no other relatively dangerous pollutant like NOx and
SOx are not produced in FC.91 FCs are suitable in applications like energy management, power
quality and transport sector.154 The major drawback of FC is very high cost which is more than
10000 US$/kW.52 They can provide storage for a long duration and a broad range of cell types
but the catalysts used in FCs are expensive. A practical FC has an efficiency of around 50% and
typical cell voltage is 0.7 V. FCs can be classified on the bases of electrolyte, fuel and oxidant,
operating temperature, application and chemical nature of the electrolyte.91
On the basis of electrolyte used FCs are divided into five categories; Phosphoric Acid FC
(PAFC), Alkaline FC (AFC), Polymer Electrolyte Membrane FC (PEMFC), Molten Carbonate
FC (MCFCs) and Solid Oxide FC (SOFC). Direct Menthol FC (DMFC) is also a modified
version of PEMFC. It uses menthol as fuel and pure oxygen as oxidant. The PAFC, AFC,
PEMFC and DMFC works on low temperature and their operating temperature are given in
Table 11. The operating temperature of MCFC and SOFC is 600o − 700o C and 600o − 1000o C .91
The world first test of a stand-alone wind energy system integrated with hydrogen storage
and fuel cell was developed in Norway. The electrolyzer was operated by the wind energy and
hydrogen gas was produced. The stored hydrogen was used as a fuel in FC to produce
electricity.155 Another biogas FC power plant was started in 2012 in California, it has the
capacity of 2.8 MW for producing electricity and high quality heat. Another trailer-mounted
regenerative FC was tested by US Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division (NAWCWD) in
2013, it uses solar energy to produce hydrogen. The SOFC is getting great attention as an
emerging and alternative power source due to its high efficiency and environment friendly
technology. For proper commercial availability of SOFC based power systems, it is essential to
decrease the operating temperature and its cost. Therefore, researchers are focusing to lower the
operating temperature and as well as its cost through investigation of new materials.156
The current on-going hydrogen storage and FC projects are conducted by ADLE157
(Switzerland), BOR4STORE (Germany), IdealHy (Netherlands), Sapphire (Norway), and

SmartCat (France), etc.158,159 The chemical reactions, cell voltages, electrolyte, fuel and oxidant,
operating temperature, and current development of FCs are briefly presented in Table 11.
2.4.2 Biofuels
Biofuels are produced through a biological process rather than geological processes.
Biomass is an organic matter obtain from the residue of plants and animal dung.165 It is obtained
from the biodegradable fraction of energy crops, the waste matter from plants and animals. This
biomass is used to produce the biogas which can be used for domestic purpose or for can be
converted through generator to electricity. Biofuels include ethanol, biodiesel, bio alcohols, green
diesel, biofuel gasoline, vegetable oils, bio ether, biogas, syngas and solid biomass. They also
provide a relative different method for storing energy in the form of these materials.166
2.5 Thermal Energy Storage
The thermal energy storage means that storing the thermal energy by heating or cooling a
medium and utilizing this stored energy when needed. This stored energy can be utilized for
power generation by applying a Rankine cycle turbine with the system. Thermal energy storage
can be further divided into three types; sensible heat, latent heat and chemical reaction storage.
The classification of phase change materials in thermal ESSs is illustrated in Figure 23. The
installed operation capacities of thermal ESSs are shown in Figure 24. The pie chart depicts that
molten salt thermal storage is mostly used for thermal energy storage with operation installed
capacity of 2,452 MW. The operation capacities for chilled water, heat thermal storage and ice
storage is 142 MW, 117 MW and 72 MW, respectively.26

Figure 23. Organization of latent heat materials with solid-liquid phase change materials167
Figure 24. The grid connected operational capacity (MW) of thermal energy systems26
2.5.1 Sensible Heat Storage

Sensible Heat Storage (SHS) is done by storing heat energy in any material depending on
its heat capacity and change of temperature of the material during the process of charging and
discharging. The main advantage of sensible heat storage is that charging and discharging is
completely reversible and has unlimited life cycles. The heat energy is stored in liquid, solid and
dual medium. The recovered heat/ cold can be applied for electricity production using a Rankine
heat engine or for producing refrigeration. Energy input for such system is provided by either
electricity or solar energy. This is a best way to utilize solar energy in the form of heat. The
complete efficiency of the such systems is almost 30 to 60%, whereas for only heat cycle its
efficiency can be as high as 70 to 90%.91 In addition to this, this is not a threat to the

environment and may have particular advantages for using renewable energy for domestic and
commercial buildings.
A typical solar hot heating system is used along with heat storage of water to be used in
the time when the sun is not out there. The schematic diagram of sensible heat storage using a
solar water heater is shown on Figure 25. This scheme is known as passive heating scheme. The
water is circulated in the loop naturally due to the thermosiphon action. Hence, it is also called a
thermosiphon solar water heater. A water pump is also used when there is need to circulate large
water or any other working fluid.91 The block diagram of solar sensible heat storage system for a
water pump is shown in Figure 26. It consists of three loops of heat flow. In solar loop heat
energy is received by a moving refrigerant may be Water/CO2 or any other natural or synthetic
refrigerant. In second loop this heat is utilized by using synthetic refrigerants or natural
refrigerant. The turbine produces electric power and it will drive the water pump, the cooling is
provided to the condenser from the pumped water. The feed pump drives the refrigerant in the
cycle.
Figure 25. Sensible heat storage in solar water heater91
The properties of SHS mediums are described in Table 12. The SHS is further divided in
underground thermal energy storage, aquifer thermal energy storage, borehole thermal energy
storage and molten salt storage. The molten salt storage and aquifer thermal storages are the most

widely used SHS technologies. The details of these two SHS techniques along with hot water
storage and cold water storage is presented in Table 21.
Figure 26. Rankine cycle based water pumping system91
2.5.2 Latent Heat Storage

This energy storage is based on the amount of heat released or absorbed during the phase
change of any material. In latent heat storage, the energy stored by the virtue of phase change of
any material is known as latent heat storage. The thermal energy storage densities of the Phase
Change Materials (PCMs) are quite high as compared to the latent heat storage materials.
However, there are some drawbacks of PCMs materials due to low density change, thermal
conductivity and sub cooling PCMs.170 The most commonly used PCMs are organic paraffin
wax, non paraffins, fatty acid, salt hydrates, eutectics, polyalcohol and cross linked polythene.
When a substance is converted from a solid phase to the liquid phase, melting occurs and
this absorbed heat is known latent heat of fusion. Similarly, when the substance is converted
from liquid to gas phase at their boiling point, the energy is needed to absorb is called latent heat
of vaporization. Apart from these phase changes which occurs from one phase to another, energy

can also be stored in solid to solid in the form of lattice change, this transformation includes the
change of one solid into another crystalline form. This type of change has very small latent heat
and shows small volume changes. Solid to gas and liquid to gas conversion is not feasible in
spite of a large latent heat. Such large volume change makes this not feasible for energy storage
applications. The Solid to liquid transformation, it involves storage in the form of salt hydrate.
There are some inorganic salts which are soluble in water and form a crystalline salt hydrates.
Some heat transfer properties of phase change materials with are given in Table 13. The
temperature verses energy input graph is illustrated in Figure 27 (left) Latent and sensible heat
storage variation with temperature is illustrated in Figure 27 (right). There are many companies
in the world which are making the PCMs Rubitherm GmbH, Germany171 EPS Ltd, UK,100 TEAP,
India172 and Cristopia Energy Systems, France.173
Figure 27. Temperature vs energy input graph for phase changes of material (left) and latent and
sensible heat storage variation with temperature (right)169,174
3 Energy Transportation
Energy transportation refers to transfer energy from source to the consumer. Walking and
swimming were the early ways to transport the things from source to consumer, eventually
animals made it easy. Horses and camels became domestic between 2000 – 4000 BC. Soon after
boats and wheels were the source of transportation and in early 20th century, with the
development of internal combustion engine road transportation became easy.175 Primary sources

of energy are coal, oil and NG and all these three formed before the time of dinosaurs that is
millions of years ago and known as Carboniferous Period. It got name from the carbon that is the
main constituent of all fossil fuels. It was a continuous process of piling up buried plants,
converted to peat and eventually the fossil fuels.176
The primary energy resources are usually away from the end consumer. Hence, a
transportation model is necessary for describing the transportation of energy. A general layout of
transportation is shown in Figure 28. ‘PR’ refers to primary resource of energy that is coal, oil,
gas or else. ‘T1’ and ‘T2’ represent loading and unloading terminals respectively. ‘TS’ refers to
transport system that is trucks, rails, ships, barges, pipeline and transmission lines whereas ‘S’
and ‘C’ represents the storage and consumer respectively. Each possible option to transfer fossil
fuel from origin to consumer using energy transport system is discussed below.
Figure 28. Energy transport system model
3.1 Natural Gas Transportation

NG is a key part of the world supply of vitality. It is one of the cleanest, most secure, and
most valuable of all vitality sources. NG is dreary and scentless in its unadulterated shape. It is
framed fundamentally of methane; it can likewise incorporate ethane, propane, butane, pentane
and certain polluting influences. NG is an energy carrier and its demand is high because it is a
clean carrier of energy as compared to oil or coal. Its density is very low so it is very difficult to
transport NG economically, it is first compressed and then transported. When it is compared with
the crude oil its transportation cost is 10 times more.177

