Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 343 (2015) 77–82

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Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/nimb

Compton back scatter imaging for mild steel rebar detection and depth
characterization embedded in concrete
M. Margret a,⇑, M. Menaka b, B. Venkatraman a,b, S. Chandrasekaran a
a
Radiological Safety Division, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam 603102, India
b
Quality Assurance Division, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam 603102, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A novel non-destructive Compton scattering technique is described to ensure the feasibility, reliability
Received 4 July 2014 and applicability of detecting the reinforcing steel bar in concrete. The indigenously developed prototype
Received in revised form 21 October 2014 system presented in this paper is capable of detecting the reinforcement of varied diameters embedded in
Accepted 28 October 2014
the concrete and as well as up to 60 mm depth, with the aid of Caesium-137(137Cs) radioactive source and
Available online 1 December 2014
a high resolution HPGe detector. The technique could also detect the inhomogeneities present in the test
specimen by interpreting the material density variation caused due to the count rate. The experimental
Keywords:
results are correlated using established techniques such as radiography and rebar locators. The results
Compton scattering
Steel rebars
obtained from its application to locate the rebars are quite promising and also been successfully used
Concrete for reinforcement mapping. This method can be applied, especially when the intrusion is located under-
Gamma ray neath the cover of the concrete or considerably at larger depths and where two sided access is restricted.
HPGe detector Ó 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction in with good sensitivity. The main advantage of Compton backscat-

