IOP PUBLISHING JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICS AND ENGINEERING

J. Geophys. Eng. 4 (2007) 253–261 doi:10.1088/1742-2132/4/3/S03

Evaluation of grout behind the lining of

shield tunnels using ground-penetrating
radar in the Shanghai Metro Line, China
Xiongyao Xie1, Yujian Liu1, Hongwei Huang1, Jun Du1, Fengshou Zhang1
and Lanbo Liu2
1
Department of Geotechnical Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092,

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People’s Republic of China
2
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Connecticut Storrs,
CT 06269-2037, USA
E-mail: xiexiongyao@mail.tongji.edu.cn

Received 17 August 2006

Accepted for publication 15 February 2007
Published 31 August 2007
Online at stacks.iop.org/JGE/4/253

Abstract
For shield tunnelling construction in soft soil areas, the coverage uniformity and quality of
consolidation of the injected grout mortar behind the prefabricated tunnel segment is the main
concern for tunnel safety and ground settlement. In this paper, ground-penetrating radar
(GPR) was applied to evaluate the grout behind the tunnel lining segments in Shanghai, China.
The dielectric permittivity of the grout material in Shanghai Metro tunnelling construction was
measured in the laboratory. Combining physical modelling results with finite different time
domain numerical modelling results, we suggest that the antenna with frequency 200 MHz is
well suited to penetrate the reinforced steel bar network of the tunnel lining segment and
testing grout patterns behind the segment. The electromagnetic velocity of the grout behind
the segment of the tunnel is 0.1 m ns−1 by the analysis of field common-middle point data. A
wave-translated method was put forward to process the GPR images. Furthermore, combining
the information acquired by GPR with experience data, a GPR non-destructive test standard
for the grout mortar evaluation in Shanghai Metro tunnel construction was brought forward.
The grout behind the tunnel lining segment is classified into three types: uncompensated grout
mortar with a thickness less than 10 cm, normal grout mortar with a thickness between 10 cm
and 30 cm and overcompensated grout mortar, which is more than
30 cm thick. The classified method is easily put into practice.
Keywords: ground-penetrating radar (GPR), shield tunnel, grout behind lining,
non-destructive test (NDT)
(Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)

1. Introduction 1999). However, the settlement can be reduced by improving

The construction method of Shanghai Metro tunnels, which are
12–32 m deep in soft silty clay areas, is the shield tunnelling
method. From 1995 to 2001, Metro Line 1 had settled
unevenly in the longitudinal axis, at most being 160 mm out
of line (Huang and Zhang 2001), so the safety of metro traffic
was endangered. The cause of settlement is complicated, and
up to now the problem has not been completely solved (Sun
two key techniques: stabilizing of soil in the excavating face
of a tunnel and grouting mortar behind the lining of tunnels
(Chen and Zhan 2000, Bai 2002). As shield machines of earth
pressure balance have developed, the stabilizing technique has
been noticeably improved, whereas the grouting technique has
made little progress because the quality of grout cannot be well
evaluated.

1742-2132/07/030253+09$30.00 © 2007 Nanjing Institute of Geophysical Prospecting Printed in the UK 253