There exists mainly two common ways to transport the gas. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG). Mostly, CNG is transported by pipelines, whereas LNG is also
transported by ships. Other uncommon transportation forms are Natural Gas Hydrates (NGH)
carried by tanks and through wires by generating electricity. Open sea transportation is favorable
for international transportation and pipeline is favorable for domestic use. NG transportation is
difficult as compared to other conventional fuels because of its physical nature; it requires huge
pressures and very low temperature to increase its density.177,178 Table 14 shows the different
ways to transport the NG energy from source to destination it also shows the preferable mode of
transportation in terms of distance in km and capacity in bcm. It shows that bulk amount of NG
is transported through LNG and pipeline, whereas pipelines can carry bulk amount for short
distance preferably. Each mode of transporattion of NG has it own signifacance as discussed
below.
3.1.1 Pipeline Transportation

The majority of the NG in the world is transported through pipelines. Distance for
pipeline transportation is 100 to 1000 km and capacity is 0.1 to 10 bcm.179 NG which is extracted
from the wells is transported through pipelines; either directly from the wells to field or from the
port to market. NG pipelines make a huge network of pipelines called transport lines.180 For large
distances CNG is transported through pipelines at high speed of 20 m/sec. Pressure for the
undersea pipelines is 15 MPa, whereas for overland pipelines it is 10 MPa.181 It means huge
compressor stations are required for the efficient transportation of CNG through pipelines.
Gathering lines which collect the gas from wells at any pressure, fed it to transport lines.
Distribution lines are fed by the transport lines which further transport gas to consumers.
Compression stations are required all along the pipelines, as the pressure of NG drops because of
friction. These stations are installed along the pipelines after every 56 to 160 km. Energy for the
compression can be obtained from the NG itself or externally (electricity). Compressors are very
important part of the pipelines and leakage rates are also taken into account while doing the
calculations. Many overland pipelines are made up of the X70 grade steel with 70 bars
operational pressure. If high grade material X80/ X100 is used, the high pressure could achieve
to transport the large volume which reduces the cost of pumping. At high pressure and low
temperature hydrates of NG can formed. Hydrates are usually ice like solid which can affect the
steady flow of NG through pipelines so these are highly undesirable. The first pipeline from
Germany to Norway built in 1996 is also made up of X80 grade steel.182,183 Table 15 shows the
typical data for pipeline transportation that is lifetime, average cost per km and energy
requirement for compressor station.

3.1.2 Liquefied Natural Gas Transportation
For long distances and bulk quantity NG is transported in the form of LNG where LNG is the
liquid form of the NG. It involves three major stages liquefaction, transportation and re-
gasification. The first step in liquefaction is to remove the impurities like sulfur, water, oxygen
and carbon dioxide. After the removal of impurities NG is cooled at around -162 oC. This
process required energy, which is usually given by the NG itself.185 LNG is transported at
atmospheric pressure and at 112 K temperature. NG is first liquefied in plants, compressed at
about 7 MPa, and cooled using a refrigeration cycle.184
The specially designed shipping fleets are used to carry the LNG. These ships had steam turbine
systems and heavy fuel oil is being used. Steam propulsion systems can be easily used for LNG
transportation, but this technology has lower efficiency and higher carbon emissions than diesel
propulsion systems. It is expected to be equipped more fleets with diesel propulsion systems and
the low speed diesel engines also had a regasification plant in it hence diesel based system is
more efficient. Another option is to use dual fuel engines either diesel or steam. 184It is unloaded
at the receiving end and regasified using regasification plants. At regasification unit, for every 1
m3 of LNG 600 m3 of NG is recovered. Cost of regasification plant depends on the site and
affected by type and capacity of the storage vessel. Evaporation of NG occurs here, as thermal
insulation of the storage vessel is insufficient. This evaporated gas is again fed to the NG
network.185
Construction time of liquefied plant is 4 years and life span is 25 years. Cost breakdown of the
LNG chain includes 15-20% for production and exploration and 30-45% for liquefaction.
Shipping costs are around 30%, whereas 15-25% is used for distribution. Cost of newly built
150,000 m3 fleet is US$ 254 million. The operating cost of regasification plant is 4 % of the
capital cost per year and process losses are 2.5%.184,186 The complete LNG transportation is
demonstrated in Figure 29.

Figure 29. The LNG transportation
3.1.3 Compressed Natural Gas transportation

NG can be transported as CNG, this transportation is chosen for 100- 5000 km with 0.1–1.0 bcm
capacity.179 NG is stored at very high pressure to make the term CNG that is, rich gases are
stored at 1800 Pound Per Square Inch Gauge (psig), whereas lean gases are stored at 3000–3600
psig. Rich gases composed of long chain hydrocarbons whereas lean gases are usually methane
and ethane.177
CNG is also used as a substitute of the transportation fuel in some countries. There are two
common ways to transport CNG, first by coselle and second by long large pipes. Coselle consists
of a large number of small wrapped piped in a circle. The makers introduce the coselle of 9.6
miles long, 11 ft high, 50 ft outer and 10 ft inner diameter.187 It contained 3 million (Standard
Cubic Foot) scf of gas at 3000 psig but it was very uneconomical to transport this huge coselle
with the gas.187 In second method CNG is transported via long pipes. Votrans has a special ships
design for these pipes. The gas must be dried, compressed and chilled for this purpose.
Compressors and chillers are also required here, but these are less expensive than LNG. There is
no need of regasification at the terminal end, so transportation cost as compare to LNG
reduced.188 Large amount of CNG that is 500 million scf can be transported to markets with less
cost as compare to LNG. CNG ships cannot be as large as that of LNG and it is also not so
beneficial. CNG is mainly being used for the vehicles, but can also transport for small distance
for domestic use.177

3.1.4 Natural Gas Hydrates Transportation
NG can also be transported as (Natural Gas Hydrates) NGH, it is also known as gas to solid
conversion. This method is not frequently used even it is more efficient as compared to LNG.
The main reason is that the infrastructure for the LNG already exists. NGH is formed when some
water is mixed with the NG to form a stable crystalline structure.189 A cage like structure is
formed with hydrogen in which gas molecules get trapped. These are known as clathrates
190,191191,192191,192190,191191,192190,191190,191
and Ice like crystals are obtained. 191,192 These structures
decompose very slowly so it can be transported by ships to the markets. NGH involves three
stages; production, transportation and regasification. The production of hydrates is carried out at
pressures greater than 50 bars and temperatures approximately 10oC. Water and NG like
methane, ethane and propane are combined at 50 – 90 bar and 5 – 15 oC and it can be carried out
at platform, floater or on land.193 Transportation is carried out by insulated bulk carriers at low
temperature and pressure and hydrates are loaded with the help of conveyors.193 In
regasification, slurry is melted back to gas with controlled heating using water. NGH cannot be
transported through pipelines because there is the chance of clogging. It is also the safety hazard
as LNG is transported through pipelines. Typically a LNG ship carries 1,25,000 m3 whereas a
NGH ship carries 25,0000 m3.188 Ships could be of bulk capacity as compared to LNG because
there is no need of specific design. As NGH can be transported at normal temperature and
pressure and there is no need of huge compression stations and regasification plants. It is more
economical to transport NGH as compare to LNG.194
3.1.5 GtL/GtW Transportation

NG is converted to liquid as syncrude methanol or ammonia and transported as it is and this
method refers to Gas to Liquid (GtL) transportation, hence a method to transport gas energy as
liquid. Methane is mixed with the steam and converted to syngas with an appropriate catalyst.
Syngas is converted to liquid using the Fisher Tropch process in the presence of a catalyst as iron
or cobalt or by oxygenation of the syngas and transported by ships. The produced liquid is used
as lubricant, motor oil, chemical feedstock or LPG substitute.195 Another method to transport
gas energy is through wire that is to convert it into electricity and it is term as Gas to Wire (GtW)
transportation. It is not compulsory to transport the gas, as power plant can be installed anywhere
and then energy can be transported to the user via overhead/underground, AC/DC lines. If the
electricity is generated from the other conventional fuels and compare it with the NG then results
show that CO2 emission per unit of electricity generated are half as compare to others. It is not
advisable to make very long transmission lines because of high losses. If the lines being replaced
by DC, still there are losses associated with the conversion stations.195

3.2 Oil Transportation
Oil rich countries transport the crude oil from production to refineries and then export to the
other countries. It also includes the distribution of oil within the country. Oil is transported to
processing facilities and from there to end users by pipelines, truck or rail. Oil logistics cover 5
to 10% of total oil value in market.196 There exist mainly two ways to transport the oil. One is on
land through pipeline, trucks and rail and the second way is open sea transport through oil
tankers. Most of the international trade is done by the second method. Pipelines mostly used for
the domestic distribution of oil within the country. Rail and trucks also used for the short
distance transportation of refined petroleum products. Large tankers are preferred over the small
tankers because they use less fuel per km and hence emit less CO2.184,197 Different Transportation
methods of oil are discussed below.
3.2.1 Open Sea Transport

Oil tankers for open sea transport are known by Dead Weight Ton (DWT). DWT is the total
weight of cargo, passengers, ballast water and crew.198 Large tankers usually carry the crude oil
whereas tankers less than 100,000 DWT can transport both crude oil and refined oil. Mostly
known tankers are Panamax, Aframax, Suezmax, very large crude carrier and ultra large crude
carrier and Table 16 shows the definition of these oil tankers. A Large tanker uses less fuel per
ton-km for example a 200k DWT tanker consumes 42% less fuel per ton-km as compared to 75
and 120k DWT. 184 Usage of the tanker depends on the speed, loading capacity and time of
service. The typical speed of an oil tanker is 14knot = 7.2 m/s and loading- unloading time is 24
hours. The average age of oil tankers decreased in the last decades and price of a newly built
tanker increased. Average age of the oil tanker is 17.6 years, lifetime is 29 years and a tanker can
carry 6.7 tonnes per DWT. 184 Table 17 shows the fuel consumption and CO2 emissions of oil
tankers. Small size oil tankers have more emissions and high fuel consumption as compare to
large size. Hence oil tankers are preferable for long distance.
3.2.2 Pipeline Transport

