An asphalt Pavements continually undergo various types of stresses that induce minor defects into the pavement.

Traffic loading, temperature, moisture, and subgrade movement can cause stresses. A pavement can exhibit one or
more distresses in various severity levels. Most pavement distresses, if identified early, can be repaired and not have
any significant effect on the service life of the pavement. In all cases of pavement maintenance, it is best to
determine the cause of the distress or defect. Determining the distress cause assists in making the proper repair and
in preventing the distress from reoccurring.
There are four major categories of asphalt pavement distresses:

1 Surface defects: raveling, flushing, oxidation, and polishing

2 Surface deformation: rutting, shoving, settling, and heaving
3 Cracking: transverse, longitudinal, reflective, block, and alligator
4 Potholes.

The causes of pavement distresses and deterioration are environmental and structural.
Surface defects consist of raveling, flushing, oxidation, and polishing. Both high volume and low volume pavement
can exhibit surface defects.

Flushing
Flushing is the presence of excess asphalt binder on the pavement surface. Flushing appears as a film of asphalt
binder on the pavement surface. The film can appear shiny and will become sticky when hot. Excessive asphalt
binder content in the mixture or a very low air void content can cause flushing. Flushing typically occurs in vehicle
wheel paths and can be accelerated by traffic and hot weather. Flushing on roadways is a potential safety hazard,
since it creates low skid resistance.

The severity of flushing can be described in the following manner:

_ Low severity:

_ Medium severity:

_ High severity:

Flushing is measured in square meters of surface area. Flushing is not easily corrected with the cause of the flushing
usually occurring lower down in the pavement structure. Low severity flushing is usually not corrected until it
becomes medium severity. A seal coat can also be used to cover up the flushing, however, this is somewhat of a
temporary solution.

Polishing
Polishing is caused by repeated wear on the pavement surface. This wear is usually due to traffic but even heavy
pedestrian traffic can cause slight polishing on parking lot pavements. Polishing is a smooth slippery surface that
was created by traffic polishing off the sharp edges of the coarse aggregate. Limestone and Chert have a greater
tendency to polish than most other types of aggregates. Polished aggregate will have the asphalt binder film
removed and be smooth to the touch. It will cause the pavement’s skid resistance to be reduced. The severity of
polished aggregate is typically not rated. High polished pavement surfaces can be repaired by the application of a
seal coat or an overlay. The removal and replacement of the wearing course should also be considered.

Raveling
Raveling or fretting is the progressive disintegration of the asphalt mixture from the pavement surface downward
caused by the loss of the asphalt binder and/or dislodged aggregate particles. Small movements of individual
aggregate particles, caused by traffic or water movement, develop sufficient tensile stresses and strains which
exceed the breaking strength of the asphalt binder. Raveling is caused by moisture or solvent-induced stripping of
the asphalt binder film from the aggregate. Raveling usually occurs in cold or wet weather. Raveling may also be
caused by the abrasive action of tires or deicing sand, especially in intersections and parking lots.
The severity of raveling can be described in the following manner:

_ Low severity:
_ Medium severity:
_ High severity:
Rutting
Rutting is surface deformation that is a longitudinal surface depression in the vehicle wheel paths. Rutting is
sometimes called grooving or channeling. Rutting displaces the asphalt mixture in the wheel path, creating channels.
In moderate or severe rutting, the surface of the pavement may uplift along the sides of the channel. Rutting is
usually very visible after a rainfall. Rutting can occur on any type of pavement including high and low volume
roads. It occurs where vehicles continually drive over the same spots in the roadway.
Traffic compaction or displacement of unstable asphalt mixtures causes rutting. Rutting may also be caused by base
or subgrade consolidation. Displacement or plastic flow type rutting is related to the design of the asphalt mixture.
Low design air voids, excessive asphalt binder, excessive sand or mineral filler, rounded aggregate particles, and
low voids filled in mineral aggregate (VMA) can all contribute to displacement rutting.

Shoving and surface distortions

Shoving is a surface deformation that involves the wearing course to be displaced transversely across the pavement.
Shoving is a permanent displacement caused by traffic loading. Shoving that appears as transverse undulations in the
pavement surface consisting of closely spaced alternate valleys and crests is also called corrugations. When traffic
pushes against the pavement surface, it produces a short abrupt wave in the pavement surface .Shoving typically
occurs at intersections or entrance/exit ramps off of freeways or motorways. In parking facilities and local roads, a
common distortion is caused by the tree roots.