X Xie et al
Slurry treatment plant
Shield Backfill grouting
Segments
P P
Jack
Cutter disk
Figure 1. The sketch of the shield tunnelling technique (Koyama 1997).
In the shield tunnelling construction process, after the
tunnel lining segments are placed, backfill grout mortar is
injected into the gap between the concrete tunnel lining
segments and the ground through holes in the tunnel lining
blocks (figure 1). The grout mortar will experience a proper
consolidation, and then provides further stability for the tunnel
and prevents water seeping into the tunnel from the sediments.
The coverage uniformity and quality of consolidation of the
injected grout mortar behind the prefabricated tunnel lining
is the main concern for tunnel safety. Although there are
standards for grout quantity and grout pressure (GB50299-
1999, 1999), these standards are not ideal because of the
characteristics of liquid grout and groundwater. Grout may
escape from a passage of soil cranny which will lead to
excessive grout, but the grout pressure does not increase. As
such, the research project aims at the understanding of grout
patterns.
GPR has been successfully used to check tunnel structures
in rocky areas (Benson 1995, Grodner 2001, Zhong and
Wang 2002, Sakurada and Inagaki 2002, Cardarelli et al
2003), and the International Tunnel Association (ITA) has also
recommended it as one of the test methods for rock tunnels
(Working Group No. 2, ITA 2000). However, little literature
has reported the application of GPR to test grout behind the
lining of shield tunnels in soft soil areas. GPR faces some
new problems in soft soil areas compared to those in rocky
areas: (1) there are fewer hollows behind the lining of shield
tunnels; (2) the grout behind the lining is relatively thinner;
(3) the effect of groundwater cannot be neglected in saturated
soil; and (4) the dielectric constant and EM velocity of grout
are not known. Thus, how to find the appropriate relations
between the depth and precision of the GPR test is the main
problem for the research. According to the thickness of lining,
the range of exploration detailed from 0.35 m to 1 m is the
main target of interest.
In this paper, GPR was applied to test the grout behind
tunnel lining segments in Shanghai Metro Line 4. Firstly, we
did some modelling tests of grout behind the lining of a shield
tunnel in order to get ideal GPR parameters. Secondly, the
254
Slurry feed pipe
P
Slurry discharge pipe
P Pump
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Table 1. The liquid ratio of dual liquid mortar B.
A liquid (kg) B liquid (kg)
Water Cement Stabilizer (L) Bentonite 35 ◦ C sodium silicate
803 376 3.2 78 120
velocity of the EM wave in the grout behind the lining of the
tunnel was acquired by the analysis of field CMP data. Thirdly,
we put forward a wave-translated method to improve the GPR
images. Furthermore, we present a GPR non-destructive test
standard for the grout in Shanghai Metro Lines, which is
based on the information acquired by GPR, and combined
with experience data. Finally, we conclude what we have
gained from this study.
2. Modelling test of grout behind the lining
of the shield tunnel
The model box was one side of the standard lining segment
of the Shanghai Metro tunnel and three sides of brick walls
(figure 2). The thickness of the concrete tunnel lining segment
is 0.35 m and the width of the arc segment is 1.0 m. The inner
steel bar network of the segment is shown in figure 3. The
maximum diameter of the steel bar is 16 mm, and the average
space between the steel bars is 150 mm. The gap for the grout
is 200 mm.
The grout material was dual liquid mortar B used in
Shanghai Metro tunnels, the liquid ratios of which are listed in
table 1. The dielectric permittivity of the grout material was
measured in the laboratory. Figure 4 shows results for the grout
mortar during the period of curing. In general, the permittivity
of any surface earth material or engineered material is heavily
dependent on the water content. The dielectric permittivity
of the grout mortar was reduced by 43% from the third day
of curing to the 14th day of curing. Whenever possible, it is
always advised to use the in situ calibrated value rather than
the typical value provided by the literature for dry concrete
 Evaluation of grout behind the lining of shield tunnels using ground-penetrating radar in the Shanghai Metro Line, China
Figure 2. The sketch map of the shield tunnel lining segment test model.
Figure 3. The steel bar network of the standard lining segment of
the Shanghai Metro tunnel.
Figure 4. The measured frequency dependence of the dielectric
permittivity of the grout mortar tested at the time of curing.
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Figure 5. The uniform distribution of the dual fluid grout between
red dry sand and prefabricated tunnel segment after 14 days of
curing and removing the wooden moulding board in the model box,
the thickness of which is 200 mm.
(Xie et al 2002). We used a relative dielectric permittivity of
6.25 for the dry concrete, equivalent to an EM wave velocity of
0.12 m ns−1, which is a value calibrated by the known thickness
of the tunnel wall. Dry sand was filled behind the grout, which
was substituted for saturated soil in order to exclude the effect
of water saturation. The uniform distribution of the dual fluid
grout behind tunnel segments after 14 days of curing is shown
in figure 5, the thickness of which is 200 mm.
The FDTD approach to the numerical solution of
Maxwell’s equation is to discretize both the space and time
continua. The numerical solution is obtained directly in the
time domain in an iterative fashion. After each iteration,
the EM fields propagate in the FDTD grid and the solution
advances a simulated time of dt. Hence, by specifying the
number of iterations one can instruct the FDTD solver to
simulate the fields for a required GPR time window. In this
paper, the pseudospectral method was chosen to solve the
finite difference equations (Liu and Arcone 2005), and the
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X Xie et al

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Figure 6. FDTD numerical model.

Figure 7. The FDTD modelling result.

Figure 8. The measured result of figure 2.

perfectly matched layer (PML) boundary condition was used
(Gedney 1996). The numerical model is shown in figure 6.
The dielectric permittivity of grout was adopted as 22 from
figure 4 when 200 MHz radar data were synthesized at 14
days’ curing.
The FDTD result (figure 7) and the measured result based
on the model box (figure 8) are very similar. As shown in
figure 8, the reflection layer is a direct wave on 10 ns, and
the layer is the reflection from the bottom of the lining on
17 ns. So the travel time of the EM wave is 7 ns, and the
thickness of the tunnel segment is 0.37 m, according to the
EM wave velocity 0.12 m ns−1 in concrete. Compared to
the real thickness of 0.35 m, the test error is 5%. As the
reflection from the bottom of the grout is at 25 ns, the travel
time of the EM wave is 8 ns. The EM wave velocity is
calculated as 0.093 m ns−1 from the dielectric constant of 32
in the grout. The thickness is concluded as 0.21 m, and the
error is also 5%. So the antenna with frequency 200 MHz is
well suited to penetrate the reinforced steel bar network of the
tunnel lining segment and test grout patterns.
3. Determining the EM velocity of the grout mortar
The EM velocity of the grout was not known due to the water
content, so a CMP field study was conducted to determine
the EM velocity in tunnel lining segments of the Shanghai