Pipelines are the most economical and efficient method of transportation and are more
suited for long distance transportation, for example, across the continents.199 Oil pipelines
include gathering, transportation and distribution pipelines. A gathering line connects to the flow
line, which is attached to the well head. Gathering lines move the produced product from the
production area to the point of collection, such as processing facilities or connection with other,
larger pipelines, commonly known as transmission pipelines.200 Processing and refining turn the

crude oil into a presentable form and then it is changed into marketable product. In the case of
crude oil, these products include heating oil, gasoline for use in vehicles, jet fuel and diesel. Oil
refining processes include distillation, catalytic reforming, catalytic cracking and isomerization.
Oil pipelines are usually made up of steel or plastic materials and having an internal diameter of
4 to 48 inches.201
The capacity of oil pipelines varies with respect to the structure of the pipeline. For example,
Norwegian pipeline and Novorossiysk pipelines have a capacity of 900,000 and 100,000 b/d. The
speed of the oil flow is 1–6 m/s, the pump stations make this speed as constant as possible. A
pump station is installed after every 32–160 km depends upon the design, capacity and the
topography of the pipeline. 184 These pumps are driven by the motors and the energy consumed
for the pumping is 0.5 % of the energy transported. The more pumping is required in the cold
regions as compare to the warm regions. The lifetime of the oil pipeline is 25 – 40 years.184 The
cost of pipelines varies with the distance, as the US$/km is less for long distances as compare to
the short distances.
3.2.3 Rail and Truck Transport

Oil trucking is another method to transport the oil from the wells to refineries and as well to
the local distribution. This method has an advantage that destination could be anywhere. Any
other method of transportation needs capital investment and time to build whereas trucking is
mobile and could be used anywhere to transport material. This method is only advantageous if
the reserves of oil are short lived. The size of the tank truck varies from 1900 liters to 53,200
liters. 202 Energy consumed for trucking is 3.2 %, whereas for railway is 1 % of the total energy
transported. Another method of transportation of oil is railcar, it has a capacity of 1.31 million
liters. The railway could be used for long or short distance. The combination of both truck and
rail is known as flexible pipeline as there is no need of huge investment to transport the oil
initially. If one wishes to replace the 150,000 b/day pipeline with train, then 75 cars each of 2000
barrel tanks are required. Loading, unloading and extra labor is required in this process. So these
methods are only beneficial for short term.202
3.3 Coal Transportation

Coal is the third most important energy carrier, against liquid fuels and NG. Global consumption
of coal was 30% that is 4.01 billion Tonne Oil Equivalent (toe) in 2014 and in 2035 it would
reach to 4.27 billion toe. 203 Coal reserves exist in 70 countries, but mainly coal reserves are
covered by US (27%), Russia (18%), and China (11%).204 Coal is categorized into four types.
Anthracite (86 -97% carbon), Bituminous (45-86% carbon), Sub-bituminous (35-45% carbon)
and Lignite (35-45% carbon).203 It could be the substitute to the oil, if coal to liquid industry

develops. The main issue in coal mining and transportation is greenhouse gas emissions. With
improved carbon capture technologies, it could be beneficial for the economic growth of a
country. Transportation of coal involves the transfer of coal from mines to the loading point to
the destination. Emission factor depends on the load, empty running, and energy efficiency. The
environmental implications of coal are noise, traffic hazards, safety, pollution and solid waste.
Fixed emission factors for various models are of transportation are discussed by the authors.205
Coal can be transported by railways, by barrages on inland waterways and by large vessels
through oceans such as Panamax or Capesize Vessel. Coal can also be shipped/pipelined as
mixture of coal and water known as slurry. For short distances heavy trucks are used to transport
coal.206
Transportation of coal is carried out by the five methods; (i) Railroad trains, (ii) pipelines, (iii)
Inland waterways/ Barges, (iv) Highway trucks, (v) Long distance electrical transportation, and
(vi) Maritime transportation. 205 The detail about each type is explained here.
3.3.1 Railroad Trains Transportation

Railroad trains are used for short as well long distance depending upon the infrastructure.
Mainly there are two types of trains used for the transportation of coal. General purpose freight
trains and specially designed units of trains for coal transportation. Freight trains can carry 1,500
to 6,000 net tonnes of coal; on average its 3,000 net tonnes. The haul distance for these types of
trains is 100 to 500 miles with an average speed of 20 to 70 miles per hour.207 Specially designed
trains have fixed origin and destination. These are cheaper trains with the increased speed. These
trains also known as unit trains and they could carry 7,500 to 1,2500 net tonnes per trip, with the
haul distance of 250 to 2000 miles. Speed of unit train is normally 30 - 40 miles per hour. The
average gross weight of the general purpose train is 75 tonnes, whereas for the unit car is 125 to
135 tonnes.207 The average emission factor for rail transportation is 22g CO2/tonne-km. Emission
factor of electric trains is less than diesel trains for example 38 g CO2/tonne-km for diesel trains
and 19 g CO2/tonne-km for electric trains.208
3.3.2 Coal Pipeline Transportation

Coal pipelines can be categorized as slurry or log pipelines.209,210 Slurry pipelines use a mixture
of pulverized coal and liquid. The ratio of coal to liquid is usually 1 by 1. Coal logs pipelines
use the logs of the coal that has been compressed 5 to 10% less than the diameter of the pipeline.
Length of the logs could be twice of the diameter of the pipeline and the ratio of coal to liquid
here is 3-4 to 1.211 The longest slurry pipeline is owned by US which is 273 miles long.212 In this
pipeline, coal is first grinded by crushing and pulverization. Coal is then mixed with the liquid
phase which could be water, methanol or crude oil. These pipelines can be circulating or non-
circulating. It required slurry preparation at the upstream and filtration at the downstream. After
every 80 to 100 miles apart, there is requirement of the pumping station.213 Figure 30 shows the

schematic diagram of coal slurry pipeline. These pipelines are usually buried two to four feet
below the land to minimize the noise. The major factors affecting the throughput of this system
are: length of the pipeline, diameter of pipe, velocity of slurry and concentration of solid coal.
Slurry pipeline can range up to 48 inch diameter and length range can be 100 to 1200 miles.214
This system is advantageous because it can move the huge amount of coal over the long distance.
Figure 30. One way coal slurry pipeline flow diagram213

3.3.3 Barge/Maritime transportation
Barges are employed there if the country has some inland waterways. Coal is moved
within the country through open hopper barges. The capacity of these barges ranges from 1000 to

3,000 tonnes with an average of 1500 net tonnes. A number of barges are places in series usually
10 to 14 to transport coal. A shipment could contain 30,000 to nnes of coal with 10 barges for a
haul distance of 480 miles with 6 miles per hour speed.215 Terminals usually have the facilities
for loading and unloading of barges. Coal from the barges can be unloaded by buckets or
conveyor belt system. For upstream movement the fuel requirement could be 800 to 1100 Btu
per net ton-mile, whereas for downstream it could be 300 to 500 Btu per ton-mile. Main losses in
barge transport are dust particles emitted during loading and unloading.215 The emission factors
for inland waterways (g CO2/tonne-km) are summarized in Table 18. The average emission
factor for barge transportation is 31g CO2/tonne-km. Emission factor is 16 g CO2/tonne-km for
short sea shipping, 8.4 g CO2/tonne-km for deep sea container shipping and 5g CO2/tonne-km for
deep sea tanker.208 Different maritime vessels listed in Table 19.
3.3.4 Highway Truck Transportation

A small amount of coal can be transported by roads. Regular highway trucks can move 15 to 30
tonnes of coal. The capacity of large off-road trucks is 100 to 200 tonnes. Trucks are usually
diesel powered and this mean of transport is more easy to use and could be used wherever roads
are constructed. On average, fuel consumption of highway transportation is 2,500 Btu per ton-
mile, whereas for the off-road diesel truck is 1,900 Btu per ton-mile.215 Trucks are only used for
small distances. Major drawbacks are damaging of roads, higher operating cost, and coal dust
particles during loading and unloading. coal also escapes during the movement of trucks, as
trucks are usually uncovered. Diesel fuel also adds pollutants to the environment.215 The average
emission factor for truck transportation is 62g CO2/tonne-km.208 The emission factors for trucks
with different payload and percentage capacity are presented in Table 20.
3.3.5 Long Distance Electrical Transmission

Another method to transport the coal to the destination is first to convert it into electricity
through coal fired power plants and then transmit it as high voltage AC or DC. Due to lack of
technology development and complexities of converting stations High Voltage AC (HVAC) is
preferred. These high voltage lines generate electrical fields adjacent to the wires. Long tower
usually 200 to 300 feet tall are installed to reduce it. Ozone is also generated and energy loss of
1% per mile also occurs. Long transmission lines are less efficient than other modes of
transportation of coal for distance greater than 300 miles.207 Worldwide power generation by
coal, oil and gas is 38.4%, 23.2% and 3.7% respectively.216
4 Assessment and Comparison of Energy Storage Technologies

The applications of ESSs are assessed and comparison has been made on the factors like:
development status, power and energy ratings, cost, efficiency, energy density, life time,
environmental effects of ESSs, storage duration and response time. The comparative review for
each factor is presented in next sub-sections.
4.1 Development Status