The refuse truck unloading the container causes the distortion. The container is moved over the cab of the truck into
the refuse receiving area of the truck. This action puts high stresses under the front tires, leading to depressions into
the surface of the pavement. The mixture lacks stability for its intended application. The low stability can be due to
low air void content, excessive asphalt binder content, excessive sand, round aggregates, or an asphalt binder that is
too soft for the application.

_ Low severity:
_ Medium severity:
_ High severity: The shoving or corrugations are very noticeable, and vehicles are slowing down when approaching

them. Shoving and corrugations are measured in square meter of surface area. The repair of shoving or corrugations
requires milling the corrugations and replacing the material with a patch or overlay.
.
Transverse cracking
An asphalt pavement will crack when temperature or traffic generated stresses and strains exceed the fatigue or
tensile strength of the compacted asphalt mixture. Transverse cracking is a crack that extends across the pavement
perpendicular to the pavement centerline.

Transverse cracks are usually spaced at some routine interval. Transverse cracks will initially be widely spaced,
usually 15–20 m apart. Transverse cracks begin as narrow or hairline cracks and will widen with age. If wide
transverse cracks (6–12 mm) are not sealed, secondary and multiple cracks will develop parallel to the initial
transverse crack. This crack edge deterioration is known as “spalling.” Sealing cracks that are greater than 6mm
wide will prevent water from intruding into the crack and damaging the pavement structure below. Load induced
transverse cracks occur on overlays of pavements that have unfilled joints or gaps in them. Transverse cracks will
typically appear in an asphalt pavement 2–7 years after construction. The tensile strength of the asphalt mixture is
exceeded and a crack developed at the interface. The crack then propagates toward the pavement surface.

There are not many preventative measures that a designer can do to prevent the occurrence of transverse cracks.
Selecting the proper asphalt binder for the climate the pavement is located will reduce the occurrence of temperature
induced transverse cracks.
The severity of transverse cracking can be rated in the following manner:
_ Low severity:

_ Medium severity:

_ High severity: Any crack, filled or non-filled, surrounded by medium or high severity random cracking or a non-

filled crack width over 12 mm or a crack of any width where the pavement immediately adjacent to the crack is
broken or raveled.
Longitudinal cracking
Longitudinal cracking is cracking that appears parallel to the centerline or laydown direction of the pavement.
Longitudinal cracks are either load induced or non-load induced. Load induced longitudinal cracks occur in the
wheel path or loading area of the pavement. Non-load induced longitudinal cracks can occur anywhere throughout
the pavement, but are typically in the center or at the edge of the pavement. Load induced longitudinal cracks are a
form of fatigue cracking which eventually involves into “Alligator cracking.” Load induced cracking is addressed
under the section on alligator cracking.
Longitudinal cracking can also appear as a diagonal cracking across the pavement. This is a load-induced crack that
is caused by traffic loading on an unsupported or poorly supported pavement edge.

crack can also occur in a longitudinal direction at patches for utility cuts and other pavement repairs. Longitudinal
cracking can occur at locations in the pavement that has segregation of the asphalt mixture. Segregation induced
cracking typically is caused by segregation that has occurred between the paver screed augers. This problem is often
corrected on modern pavers with the installation of kickback blades on the auger. The kickback blade moves or
“tucks” some of the asphalt mixture underneath the gearbox, reducing the occurrence of segregation.

The severity of longitudinal cracking can be rated in the following manner:

_ Low severity:
_ Medium severity:
_ High severity: Any crack, filled or non-filled, surrounded by medium or high severity random cracking or a non

Filled crack width over 12 mm or a crack of any width where the pavement immediately adjacent to the crack is
broken or raveled.

The crack is generally routed out first prior to the application of the crack filler. High severity longitudinal cracks
are routed and filled, but it is usually more feasible and economical to remove the damaged section of the pavement
and patch it.

Reflective cracking
Reflective cracks are cracks in asphalt overlays that reflect up from the pavement underneath. The sources of
reflective cracks are either joints or existing cracks in the pavement underneath. The movement of the joint crack
induces high tensile strains in the material above, eventually resulting in a crack at the interface. The crack
propagates upwards toward the pavement surface from the joint below.The most common source of reflective cracks
is from joint in concrete pavements that have been overlaid.

Reflective cracking is rated in the same manner as transverse and longitudinal cracking. The severity of reflective
cracking can be rated in the following manner:

Low severity:
_ Medium severity:

_ High severity: Any crack, filled or non-filled, surrounded by medium or high severity random cracking or a non-

filled crack width over 12 mm or a crack of any width where the pavement immediately adjacent to the crack is
broken or raveled.