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Figure 9. CMP raw data of the test site. Event A is the air wave,
B is the ground wave, C is the reflection from the bottom of the
lining of the tunnel, D is the reflection from the bottom of the grout
behind the lining and the branch of event D is a multiplied reflection
from the bottom of the lining.

Metro Line 4. The data were collected using the EKKO IV

radar with 200 MHz antennas. The original distance between
Tx-Rx antennas was 0.6 m, and the separation distance used Figure 10. Curves of X2 –T 2 calculated from the raw CMP data,
to collect data was 2.4 m. A survey line was set along the and lines X2 –T 2 obtained by linear arithmetic. (a) represents the
axial direction on the floor of the tunnel. The CMP data are relations of the concrete lining and (b) those of the grout.
shown in figure 9 with the events of interest marked. Event
A is the direct wave, B is the ground wave, C is the reflection the soil around
the tunnel
from the bottom of the lining of the tunnel and the top of the the grouting be- testing lines along
grout and D is the bottom of the grout. The branch of event D hind the lining the axial direction
is a multiplied reflection from the bottom of the lining of the the lining of the
tunnel. tunnel
The EM velocity of the grout used in conjunction with
the CMP data for horizontal planar reflectors is given in (1) by
Reppert et al (2000)


x22 − x12
v= , (1)
t22 − t12
where x1 , x2 represent respectively the original distance
between the antennas and the distance after their movement;
t1 , t2 are respectively the original travel time and the travel
time after the movement.
Setting x22 − x12 as X2 and t22 − t12 as T 2 , the EM velocity
is given as

1 Figure 11. The distribution of GPR survey lines inside the tunnel.
v= , (2) The media are the lining, grout and soil respectively from the inside
K to the outside of the tunnel.
where K is the slope in a curve of X2 –T 2 .
The curves of X2 –T 2 are shown in figure 10, which were of different media can be easily calculated. Figures 10(a) and
calculated from the raw CMP reflection data of figure 9. K was (b) represent respectively the X2 –T 2 relations of the concrete
obtained by the linear fitting arithmetic, and the EM velocities lining and grout. The slopes of the fitted lines are respectively

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X Xie et al

Figure 12. A reflection section of the grout behind some tunnel lining segments of Shanghai Metro Line 4.

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(a) (b)

(c) (d )

Figure 13. The result of the wave transforming method applied in the section from 0 m to 5.2 m of figure 12.

65.373 and 86.49, and the coefficients of determination R2 are
respectively 0.9849 and 0.9654. According to equation (2),
the average velocity of the concrete lining is 0.12 m ns−1, and
the average velocity of the grout is 0.10 m ns−1.
4. The depiction of the grout patterns behind tunnel
lining segments of Shanghai Metro Line 4
The EKKO VI radar system with the modified antenna system
(Xie et al 2004) was used to test the grout patterns behind
tunnel lining segments of Shanghai Metro Line 4. The
underground sites were ideal for GPR surveys, as the segment
of the Metro Line had just been constructed, and the rails and
cables had not been laid down. The length of the tunnel is
1200 m, and four GPR survey lines were acquired as shown in
figure 11.
The GPR data were processed by the software PIPEGPR,
developed by our group (Xie and Zhao 2003). The radar
images show the extent of the grout. A reflection section of
a survey line is shown in figure 12. In general, the grout