The ESSs can be categorized into four categories on the basis of their development status.
a) Mature
PHS, lead acid and Li-ion batteries are considered as mature energy storage devices. Lead acid
battery is the oldest battery and widely used in vehicles starting battery for many years. The
other common uses are with standalone UPS system and as a backup for equipment on on
electric power plants. The other mature technologies like Li-ion battery and PHS have been used
for over 45 and 55 years, respectively. Apart from grid connected applications these batteries
have a widespread use in vehicles, UPS, toys, laptops, mobiles, etc.
b) Developed
Flywheel, D-CEAS, Ni-Cd, NaS, VRB, ZEBRA batteries, cold water storage, molten salt and
aquifer thermal storage are the developed technologies. The CAES, molten salt storage and
flywheel has a significantly large grid connected energy storage capacity. Although, all of these
ESSs are developed and commercially available, but, the large scale grid connected capability
still need some more trails and reliability. They are used in grid with electrical utilities and
industries in some places, however they are not much mature to be used all over the world
without any future improvements.
c) Research and Development (R&D) Demonstration Commercial
The applications of ESSs whose commercial availability have been started, but they are still in
the Research and Development (R&D) phase for improvements. The metal air battery, hydrogen
storage, ZBB, and PSB have passed through the initial R&D demonstration phase and are in
commercial stage. However, the grid connected large scale applications do not exist for these
applications. However, these technologies have a great potential for grid connected large scale
applications in near future.
d) R&D Demonstration Pre-commercial
The FC, SMES and capacitor storage are in R&D demonstration and at their pre-commercial
stages. The SMES technology has been developed up-to 10 MW and it has a potential to

increase to 2,000 MW in the future.154 H2 storage for FC is also in their developing stages with
some products have been marketed. But, H2 storage for vehicle applications is still in its
developing stage.
4.2 Storage Duration and Response Time

The current developed ESSs are broadly classified in three types on the basis of their
storage time. These are Short Term Storage (STS), Medium Term Storage (MTS) and Long
Term Storage (LTS).217 The storage duration for LTS, MTS and STS is around an hour-months,
minutes-days and second-minutes, respectively. The LTS storage includes PHS, CAES, flow
batteries, hydrogen storages, FCs and molten salt energy storage. The MTS storage devices are
underground aquifer thermal storage, lead acid, Ni-Cd, and Li-ion batteries. The STS
technologies are hot water storage, cold water storage, SMES, capacitors, flywheel, NaS and
ZEBRA batteries. The DES technology is mainly considered for electricity stored in batteries
which are used for distributed generation in a grid with renewable energy technologies.
The ESS can provide number of uses depending upon the duration of providing storage.
In terms of power quality, the ESS with high cycle stability and short duration at high power
output is required. For time shifting, ESS is required for long duration like many hours. The cost
of electricity generation is reduced by storing electricity at off-peak time, and utilizing this stored
energy at peak times. If the gap in demand for peak and off-peak is very large, the benefit of
storing energy is also larger. This is how energy storage helps to to compensate the demand in
off-peak and peak-hours by providing the time shift ability to the electrical supply utility. Many
electrical utilities have constructed PHS and have started installations of large scale batteries at
substations. The type of application on the basis of duration and frequency of use of ESS are
demonstrated in Figure 31. The electricity supply reserves are needed of 1 time in a day or month
and for very small to large time.

Figure 31. The use of ESS in grids, depending on duration of use and frequency218
The response time of different ESS is categorized in three categories; millisecond (ms),
seconds-minutes (sec-min) and some minutes (min). The flywheel, Lead acid, Li-ion, NaS,
ZEBRA, VRB, ZBB, PSB, metal air battery, SMES and super capacitors have response time in
milliseconds. The hydrogen storage and FCs have response time in seconds to minutes. The
large ESSs like PHS, CAES and flywheel have large response time in several minutes. Thermal
energy storage store thermal energy and therefore cannot be represented in terms of response
time of electricity production.
4.3 Power and Energy Ratings

a) Load Management
The peak load demand is addressed by the high power rating ESSs which can operate for several
hours. High power rating with long duration like PHS and CAES used as load management for
load leveling, ramping/load following and as supply reserve. Flywheel, large scale batteries,
SMES, FC and capacitor storage can be used for small scale storage reserve with a capacity of
(10-100 MW).
b) Power quality
Application with fast response time and STS or MTS duration are used for power quality
improvement. Flywheel, batteries, SMES and capacitors have response time in milliseconds
(ms), hence they are suitable used for power quality applications.
c) Distributed energy system
All batteries, flow batteries, FC and metal air battery are used at both load and supply ends.
These ESSs have very fast response time (ms) as well as relatively long storage duration (up-to
several hours) are suitable for bridging power. The suitable power ratings for these applications
is 100 kW -10 MW.
d) Transportation applications
The ESS with power ratings up-to 50 kW and storage duration of s-h can be used for
transportation applications.219 The major requirements for any ESS to be used in transportation
(electric cars, bus and other transportation medium) are high energy density and specific energy.
The most suitable ESSs for these applications are conventional batteries, FCs and metal air
batteries.

4.4 Cost
The capital cost of any project is the most important factor for it commercialization.
Basically, energy storage is required to overcome the high cost of fuel used in peak-hour time.
Therefore, a very high cost of ESS is not considered a significant solution. The capital cost in
$/kW and $/kWh are the cost in US$ per unit power and energy. The cost per unit energy is
shown in Table 21 are divided by the storage efficiency to obtain the cost per output. The cost of
maintenance, running costs, disposal and operational costs are not included due to the non-
availability of data for evolving technologies.
The PHS, NaS, FC, Li-ion, ZBB, VRB and PSB have high cost ($/kW). However, PHS, CAES,
metal air battery, aquifers thermal and molten salt thermal storage are in low range in term of
cost ($/kW). The high energy density (Wh/L) with low cost ($/kW) is the key feature of the
metal air battery. However, they are still in R&D demonstration stages and have a low cycle life.
CAES and aquifer underground thermal storage have the lowest energy cost ($/kWh). PHS
has an edge over batteries and flow batteries due to comparatively low cost. However, this
difference is decreasing in recent years.52 The flywheel energy, SMES and capacitor storage has
low cost in term of power, and high in energy cost, more suitable for power quality and voltage
regulation, etc. However, due to the short storage time they lack in cost per kWh and therefore
expensive for long term energy storage and cannot be used as spinning reserve and load leveling,
etc. The parameters like plant location, time of construction, size of plant and innovation in
technology can affect the cost and it can be different from the estimated costs in Table 21.
4.5 Efficiency and Lifetime

The operating efficiency of PHS, A-CAES flywheel, batteries, flow batteries, SMES, super
capacitor and all thermal energy storage technology is high. The technologies which lack in
efficiency are D-CAES, hydrogen storage, FC and metal air storage. However, only efficiency is
not considered for choosing the ESS for specific application, cost ($/kW and $/kWh), power and
energy ratings are more important factors for selection of developed ESS.
The PHS, D-CAES, A-CAES and hydrogen storage have lifetime more than 20 years and rest
of all the ESSs have life time below 20 years. The lifetime of PHS is around 30-60 years.
4.6 Energy Density

The energy density (Wh/L) is the stored energy divided by volume of storage device. The
volume composes of the whole storage system include energy storage element, building, sporting
equipment and rectifier system.

The PHS and CAES are very huge size ESSs. Hence, their energy density is very low and it
cannot be compared with batteries and other ESSs directly. Among all batteries the energy
density of lead-acid is very low, this is due to the high atomic mass of lead (Pb) when compared
with lithium (Li). The energy density of the hydrogen storage, FC and metal air battery is very
high (>500 Wh/L). However, they have efficiency less than 50% with almost half of energy is
wasted. The batteries made by different manufacturers can differ in energy storage density due to
several factors.
4.7 Environmental Effects of ESSs

There are some ESSs which have some minor environmental effects. PHS has tremendous
advantages, but it also affects the surrounding environment. The destruction of trees and wildlife
due to the land acquisition for reservoir. It also disturbs the underground water level of the
surrounding areas.
The CAES operates with NG combustion, hence CO2 and other emissions are the major
environmental concern. FCs need pure fuels like H2 gas and oxygen or air as oxidant, etc. If the
production of these fuels is based on fossil fuel based electric power generation then the CO2
emissions will increase. However, researchers are utilizing solar or wind energy to electrolyze H2
and other gases to be used in FC applications. In some FCs, like DMFC, MCFC and SOFC
methanol and H2 + CO is used as fuel and CO2 is produced in the cell reactions.91 Therefore,
these FCs have CO2 as by product and it can become a major concern in future.
The major environmental concern of batteries and flow batteries are their toxic remains
(Lead acid, Ni-Cd and VRB) and almost every battery require a proper recycling to keep the
environment clean.154
5 Status and Development of Energy Storage and Transportation in Pakistan

5.1 Status of Fossil Fuel Transportation in Pakistan
Pakistan has huge potential to fulfill its energy demands but poor government policies and lack
of implementation never satisfied the customer. The main forms of energy sources used are coal,
oil, gas and electricity. According to World Energy Council, recoverable reserves in Pakistan are
1.45 thousand Mtoe, 50 Mtoe and 489 Mtoe of coal, oil and gas, respectively. The production of
coal, oil and gas is 2.33 Mtoe, 3.7 Mtoe and 37.7 Mtoe per year respectively.223 There always
exists distance between source and destination, so the logistics and transportation should be
efficient and pollutant free.