Block cracking
Block cracking is a non-load related cracking that can also be called as shrinkage cracking. The pavement cracks in
both longitudinal and transverse directions. Shrinkage cracks become interconnected, forming a series of large
square or rectangular blocks. The size of the blocks is usually from half to three meters on each side of the block.
The block cracking mostly develops on low volume roads and parking lots. The asphalt mixture that did not have
enough compaction during construction does not densify under traffic. Pavements undergo thermal contraction and
expansion and the stiff asphalt binder/fine aggregate combination becomes brittle and breaks, forming shrinkage or
block cracks. Selecting the proper asphalt binder for low volume parking applications will usually reduce the
occurrence of block cracking. Block cracking can be confused with alligator cracking. Alligator cracking is fatigue
related and forms much smaller shapes with sharp angles. Block cracking is rated in the same manner as other types
of cracks.
.

Alligator cracking
Alligator cracks are interconnecting cracks that form small pieces ranging in size from 25 to 150 mm. The cracks
have the same appearance as the pattern on the skin of an alligator. Alligator cracking only occurs from loading or
fatigue. The cracks are caused by the failure of the pavement due to traffic loading or inadequate base or subgrade
support. Tensile stresses and strains develop at the bottom of the pavement structure. These tensile stresses can
exceed the tensile strength of the asphalt mixture, which results in a crack at the bottom of the pavement structure.
Alligator cracking due to inadequate base or subgrade support will have a more random appearance throughout the
pavement that receives loading. Of all the distresses, alligator cracking is the most commonly occurring distress on
asphalt pavements serving parking facilities.

Alligator cracking is considered a significant major structural distress. Alligator cracking is a symptom of
insufficient structural strength in the pavement, weak subgrade, or overloading of the pavement. Insufficient
structural strength is either due to the thickness not being adequate for the load being carried or an asphalt mixture
deficiency. When the alligator cracking occurs over spans of asphalt pavement, such as in parking lots, the cause is
usually due to poor subgrade support and poor drainage. If alligator cracking occurs in areas that typically do not see
vehicle traffic or loading, the cause is a base or subgrade failure, usually due to improper drainage. Alligator crack
begins with a crack at the bottom of the pavement structure, A permanent correction to alligator cracking requires
the determination of what caused it, whether induced by loading or water. Subgrade drainage or repair and an
increase in pavement thickness or strength are required for a permanent solution to alligator cracking.
The severity of alligator cracking can be rated in the following manner:

_ Low severity:
_ Medium severity:
_ High severity: Alligator cracking is a symptom of a deficiency in the pavement structure. A permanent solution

would require removing the damaged section, repairing the subgrade if needed, and the installation of a full depth
patch. If drainage is the cause of the cracking, improving the pavement drainage should be considered. If the
cracking is due to insufficient pavement thickness or overloading, low severity alligator cracking will progress
further even with improving the drainage or the application of a pavement sealer.

Potholes
Potholes are small bowl shaped holes or depressions in the pavement surface. The diameter of the pothole is usually
1m or less. The pothole will have vertical sides and sharp edges near the top of the hole. The pothole will grow in
size and depth if water is present in the pothole. Potholes can also occur as irregular shaped depressions in the
pavement. Potholes are caused by weaknesses in the pavement surface resulting from failure of the base or subgrade,
poor drainage, or structurally deficient pavement structure. Potholes can also occur when the subgrade or base of the
pavement fails and causes excessive deflection of the pavement surface. Severely spalled cracks can eventually
cause potholes next to the crack.

The level of severity of potholes depends on the size and depth of the hole. The frequency or number of holes in the
pavement structure is also considered in rating the damage caused by potholes.

Filling the pothole with a patching or pothole filling mixture. The pothole is cleaned out and then filled with the
patching mixture.

Removing the pothole and the immediate surrounding distressed pavement and replacing with a full depth patch.
This method is considered a permanent repair.
Types of Distresses in Rigid Pavements
Distresses also be caused by deficiencies during construction, lack of maintenance and climatic factors.
Cracking is one of the most important distresses of concrete pavements and is a complex issue. It is important to
know that for various reasons concrete shrinks, contracts and expands, and bends from loading and the environment,
and that these actions can induce cracking.
Several different categories of distresses.
• Cracking
• Joints
• Disintegration
• Distortion
• Loss of Skid Resistance
• Other Distresses

Cracking
Cracks in rigid pavements often result from stresses caused by expansion and contraction or warping of the
pavement. Overloading, loss of subgrade support, and insufficient and/or improperly cut joints acting singly or in
combination are also possible causes. Several different types of cracking can occur:

Longitudinal, Transverse and Diagonal Cracking

It is characterized by cracks that divide the slab into two or three pieces.
Possible Causes: A combination of repeated loads, curling and shrinkage stresses, poor construction techniques,
underlying pavement layers that are structurally inadequate for the applied load, or pavement overloads, usually
causes this type of distress.