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 Evaluation of grout behind the lining of shield tunnels using ground-penetrating radar in the Shanghai Metro Line, China
Figure 14. Two different gain values are applied along the time axis.
behind the segments is uniformly distributed. In addition,
there is excessive grout behind the segment from 5 m to 22 m.
According to the record of construction, the average quantity
of grout was 2.0 m3. However, the GPR survey indicted a
quantity of 3.0 m3 of grout was injected behind these segments.
The cause of excessive injection of grout was super excavation
in the process of adjusting the shield tunnelling machine. It is
shown that the GPR result is consistent with the actual amount
of grout.
In order to show the grout patterns more visually and more
quantitatively, a wave transforming method was put forward,
including the time and space filter as in figure 13(a), defined
gain as in figure 13(b), absolute calculation as in figure 13(c)
and low-pass filter as in figure 13(d). As the concrete tunnel
lining is 0.35 m thick, and the EM velocity of concrete is
0.12 m ns−1, a gain is defined in figure 14. Figure 13(c) is given
by absolute calculation of figure 13(b), the negative amplitude
of which is transformed to the positive one. After the absolute
Figure 15. The final section from 0 m to 5.2 m of figure 12. The black strip represents the reflection of the tunnel lining, and the dark-grey
strip represents the reflection of the grout mortar.
calculation, the frequency of the EM wave is doubled, so
the time domain filter should be adopted. Figure 13(d) is
the section of figure 13(c) calculated by the low-pass filter.
Figure 15 is the final visual image of the section in figure 13.
The grout is 40 cm thick behind the segments from 0 m to
4 m, and 90 cm thick positioning the segments of 4 m to 5.2 m,
which can be calculated from the EM velocity of 0.1 m ns−1 of
the grout. By the same method, the section from 20 m to 35 m
of figure 12 was processed as shown in figure 16. The average
thickness of the injected grout behind the tunnel segments is
30 cm.
The outer shield diameter of the tunnel machine is 6.35 m
in Shanghai Metro Line 4, and the outer diameter of the tunnel
lining segment is 6.21 m, so the gap between the segment
and tunnel machine is 7 cm, which must be filled by the
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grout mortar. However, the thickness of the grout is normally
between 0.1 and 0.3 m. If the grout mortar is inadequate,
the ground will settle so as to endanger the buildings on the
ground. If it is excessive, the ground will upheave in the initial
grout stage, and settle with the consolidation of saturated
soft soil as excessive pore water pressure loss. So, we
classified grout mortar into three types for quality evaluations:
uncompensated grout mortar (UGM), normal grout mortar
(NGM) and overcompensated grout mortar (OGM). UGM is
defined as the grout mortar in which the thickness of grout
is less than 10 cm. If some tunnel lining segment is non-
destructive tested to be uncompensated grouted, it should be
repeatedly grouted, and be strictly observed for the settlement
of the ground. NGM is defined as the grout mortar in which the
thickness of grout is between 10 cm and 30 cm. The range of
grout mortar is suited to fill the gap, and can avoid producing an
excessive pore water pressure. OGM is defined as having the
thickness of more than 30 cm grout. This classified standard
is ideal for GPR testing on the Shanghai Metro Line, and is
easily adopted in practice. According to the above presented
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X Xie et al
Figure 16. The final section from 20 m to 35 m of figure 12. The black strip represents the reflection of the tunnel lining, and the dark-grey
strip represents the reflection of the grout mortar.
standard, the section of figure 15 belongs to OGM, and the
section of figure 16 can be evaluated as NGM.
5. Summary and discussion
For shield tunnelling construction in soft soil areas, the
coverage uniformity and quality of consolidation of the
injected grout mortar behind the prefabricated tunnel segment
is the main concern for tunnel safety and ground settlement.
GPR proves to be a useful tool to test the grout patterns behind
the tunnel lining segments.
The dielectric permittivity of grout is heavily dependent
on the water content at the curing time. This was reduced by
43% from the third day of curing to the 14th day of curing and
was between 22 and 18 with the radar antenna frequency from
200 MHz to 500 MHz at the 14th day of curing.
As the thickness of targets, which include the tunnel lining
segment and grout, is usually from 35 to 100 cm, we suggest
that the 200 MHz antenna is well suited to penetrate the
reinforcing steel bar networks in the tunnel lining segment
and test grout patterns behind the segment.
The determination of EM velocity is a primary use of
GPR, especially in a quantitative analysis. The traditional
CMP method was used to determine EM velocities. The EM
velocity of grout in the Shanghai Metro Line 4 is 0.1 m ns−1.
Future work in this area will include the construction of an
indoor test site to acquire EM velocities under a variety of
controlled conditions.
A traditional filtered method is effective in improving the
signal to noise ratio of the GPR wave, but falls short of dividing
different layers. The wave translated method presented in this
paper shows the grout patterns more visually. The processes
of the method include time and space filtering, defined gain,
absolute calculation, low-pass filtering, etc.
Using the information acquired by GPR, and combined
with experience data, a GPR non-destructive test standard of
the grout in Shanghai Metro Lines was put forward in this
paper. The grout behind the lining segment of shield tunnels
is classified into three types: UGM, NGM and OGM. The
classified method is easily put into practice.
260
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Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial support of the National
High Technology Research and Development Program (863
program) of China (no 2006AA11Z118). Dr Yonghui Zhao
is thanked for his insightful discussions regarding this project.
All the persons involved in the research projects are thanked
for their help with data acquisition.
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