Coal transport options in Pakistan are truck, railway and sea route. Trucks are used for less
distance of transportation. According to National Transport and Research Centre total lengths of
roads in Pakistan, including Azad Jammu Kashmir (AJK) are 196,153 km and total trucks are
1,158,507.224 The railway infrastructure of Pakistan is declining as according to the yearbook
2016-2017 total track of railways is 11,881 km and functional rout is 7,791 km. Total freight
wagons as 16,085 and tonnes of freight carried is 5,630,080 and fuel used in freight wagons are
Furnace and High Speed Diesel (HSD). According to a report published in the express tribune on
15th Nov, 2014 Pakistan railway needs 123 billion rupees investment to rehabilitate and upgrade
the railway infrastructure.225 According to another report published on 5th July, 2017 the first
coal handling terminal of Pakistan starts working at port Qasim. The country is importing 5 -7
Mt of coal per annum due to coal fired power plants set up by the previous government. The
demand could increase up to 12–15 Mt per annum.] Besides these, coal is also a raw material for
the cement industry. Coal fired Sahiwal power plant of 1,320 Megawatts is at under testing.226
Transportation options for oil and gas are oil tankers and pipelines in Pakistan. Oil tankers are
also used for short distance and less capacity. According to National Transport Research Centre
(NTRC) total oil tankers in Pakistan are 1,158,507.224 Length of pipelines for crude oil,
petroleum and NG are 2,576 km, 1,087 km, and 12,646 km, respectively.227
Pakistan needs to import gas to meet the demands, options are only pipeline or LNG. Gas Import
options for Pakistan are: Iran-Pakistan-India (IPI) and Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India
(TAPI) gas pipeline projects. For gas pipeline discussion between Tehran and Islamabad were
started in 1994. Later on India withdrew from the project in 2008 because of the over pricing and
security issues.228 The project is resigned in 2009 and it was decided to lay the pipeline by the
end of 2014. Three US$/meter is decided as a penalty in case of failure.229 The pipeline has
already completed from Iran side and it is uncompleted from the Pakistan side. The opposition of
US is the barrier in completion. The total cost of the pipeline is 2.7 billion dollars. It is 900 km
from Iran side and 800 km from the Pakistan side. The project is most important from
economical point of view. Sui Southern Gas Company (SSGC) will get connected to this
pipeline from various parts of the country. This project could eliminate the shortfall of NG 1000-
1500 Million Cubic Feet per Day (MMCFD) and 5000-6000 MW of electricity. NG is also an
alternative to oil and its new projects can help to provide jobs in Sindh and Baluchistan
provinces. Another option is TAPI, this pipeline starts from Turkmenistan covers 145 km,
Afghanistan 735 km, Pakistan 800 km and then enters to India.230-232 Other options are LNG
import from Qatar, Gulf-South Asia/Qatar-Pakistan gas pipeline. These projects are still on
papers and need special attention for economic growth.

5.2 Development of Energy Storage in Pakistan
Pakistan is blessed with noticeable water resources, but unfortunately, Pakistan is only
able to store 13% of the annual flow of the water. PHS is the first choice for energy storage in
Pakistan. The countries like China, Canada, US, Brazil and Russia are mainly using hydro power
as their preferred choice and they cover more than half of the world generation of electricity.233
They are also using this technology for PHS. As demonstrated previously in Table 3, more than
20 projects of PHS are located in China, US, Germany, Japan and Spain.26
Unfortunately, Pakistan does not have any grid connected storage project. The other
options of energy storage need to start from the beginning and a lot of capital cost is needed to
start them. Storage is only done at a very small scale level in the form of batteries for domestic
and commercial use. When we talk about the suggesting ESSs for Pakistan, apart from PHS, hot
and cold water storage stood as second choice due to the least amount of investment cost needed
for them. The initial capital costs of US$/kW are almost negligible and 300-600, for Hot water
storage and cold water storages, respectively. Pakistan is blessed with strong solar energy
potential with sun warming the earth almost throughout the year.234-236 The average solar
insolation of 5–7 kWh/m2/day exist in most parts of the country. The average available solar
energy and mean sunshine duration are 5.5 kWh/m2/day and 8–10 h/day, respectively. 237,238 The
development of solar water heater is by demonstrating by research on solar water heater using
CO2 refrigerant for the cold climate region of Gigit Baltistan (GB), Pakistan.239,240 This method is
very useful for getting hot energy from sun and storing this energy in the form of latent heat of
water. Other PCMs can also be used for heat storage. Other low cost methods which can be used
in Pakistan are flywheel energy storage, electrostatic energy storage with an initial capital cost of
130-515 US$/kW each. However, these systems are only feasible for a large scale application and
require a large capital to start these projects. Molten salt storage and Pit storage are also feasible
choice to be used in Pakistan with an initial capital cost of 400-700 and 100-300 US$/kW,
respectively.
Pakistan has a promising potential of traditional biomass and biofuels with around 66.67 %
population living in rural areas and using traditional biomass for primary energy.241 Around 8.2
Mtoe biomass is used by 105 million populations in Pakistan.242 There are almost more than 72
million animals (cows and buffaloes) in Pakistan,243 along with crop residues of 81 million tonnes
and there are about 785 million birds in the poultry industry in Pakistan. Assuming the 50%, the
animals and birds can produce 360 million kg and 39.2 million kg collectable dung per day,
respectively. Adding the crop residues, it can yield 27.5 million cubic meters of biogas per day,
giving almost 1,900 MW power generation capacity. This form of energy can be used and storage

of this residue, animals and bird dung can be utilized for producing biogas or electricity. Thus,
Pakistan has a great potential for biomass energy and its utilization in future energy infrastructure
mostly in transport, heat energy storage and electricity production. The detailed significance of
PHS in Pakistan is explained below.
5.2.1 Use of Pumped Hydro Storage

Pakistan is blessed with noticeable water resources, but unfortunately, we are only able to
store less than 10 percent of the annual flow of the water against the standard of 40 %.244 Hydro
potential of Pakistan is 59000 MW.245 The total capacity of hydropower is reached to 6,599 MW
in 2010. Major dams in Pakistan are Terbela, Ghazi Barotha, Mangla, Warsak and Chashma but
unluckily none of it have pumped storage. The Ghazi Barotha, Warsak and Chsahma have the
installed capacities of 1,450, 240 and 184 MW, respectively.246,247 In winter season, due to
shortage of water there is a stability issue in getting the full capacity of major hydropower plants
like Terbela and Mangla having capacities of 3,470 MW and 1,000 MW, respectively.248
However, the generating capacities of Mangla and Tarbela dam will be upgraded to 1,500 and
6,290 MW.249,250 Due to irrigation constraints and water shortages they do not operate to their
maximum limits. PHS is the most feasible choice to get more water for irrigation and getting
electricity when the demand is high. This can be done by replacing the current hydro turbines to
reversible turbines. This is how, Pakistan cannot only enhance its production capacity as well as
the extra irrigation of water can be controlled. It needs to identify the new uphill areas to construct
small reservoirs and installation of new pumped hydro. The major new hydropower generation
sites include Diamir Bhasha (4,500 MW), Mohmand (800 MW) and Bunji (7,100 MW).251,252
Pakistan has also started a fundraising campaign for making the Diamir Bhasha and Mohmand
Dam. Approximately 8,095 million PKR has been deposited in the DAM Fund till now.253 The
Government of Pakistan has started a campaign to get funding for these dams and people are
donating to it. The place acquisition is already done by allotting over 14,000 acres land by the
previous Government of Pakistan.254
This is a feasible situation to start three new dams with reversible turbines on them. These
three dams can provide up-to 12,400 MW capacity of pumped storage, which will be beneficial
for the future energy demand in Pakistan. Pakistan has storage based and high head places for
pumped storage in northern region and low head run-off river plants and canals in the southern
plains. The most hydropower resources are available in Gilgit Baltistan region as compared to the
other country. The major planned hydro power generating stations which can be used for PHS
power plant are Diamir Bhasha, Buji and Mohmand Dam. However, Dams like Tarbela, Ghazi
Brotha, Warsak and Chashma, etc. can also be used for PHS by modification in their turbines.

6 Conclusion
Energy requirement of the earth will increase with an increase in its population. Energy
management systems consisting of both storage and transportation of energy must be strong
enough to cope with the demand for energy. Energy storage techniques apart from batteries need
special attention. Transportation of fuel must emit less pollutants to the air.
There exist multiple options to transport NG that is pipelines, LNG, CNG, NGH, GtL and
GtW. Most favorable methods for long routes are LNG and pipelines. The cost of oil pipelines
increases directly with the distance. Cost of LNG also increases with the route. But, it is less
steep than pipelines whereas, the initial cost of LNG (liquefaction plant, shipping and
regasification) plant is high. GtW and GtL has potential but technology for GtL is not mature yet
and GtW is costly. If the electricity is produced by using oil and gas as fuels to power plants,
CO2 emissions of gas fuel will be less as compare to oil fuel. It is believed that CNG and NGH
are economical than LNG and where pipelines are not feasible for small markets and islands.
Favorable methods for long distance transportation of oil are pipelines and large tankers.
The trucks, rails, barges, maritime, pipelines, and coal to wire are the different ways to
transport coal to consumers. The main disadvantage of coal fuel is, it releases high carbon
contents to air at the time of loading and unloading. Adding water to the grinded coal will reduce
the carbon content to the environment and that leads to the pipeline transportation of coal but that
technology of coal is not mature yet. Other methods that are more popular than pipelines for long
distance are rail and trucks. The unit transportation cost of the truck is high as compared to the
rail and barges if distance is same. Conveyors are used for short distance that is for mine mouth
power plants with highest unit transportation cost. Coal fired power plants release higher amount
of CO2 than oil and gas fired power plants. With advancement in CCS technologies, coal can be
more beneficial for planet earth.
The ESSs on the factors of development status, storage duration, power and energy ratings, cost
and energy density are discussed in section 4. The PHS is a widely used technology and rather
than looking for a new ESS, the retrofitting of existing hydro power plants with PHS turbines
can boast the ESS capacities and solar and wind energy can be used along with these PHS. This
is a relatively low cost and less complicated solution for energy storage.
The mature technologies like PHS, lead acid and Li-ion batteries and CAES are mostly used for
load management. The storage duration provided by these is around days to a month for PHS and
CAES and min-hours for these two batteries. Only lead-acid has some drawback of low energy
density, which make them less efficient for very large storage capacities.