Durability “D” Cracking

"D" cracking usually appears closely spaced, crescent-shaped cracks running in the vicinity of and parallel to a joint,
linear crack or free edges.
Possible Causes: The concrete's inability to withstand environmental factors, such as freeze-thaw cycles because of
the expansion of the large aggregate within the PCC slab.

Shrinkage Cracking
Shrinkage cracks are hairline cracks that are usually only a few cm long and do not extend across the entire slab.
They are formed during the setting and curing of the concrete and usually do not extend through the depth of the
slab. Typically, shrinkage cracks do not extend deeper than 6.4 mm from the slab surface and may be primarily in
the finished surface paste only.
Possible Causes: All PCC will shrink as it sets and cures, therefore shrinkage cracks are expected in rigid pavement
and provisions for their control are made. However, uncontrolled shrinkage cracking can indicate

Joint Distresses
Joint Seal Damage
Joint seal damage is any condition that enables incompressible materials (soil or rocks) to accumulate in the joints or
that allows infiltration of water.
Possible Causes: Accumulation of materials that prevents the slabs from expanding and may result in buckling,
shattering, or spalling.

Scaling, Map Cracking or Crazing

This distress refers to a network of shallow, fine, or hair-like cracks that extend only through the upper surface of
the concrete. Generally scaling is exhibit by delamination or disintegration of the slab surface to the depth of the
defect usually 6 to 13 mm. Map cracking or crazing usually results from improper curing and/or finishing of the
concrete and may lead to scaling of the surface. This distress is often noticeable with little or no surface
deterioration.
Possible Causes: Construction defects, material defects and environmental factors.
Spalling
Cracking, breaking, or chipping of joint/crack edges. Usually occurs within about 0.6 m of joint/crack edge on
airports and about 0.5 m on roads and generally angles downward to intersect the joint.

• Excessive stresses at the joint/crack caused by infiltration of incompressible materials and subsequent expansion.
• Disintegration of the PCC from freeze-thaw action or “D” cracking.
• Misalignment or corroded dowel.
• Heavy traffic loading.

Blowups
Blowups normally occur only in thin pavement sections, although blowups can also appear at drainage structures
(manholes, inlets, etc.). They generally occur during hot weather because of the additional thermal expansion of the
concrete. When expansive pressure cannot be relieved, a localized upward movement of the slab edges (buckling) or
shattering will occur in the vicinity of the joint.

Shattered Slab/Divided Slabs

A shattered slab is defined as a slab where intersecting cracks break up the slab into four or more pieces.
Possible Causes: This is primarily caused by overloading due to traffic and/or inadequate foundation support.

Punchout
This distress is a condition that often occurs in CRCP between two closely spaced cracks or between a crack and a
joint with usually 1.5 m wide. The Punchout can take many different shapes and forms, but it is usually defined by a
crack and a joint.
Possible Causes: This distress is caused by heavy repeated loads, inadequate slab thickness, loss of foundation
support.

Popouts
A popout is defined as a small piece of pavement that breaks loose from the concrete surface. Popouts usually range
from approximately 25 to 100 mm in diameter and 13 to 50 mm depth.
Possible Causes: This is caused by freeze-thaw action in combination with poor aggregates. Poor durability can be a
result of a number of items such as:

Pumping
The deflection of the slab when loaded may cause pumping, which is characterized by the ejection of water and
underlying material through the joints or cracks in a pavement. As the water is ejected, it carries particles of gravel,
sand, clay, or silt with it, resulting in a progressive loss of pavement support that can lead to cracking. Evidence of
pumping includes surface staining and base or subgrade material on the pavement close to joints or cracks.

Settlement or Faulting
Settlement or faulting is a difference in elevation at a joint or crack, usually the approach slab is higher than the
leave slab due to pumping, the most common faulting mechanism.
Possible Causes: Loss of load transfer device (key, dowel, etc.), or swelling soils, soft foundation, pumping or
eroding of material from under the slab and curling of the slab edges due to temperature and moisture changes.