The problems faced by electric utilities in power quality like voltage and frequency regulations,
etc. can be tackled by the use of fast response and high power ratings devices. Flywheel, SMES
and capacitors have very fast response time, high power ratings, low cost per power and high
energy cost. These properties make them suitable for power quality and voltage regulation based
application rather than storage for long duration.
The technologies like FCs, SMES, super capacitors and metal air batteries are still developing
and proper compact solution in terms of long duration, low cost, high power ratings, high energy
density and high efficiency are still R&D and become available in future. The metal air battery
has shown a significant low cost and very high energy density and further R&D is required to
increase is efficiency and cycle life.
In Pakistan transportation of energy is done with less expensive fleets, as a result customer
suffers with shortage of energy. Pakistan Railway needs investment to rehabilitate the existing
infrastructure. Ongoing projects of NG must be completed in order to strengthen the economy of
the country. ESSs are not yet commercial in Pakistan. Unfortunately, it does not have a single
grid connected project. The domestic use of batteries is only common. In addition to that, the use
of energy storage in Pakistan is very less as compared to developed countries. This is also a
reason for the energy crisis and long load shedding hours in summer days. Pakistan shall
consider installing new dams with energy storage facilities in them and replacing the existing
turbines of hydro power plants with pumped storage turbines. The people in Pakistan have
wasted millions of rupees in buying the oil and gas generators to generate electricity in case of
load shedding. Now, Government of Pakistan and electrical utilities should have taken some
steps for development of energy storages. Solar thermal systems are a feasible and a low cost
choice to be utilized by domestically in every home.
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Table 1 Key operating characteristic of fuel based plants and pumped storage plant59
Property Coal based Gas turbine Oil based plants Nuclear PHS
plant based plants power
plant
Normal duty cycle Baseload Peak load Baseload- Baseload Peak-midmerit

midmerit
Daily unit startup ×   × 
Load following    × 
Quick startup (10 ×  × × 

min)
Frequency regulation  ×  × 
Black start ×  × × 
Table 2. Typical Characteristics of PHPS (>1,600 MW capacity)26

Reference Location Rated Pump-generators Head (m) Started on
Capacity
(MW)
Bath County PHPS Virginia, US 3,003 4 1978
Huizhou PHPS Guangdong, China 2,448 2011
Guangzhou PHPS Guangdong, China 2,400 8 535 2000
Dniester PHPS Oblast, Ukraine 2,268
La Muela PHPS Valencia, Spain 2,000 2013
Okutataragi PHPS Hyōgo, Japan 1,932 416 1998
1,880 2020

Ludington PHPS Michigan, US 1,872 363 1973
Tianhuangping Zhejiang, China 1,836 6 reversible turbines 887 2000

PHPS
1,820 1987
Grand'Maison PHPS France 1,800 4 Peton-type turbines of 935 1987

150 MW
Dinorwig PHPS Wales, United 1,728 6 1984

Kingdom
Srisailam PHPS Andhra Pradesh, 1,670 6 × 150 MW 470 1981

India
7 × 110 MW
Raccoon Mountain Tennessee, US 1,652 4 1978

PHPS
Mingtan Dam PHPS Nantou, Taiwan 1,602 6 × 267 MW 61.5 1994
Table 3. Total operational PHS capacity of different countries26

Total Total Plant 1 Plant 2 Plant 3
capacity PHPS
(MW) Description Description Description
Austria 4680 18 Malta Main stage Kops II PSPS, 525 Limberg II PSPS, 480
PSPS, 730 MW,1979 MW, 2009 MW, 2011
China 31999 34 Huizhou PSPS, 2448 Guangzhou PHPS, Tianhuangping PSPS,

MW, 2011 2400 MW, 2000 1836 MW, 2000
France 5812 10 Grand'Maison PSPS, Montézic PSPS, 910 Revin PSPS, 800 MW,
1820 MW, 1987 MW, 1982 1976
Germany 6528 28 Goldisthal PSPS, Markersbach PSPS, Wehr PSPS, 910 MW,
1060 MW, 2004 1050 MW, 1979 1976
India 6772 10 Srisailam PSPS, 1670 Sardar Sarovar PSPS, Tehri dam PSPS, 1000
MW, 1981 1450, 2006 MW, 2016
Italy 7071 18 Fadalto PSPS, 210 Pont Ventoux-Susa, Provvidenza, 156 MW,
MW, 1971 158 MW, 2005 1949
Japan 28222 42 Okutataragi, 1932 Okumino PSPS, 1500 Shin-Takasegawa

MW, 1998 MW, 1995 PSPS, 1280 MW, 1980
South Korea 4700 7 Yangyang PSPS, Yecheon PHPS, 800 Sancheong PHPS, 700
1000 MW, 2006 MW, 2011 MW, 2001
Spain 6984 21 La Muela PHPS, Aldeadávila PHPS, Villarino PHPS, 810

2000 MW, 2013 1139 MW, 1986 MW, 1970
Switzerland 5427 16 Grimsel 2 PHPS, 350 Veytaux PHPS, 240 Hongrin-Leman PHPS,
MW, 1982 MW, 2015 240 MW, 1970
US 23610 39 Bath County PSPS, Ludington PHPS, Raccoon PHPS, 1652

3003 MW, 1985 1872 MW, 1973 MW, 1978
PHPS=Pumped Hydro Power Station
Table 4. Key parameters of the large grid connected CAES plants73,80,81

Place, Country Power Energy Cavern Efficiency Pressure Cavern Heat
Capacity (MWh) Volume (%) (MPa) type source
(MW) (m3)
Karaftwerk Huntorf, 290 1160 310000 42 4.6-6.6 2 Salt Natural gas
Germany cavern
McIntosh, Alabama, 110 2860 538000 54 4.5-7.4 Salt cavern Natural gas
US
Table 5. The key characteristics of planned CAES projects in the world

Place, Country Reference Capacity (MW) Plant/Cavern type Company
82
ADELE, 200 Subterranean salt RWE Power
Germany cavern
83
Matagorda, Texas, Salt cavern Ridge CAES
US
84
China 100 Supercritical CAES Chinese Academy of
Sciences
85
Jiansu, China 50 Advanced A-CAES
86
Columbia Hills, US 231 for storage Combined-cycle gas Bonneville Power
203 for turbines Administration
generation
87
Antrim, North 330 Gaelectric and Dresser-Rand
Ireland, United
Kingdom

87
Larne, Northern 330 Two salt caverns Storelectric Ltd
Ireland
88
Bakersfield in Kern 300 Utilizing a saline Pacific Gas and Electric
County, California, porous rock formation
US
89
Cheshire, United 40 100% renewable Storelectric Ltd
Kingdom energy
73
Watkins Glen, New 150 Salt cavern Iberdrola, US
York, US
Table 6. Comparison between low speed and high speed flywheel system94-96
Type/Propertie Disk Speed Machine type Bearing Application Cost and
s Materi (rpm) disadvantage
al s
Low-speed Metal up to Induction machine, Mechanical or Power quality Low price and
metal rotors 10,000 Permanent Magnet mixed mode improvement high losses
Steel
flywheel Synchronous (magnetic and with smaller
Machine (PMSM), mechanical) duration
and Switcher
Reluctance
Machines (SRM)
Intermediate Low - - - - Medium cost

cost
speed Flywheel
97
Steel
High-speed Compos up to PMSM and SRM Magnetic Traction and 5 times higher
composite ite 100,000 bearing aerospace than low cost
rotors flywheel rotors industry and low losses
Table 7 Characteristics of different batteries and their commercial units

Battery Reactions and Electrolyte Ec Commercial Unit Capacity and Location
(V)
Lead Anode: 2.1 10MW/ 40MWh in 1988 California-
acid115,119,124,125 Pb+SO -24 → PbSO 4 +2e-1 Chino Load leveling
Cathode: 300kW/ 580kWh Turn key system load
leveling
PbO 2 +4H +1 + 2e − → PbSO 4 +2H 2 O
14MWh in 1986 BEWAG Plant Berlin,
Electrolyte: Germany
Dilute H2SO4 4 MWh/1 h Madrid, Spain
14 MWh /1.5 h PREPA, Puerto Rico

Nickle 2NiO(OH)+Cd+2H 2 O → Ni(OH) 2 + Cd(OH) 2 1.2 27MW/ 6.75MWh GVEA Alaska Var
Cadmium52,126 compensator
Sodium Discharging Reaction: 2 9.6MW/ 64MWh
Sulfur52,127 2Na+4S → Na 2S4 Japan (Voltage sag peak load Shaving)
Electrolyte: Beta Aluminum 6MW/8h Tokyo electric power company
8MW/7.25h Hitachi Plant Ohio US
1.2MW demonstration
ZEBRA Reaction: 2.58 Used in missiles and NATO submarine
2NaCl+Ni → NiCl2 +2Na
Electrolyte: NaAlCl4 with Na+-
beta-alumina ceramic
Lithium ion Anode: 3.6/ Mobile and computer application
LiC6 → Li +1 +e −1 +C6 3.85
Cathode:
CoO 2 +Li + +e-1 → LiCoO 2
Electrolyte: Lithium salts in organic
solvent
Nickel-metal Anode: 1.2 Small scale

hydride Ni ( OH )2 + OH -1 ←
→ NiO ( OH ) + H 2O + e-1

 Electronics & electric vehicle
Cathode:

→ OH -1 + MH
H 2 O + M + e-1 ←

Electrolyte : Potassium hydroxide
→ Zn ( OH )4 +2e-1
Metal Air −2 1.65 Metal as fuel and Air as oxidant
Anode: Zn+4OH -1 
Battery for 1MWh
In Fluid: Zn Con Edison, National Grid, US
Zn ( OH )4 
−2
→ ZnO+H 2O+4OH -1 Air
Cathode:
O 2 +2H 2 O+4e-1 
→ 4OH -1
Overall Reaction 2Zn+O 2 
→ 2ZnO
Electrolyte: KOH/KOH with solid polymer
membrane
Table 8. ZEBRA batteries specification129

Battery Capacity Energy Maximum No. of Weight Speci Heating Ambient Therm
Type (Ah) (kWh) operating cell/cell (kg) fic time (h) temperature al loss
voltages energ (oC) (<W)
(V) y
(Wh/
kg)

Z5- 64 17.8 186 216/ML3 195 91.2 24 at 230 -40 to +70 120
278- Vac
ML-64
Z5- 32 17.8 372 216/ML3 195 91.2 24 at 230 -40 to +70 120
557- Vac
ML-32
Z11 96 28.7 199.3 348/ML3 335 85.6 24 -40 to +70 160
Z12 104 30 193 448/ML4 375 80 24 -40 to +70 160
B5 310 8 17.2 80/ML3 78 103 24 at 230 -40 to +70 55

Vac
Table 9. Characteristics of flow batteries system134,135
Redox Chemical Reaction Ec (v) Electrolyte Installation & Location

Flow
Battery
All Anode: 15 MW/ 60 MWh Minami Hayakita
vanadium charge discharge 1.4 Anode/Cathode Substation Hokkaido, Japan
V ←
 2

→ 3
V +e -1
Cathode: H 2SO 4 /H 2SO 4 5 MW/ 10 MWh, Guodian

Longyuan Wind Farm, Liaoning,
VO 2 + + e-1 ←
charge
 
discharge
→ VO +2 China
4 MW/ 6 MWh, Tomamae Wind
Farm, Hokkaido, Japan
Vanadium- Anode: 1.3 VCl3 -HCl
polyhalide charge discharge Under Development
V ←
 2

→ 3
V +e -1 NaBr-HC
Cathode:
1 Br +e-1 ←
charge
 
discharge
→ Br -1
2 2
PSB Anode: 1.5 Na 2S/NaBr 12MW/120MWh Tennessee Valley
2S2 ←
 -2 charge

→
discharge -2
S4 +2e -1 Authority, Mississippi, US
Cathode:
Br2 +2e-1 ←
charge
 
discharge
→ 2Br -1
Iron- Anode: 1.2 HCl/HCl
Chromium charge discharge
Fe ←
+2

→ Fe +e +3 -1
Cathode:
Cr +3 +e-1 ←
charge
 
discharge
→ Cr +2
H 2 -Br2 Anode: 1.1 Polymer 50KW/ 100KWh
H 2 ←

charge

→
discharge
2H +2e+ -1 Electrolyte Rotem Industrial Park, Israel
membrane/H
Cathode: Cl

Br2 +2e-1 ←
charge
 
discharge
→ 2Br −1
Zinc- Anode: 1.8 ZnBr2 /ZnBr2 25 MW/1000 MWh, Primus and
Bromine charge discharge Samruk-Energy, Astana,
Zn ←
 
→ +2
Zn +2e -1
(ZBR) Kazakhstan
Cathode:
1MW/2 MWh, Tetiaroa Brando
Br2 +2e-1 ←
charge
 
discharge
→ 2Br −1 Resort, Tahiti, French Polynesia
500 kW/ 3 MWh, Everett,
Massachusetts, US
Zinc- Anode: 2.4 Both CH 3SO3 Under development
Cerium charge discharge
Zn ←
 
→ +2
Zn +2e -1
Cathode:
2Ce+4 +2e-1 ←
charge
 
discharge
→ 2Ce+3
Table 10 Comparison of specific energy and specific power between SMES and batteries144
Name SMES Battery Energy Storage
Actual specific energy (Wh/kg) ∼1-2 ∼ 10 – 200
Theoretical specific energy (Wh/kg) ∼ 1 - 10 ∼ 10 – 200
Actual specific power (kW/kg) ∼ 10- 10000 ∼ 0.001 – 10
Theoretical specific power (kW/kg) ∼ 10-100000 ∼ 0.001 – 10
Table 11 Characteristics of different FCs and their development 52,91,153,160

FC Chemical Reaction Ec Electrolyte Fuel and Operating Application,
Name (v) oxidant Temperatur Development and
e Issues
PAFC Anode: H 2  → 2H + +2e-1 Fuel (Pure Low Used in distributed
0.7 H 3 PO 4 H2) and Temperature generation.161,162
Cathode:
or O2 or Air 150o − 200o C Mature technology
1 O + 2H + +2e-1  → H 2O 0.8 as oxidant with high tolerance
2 2
Overall Reaction: with impurities.
H 2 + 1 O 2  → H 2O
2
AFC Anode: H 2  → 2H + +2e-1 40 % KOH Fuel (Pure Low Used in Military, and
H2) and Temperature space
Cathode:
O2 or Air 90o C applications.161,162

1 O + 2H + +2e-1  → H 2O as oxidant Hydrogen FC (AFC,
2 2 PEMFC, and PAFC)
Overall Reaction: have cost disadvantage
H 2 + 1 O 2  → H 2O at present times and
2 have relatively low
round trip efficiency of
(20-50%)153
PEMF Anode: H 2  → 2H + +2e-1 1.23 Polystyrene Fuel (Pure Low Used as backup power
C sulphonic H2) and Temperature and ESS distributed
Cathode:
acid O2 or Air 40o − 60o C generation.161,162
1 O + 2H + +2e-1  → H 2O as oxidant
2 2
Overall Reaction:
H 2 + 1 O 2  → H 2O
2
DMFC Anode: Polystyrene CH3OH Low Used in transportation
CH 3OH+2H 2O  → CO 2 +6H + +6e-1 sulphonic and O2 Temperature and portable
1.18 acid 50o − 120o C devices.161,162
163
Toxic and flammable
Cathode:
due menthol.
3 O + 6H + +6e-1 → 3H 2O A large quantity of
2 2
Overall Reaction: expensive catalyst
(platinum) is required.
CH 3OH+ 3 O 2  → CO 2 +H 2O
2
MCFC Anode: 0.8 Molten Fuel (H2 High Used in distribute
H 2 + CO3−2  → CO 2 +H 2O+2e-1 carbonate +CO) and Temperature generation.161 162
Cathode:
of Alkali Air as 600o − 700o C Demonstration cells
metal oxidant with up-to 2 MW have
CO+CO3-2 
→ 2C2 O+2e-1 been produced.
O 2 +2C2 O+4e-1 
→ 2CO3-2
Overall Reaction:
H 2 +CO+O 2 
→ CO 2 +H 2 O
SOFC Anode: 0.63 Ceramics Fuel (H2 High With efficiency around
H 2 + O −2 
→ H 2 O +2e-1 +CO) and Temperature 60% expected to be
Air as 600o − 1000o C used in power
Cathode: oxidant generation and heat
O 2 +4e-1 
→ 2O-2 generation in industry.
Overall Reaction: Under R&D to lower
the operating
H 2 +CO+O 2 
→ CO 2 +H 2 O
temperature and cost
through investigation
of new materials.164
Table 12. The properties of SHS mediums168,169

Material Name Liquid Carbonat Nitrate Nitrite Silicone Synthetic Mineral
Na e salts salt salt oil oil oil

Temperature Cold ( oC ) 270 450 265 250 300 250 200
Temperature Hot ( oC ) 530 850 565 450 400 350 300
Average density kg ( m3 ) 850 2100 1870 1825 900 900 770
Average thermal 71 2.0 0.52 0.57 0.10 0.11 0.12

conductivity W ( mK )
Average heat 1.3 1.8 1.6 1.5 2.1 2.6 2.6
capacity kJ( kgK )
Volume specific heat 80 430 250 152 52 57 55
capacity  
kWht
 m3 
Material cost 2.00 2.40 0.50 1.00 5.00 3.00 0.30
(
per kg US$
kg )
Material cost 21.0 11.0 3.7 12.0 80.0 43.0 4.2
per kWht  US$ 
 kWht 
Table 13. Heat transfer properties of PCMs used for latent heat storage
Material Chemical Composition Type Melting point Heat of fusion Density
o kg
C kJ
kg m3
Sodium Sulfate Na2 SO4 .10 H 2O Salt hydrate 32.4 251 1534
Sodium chloride- NaCl·Na2 SO4 ·10 H 2O Salt hydrate

sodium sulfate
Lauric acid C12 H 24O2 Fatty acid 44.2 211.6 1007
Sodium thiosulfate Na2 S 2O3 .5 H 2O Salt hydrate 48 209 1666
Calcium chloride CaCl3 .6 H 2O Salt hydrate 29-39 177 1634
Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3 .10 H 2O Salt 34 247 1442

carbonate
Sodium Silicate Na2 SiO3·5 H 2O Inorganic 72.20 267 1450
Disodium phosphate Na2 HPO4 .12 H 2O Salt hydrate 36 265 1552

Paraffin 14-Carbons C12 H 26 Organic 5.5 228
Paraffin 34-Carbons C34 H 70 Organic 75.9 269
Table 14 Capacity-distance comparison of different modes of transport of NG179
Mode of transport Capacity (bcm) Distance(km)

Pipeline 0.1 – 10.0 100 – 1000
LNG 0.1 – 10.0 1000 – 10000
CNG 0.1 – 1.0 100 – 5000
NGH 0.1 – 1.0 100 – 5000
Gas to Liquid (GTL) 0.1 – 1.0 5000 – 10000
Gas to Wire (GTW) 0.1 – 1.0 100 – 5000
Table 15 Typical data for pipeline transportation184
Lifetime 30- 50 years

Average cost per km US$ 194 million
Energy requirement for compressor station 1.8 – 2.7% of the transported energy
Table 16 Oil tankers categories184
Ship definitions DWT

Panamax 50,000 – 80,000
Aframax 80,000 – 119,000
Suezmax 120,000 – 150,000
Very large crude carrier 150,000 – 320,000
Ultra large crude carrier >320,000
Table 17 Fuel consumption and CO2 emissions of oil tankers184
Size Average weight Average Fuel CO2 emissions

(kDWT) (kDWT) distance consumption (gr/t-km)

(km) (gr/t-km)
>200 303 9000 2.2 3.8
120 - 200 155 5500 2.3 4.1
75 - 120 98 2000 3.8 6.6
Table 18 Emission factors for inland waterways (g CO2/tonne-km)208

Barge Type Upstream Downstream Canal
Container
Large 19.6 10.2 44.5
Medium 28.3 14.7 17.4
Small 63.4 31.3 -
Tank(50% load factor)
1750t 57.7 22.3 31.1
2500t 46 18.1 25.8
Table 19 Emission factors for maritime vessels208

Vessel Type Emission factor (g
CO2/tonne-km)
Bulk ships
Small tanker (844 tonnes) 20
Large tanker (18,371 tonnes) 5
Deep-sea tanker (120,000 tonnes) 5
Small (solid) bulk vessel (1,720 tonnes) 11
Container vessels
Small container vessel (2,500 tonnes) 5-13
Larger container vessel (20,000 tonnes) 5- 11
Aver. deep-sea container vessel 8.4 BSRTM/Clean 8.6
Cargo, with 11 tonne load/ Twenty-Foot
Equivalent Unit (TEU )
Table 20 Emission factors for trucks (g CO2/tonne-km)208
Payload 0% 10% 20% 30%
10 81 89 99 111
20 48 52 57 63
28 40 43 47 51
29 40 42 46 50

Table 21. General characteristics of different energy storage methods
ESS Type Capacity Technical Maturity220 Efficienc Power rating Energy rating Storage
(MW)26 y range (MW/otherwise (MWh/otherwise duration
(%) mentioned) mentioned)
Mechanical Energy Storage

PHS 169,557 Mature 65-85 100-5000 1000+ LTS
CAES 406.96
D-CAES Developed 40-60 5-300+ 1000+ LTS
A-CAES R&D Demonstration 75-95 0.1-10 MW Small 1-10 MWh Small LTS
Pre-commercial 100+ MW Large 100+ MWh Large
Flywheel energy 931 Developed 75-95 0.1-10 0.01-5 STS
storage
Electro-Chemical Energy Storage (ECES)
Batteries Energy Storage
Lead-acid 68.173 Mature 70-90 1 kW up-to 50 0.1-100 MTS,
MW DES
Ni-Cd 30.385 Developed 60-73 10 kW up-to 40 0.01 -1500 kWh MTS,
MW DES
Li-ion 1629.367 Mature 85-95 0.1-50 0.01-500 kWh MTS,
DES
NaS Na based Developed 70-90 50 kW up-to 50 0.01 kWh- 100 MWh STS, DES
201.315 MW
ZEBRA Developed 85-90 1-1000 kW 0.12-5 MWh STS, DES
Metal Air 15.987 R&D Demonstration ̴ 50 0-10 kW LTS
Commercial
Flow batteries 71.87
VRB Developed 60-85 5-7000 kW 10 -10000 kWh LTS
ZBB R&D Demonstration 60-75 25-2000 kW 50-4000 kWh LTS
Commercial
PSB R&D Demonstration 1-15 0.01-10+ LTS
Commercial
Chemical Energy Storage
Hydrogen storage 18 R&D Demonstration 30-50 0.1– 1000+ 100–1000+ LTS

Commercial
Fuel Cell (FC) R&D Demonstration ̴ 50 0-50 LTS
Commercial
SMES R&D Demonstration Pre- 90-95 10- 10000 kW 0.1-100 kWh STS
commercial
Capacitor Storage 30.9 R&D Demonstration 90-95 1–10000 kW 0.001-10 kWh STS
Pre-commercial
Thermal Energy Storage
Hot water storage 117 R&D Demonstration 50-90 STS
Commercial
Cold water storage 142 Developed 50-90 STS
Molten salt thermal 2452 R&D Demonstration 40-93 0-60 LTS
storage Commercial
Underground Developed 50-90 0-5 MTS
(Aquifer) Thermal
storage
Table 21. General characteristics of different energy storage methods (cont.)

ESS Type Response Energy Cost Cost Life Pros Cons References
Time Density Power Energy Time
(Wh/L) ($/kW) (($/kWh) (years)
Mechanical Energy Storage
PHS ̴ 3-10 min 0.5-1.5 600-2000 5-100 30-60 High capacity Destroy trees and wild 24,52-58,219,221
Relatively low cost life by land acquisition

CAES
D-CAES ̴ 10 min 3-12 400-800 2-50 20-40 High capacity Specific site requirement 52-58,221
52 57
A-CAES Min 3-12 700-1000 40-80 20-30 Low cost per unit and emissions from NG
capacity combustion
52-58
Flywheel ms-s 20-80 250-350 1000- 15-20 High power Low energy density
energy storage 5000
Electro-Chemical Energy Storage (ECES)
Batteries Energy Storage
52-
Lead-acid ms 50-90 300-600 200-400 5-15 Low capital cost Recycling of Pb, Toxic
55,57,58,154,158,2
element remains in
21
atmosphere
52-
Ni-Cd ms 60-150 500-1500 800-1500 10-20 High power and Memory effect
55,57,58,154,158,2
energy density Ni-Cd is highly toxic and
21
all other Ni bases
compounds require
recycling.
52-56,58,154,221
Li-ion ms 200-500 1200- 600-2500 5-15 High power and High cost
4000 energy density Li2O and other salts
require recycling
52-55,58,154,221
NaS ms 150-250 1000- 300-500 10-15 High energy High production cost,
3000 density and high high temperature and
efficiency require recycling
52-54,154,222
ZEBRA ms 150-180 400-1800 500-1000 15
52,154
Metal Air ms 500- 100-250 10-60 Low cost and high Short recharge and little
10,000 energy density amount of remains affect
the atmosphere

Flow batteries
52-
VRB ms 16-33 600-1500 150-1000 5-15 High capacity Toxic remains
54,56,58,154,158,2
21
52-
ZBB ms 30-60 700-2500 150-1000 5-10 High capacity Low energy density
54,58,154,158,221
52-
PSB ms 16-60 330-2500 120-1000 10-15 High Capacity
54,58,154,158,221
Chemical Energy Storage

55,57,154,158,160
Hydrogen s-min 500- 1900- 1-10 20-30 Long term storage Require combustion for
storage 3000 6300 fuel H2 production
52,91
Fuel Cell (FC) s-min 500- 10000+ 5-15 Store long Catalyst is very
3000 term/variety of expensive for FC
cells for different
applications
53-56,154,158,221
SMES ms 0.2-2.5 200-350 1000- 15-20 High power Strong magnetic field
10,000 causes health issues
53-56,154,158,221
Capacitor ms 10-30 100-360 300-2000 10-20 Long life circle Low energy density and
Storage High efficiency toxic nature
Thermal Energy Storage

91,220
Hot water Negligible Best for residential
storage use
220
Cold water 300-600
storage
52,220
Molten salt 120-500 100-300 30-60 5-15 Small environmental
thermal storage effect
52,220
Underground 120-200 3400- 20-50 10-20 Small environmental
(Aquifer) 4500 effect
Thermal
storage
LTS=Long Term Storage (h-months); MTS= Medium Term Storage (min-day); STS=Short Term Storage (sec-min or hour);
DES=Distributed Energy Storage; ms= milliseconds, sec-min=Second-Minutes; min=Minutes

Energy Storage and Tranporation of Energy

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Review of Energy Storage and Transportation of Energy

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1.2 Overview of Energy and Fossil Fuels

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1.3 Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions

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the end of 2017.2

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2 Classification of Energy Storage Systems (ESSs)

Figure 12. Classification of ESSs based on the form of stored energy

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connected operational capacities of all other forms of ESSs (MW)26

2.1 Significance of ESSs

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2.1.2 Centralized nature of electricity

2.1.3 Renewable energy resources and energy storage

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2.1.4 Low carbon electricity production

2.2 Mechanical Storage System

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2.2.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)

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Figure 17. The schematic diagram of Flywheel System112

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Figure 20. Charging and discharging of electrochemical battery

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2.3.1.2 Nickel cadmium (Ni-Cd) battery

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2.3.1.3 Lithium Ion (Li-ion) battery

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2.3.1.4 Sodium Sulfur (NaS) battery

2.3.1.5 Sodium nickel chloride battery (Na-NiCl2)

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2.3.1.6 Metal Air Battery

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2.3.3 Capacitor Storage

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2.3.4 Electromagnetic energy storage

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ρ= ρo + α T for T > Tc K (5)