Non destructive testing and evaluation is an indispensable tool
being widely used for pre and in-service inspection including rem-
nant life assessment. From the 5 conventional methods in the
1950s, we have a host of advanced NDE methods today. Ionizing
radiation based methods such as radiography is widely used for
detection of volumetric defects such as voids and porosities in
welds and castings. In the field of condition management, radiog-
raphy has been used for defect and corrosion detection in bridges
etc. A major disadvantage of radiography is the need for access
from both sides. Compton backscattering of X-ray or gamma ray
photons is an advanced NDE technique based on the detection of
the scattered radiation. In this technique, a collimated beam of
X- or gamma ray photons interacts with the material and the scat-
tered radiation from a relatively small voxel volume is detected
using point by point or line by line or plane by plane scanning
[1]. This scattering basically depends on the electron density of
the scatterer and hence its mass density [2–4]. The information
obtained by this technique strongly relates to the material density
from point to point [5,6] thus making it possible to map variations
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mag@igcar.gov.in (M. Margret).
ter imaging is that it is non-invasive, non-contact and requires only
single sided access. This aspect of single sided access makes it an
attractive technique and has been explored for a variety of
applications.
One of the important parameters in assessment of aging struc-
tures is the detection of rebar including rebar corrosion. While a
number of NDE techniques such as ground penetrating radar [7],
electromagnetic [8], thermographic [9], eddy current [10], ultra-
sound [11], impact echo [12], radioactive and acoustic emission
[13] have evolved and are being applied, each have their own
advantages and limitations. Evaluation of steel rods in reinforced
concrete or rebars through Compton backscatter imaging has been
attempted in a limited way internationally. Esam et al. [14]
described the methodology for optimization of the Compton scat-
tering technique and presented the results that illustrate the capa-
bilities of the method to locate 21 mm steel rebar at a depth of
18 mm in concrete. Shiro Tuzi et al. [15,16] carried out their exper-
iments using Cobalt-57 and Barium-133 gamma source and
Sodium Iodide detector for the study of characteristics of rebars
in concrete structures. Boldo et al. [17] used Amercium-241 radio-
active source and high resolution CdTe semiconductor detector to
detect the steel reinforcement bars positioned at a depth of
20 mm from the concrete surface. Nares Chankow et al. [18] had
demonstrated the Differential Gamma-ray Scattering Technique
(DGST) to differentiate the steel rebars in the concrete mortar.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nimb.2014.10.029
0168-583X/Ó 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
78 M. Margret et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 343 (2015) 77–82
The maximum depth at which these bars were located in all these
cases was about 25 mm only. In thick walled structures such as the
reactor containment or biological shield in nuclear facilities, the
rods are likely to be embedded still deeper. At the authors lab, an
innovative dual purpose system has been indigenously designed
which can be used for Compton back scatter imaging as well as
for transmission and emission tomography. This paper focuses on
the feasibility of detection of steel rods/rebars at depths greater
than 25 mm in concrete. The experimental results are validated
through a well established NDE method such as radiography. The
successful detection opens up a plethora of practical application
possibilities of this unique and seldom used back scatter imaging
technique. A brief theoretical background of the physical principle
is given before elucidating the experimental part.
2. Physical basis of Compton backscatter imaging
X-rays and gamma rays interact with matter primarily by photo
electric effect, Compton scattering and pair production. In Compton
scattering which is most predominant in the energy range from
150 keV to 3 MeV, gamma rays interact with matter and transfer
its energy to the electrons in an atom. The photon energy shift is
due to the incoherent scattering of photons with virtually free
atomic electrons [19] (a process called the Compton effect) whose
electron binding energies are much less than the energy transferred
and the photons with reduced energy scatters at some angle to the
original direction of travel [20]. The gamma scattering technique is
so significant because the photon energy have a single-valued rela-
tionship to the scattering angle after single scattering event. The
Compton’s energy loss equation [21] relating the secondary photon
energy with that of scattering angle is given by the relation
E0
E¼
1 þ mE0c2 ð1  cos hÞ
0
where E is the scattered energy and E0 is the incident photon
energy, h is the scattering angle relative to the incident photon
direction and m0c2 is the rest mass energy of the electron (511 keV).
Under the above cited conditions, the angular distribution and
thus the relative probability that the photons being scattered in a
determined angle h per unit solid angle X is given by Klein–Nishina
differential scattering cross section [22] as
" # 
drKN ðhÞ r20 E2 E E0 2
¼ þ  sin h
dX 2 E20 E0 E
where r0 = 2.82  1015 m, is the classical electron radius. Eq. (2)
holds good when the photon energy is much larger than the binding
energy of the target electrons.
A simple sketch which explains the geometry for the detection
of Compton scattered photons is shown in Fig. 1. The incident
beam from a well collimated radioactive source travels through
the path P1, reaches the point S in the material and gets scattered
through a scattering angle h. The final signal originates from the
scattering or sensitive volume (defined as the intercept between
the beam profile and the solid angle delimited by the detector col-
limator) enters the detector through the path P2. The incident
beam attenuates from M to S, gets scattered at S and is again atten-
uated from S to N in its travel through exit path P2, before reaching
the detector. The resulting counts of the scattered photons, scat-
tered within a fixed solid angle DX subtended by the scattering
volume dV, reaching the detector [23] is given by
Z ! Z !
lðE0 Þ lðEÞ drKN ðhÞ
I ¼ n0 exp  qxi exp  qxs
p1 q p2 q dX
 DX Sðq; ZÞqe dV
Fig. 1. Compton scatter geometry.
where n0 is the incident photon flux, drdKNXðhÞ is the Klein–Nishina dif-
ferential cross section, S(q,Z) represents the incoherent scattering
function that accounts for electron binding energy effects and qe(= -
qNZ/A) is the average electron density inside the inspection volume
of the scattered sample. Eq. (3) can be modified as
drKN ðhÞ qNZ
I ¼ n0 bA1 bA2 DX Sðq; ZÞ dV ð4Þ
dX A
 R 
Here bA1 ¼ exp  p1 lðEq0 Þ qxi , is the primary beam exponential
 R 
attenuation factor and bA2 ¼ exp  p2 lðEÞ q qxs , is the scattered
beam exponential attenuation factor at distances xi and xS inside
ð1Þ
the material. For a narrow beam geometry and a definite incident
photon energy, the scattered intensity (I) is directly proportional
to the physical density (q) of the material to be investigated. Scat-
tering enables simultaneous collection of voxel-by-voxel informa-
tion along the path of the incident radiation. The larger the
difference between densities of the heterogeneous materials, the
greater is the difference of detected intensities from scattering.
Thus, by scanning the position of the scatter voxel, a density map
of the materials can be ascertained.
ð2Þ
3. Experimental design and measurements
An indigenously designed and developed system is used in the
present experimental work. The system basically consists of an iso-
topic gamma ray source, an object platform and a detector system.
A 137Cs radioactive source of activity 4.2Ci (155.4 GBq) is selected
for the present work. This isotope is preferred because of its
mono-energetic emission of 662 keV photons. A coaxial high purity
germanium (HPGe) detector with an energy resolution of 1.93 keV
(FWHM) at 1.33 MeV (60Co energy), relative efficiency of 45.8% (at
1.33 MeV) and a Peak-to-Compton ratio of 68:1 is used for detec-
tion of the scattered photons. The source and the detector are
housed in a lead enclosure and mounted separately on an auto-
mated PC/CNC controlled six axes system. The source and the
detector system can be moved tangentially and vertically with
the positional accuracy of ±50 microns. A source to test object dis-
tance is 77 cm and object to detector distance is 42 cm respec-
tively, with a scattering angle of 109° and is maintained
throughout during the course of the experiments.
The objects investigated are rectangular Concrete Masonry Uni-
t(CMU) of dimensions of 150 mm  100 mm  100 mm prepared
ð3Þ with a composition of 20% ordinary Portland cement, 40% sand,
40% aggregate(fine gravel and crushed lime stone) and an
 M. Margret et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 343 (2015) 77–82 79

Table 1
Radiographic parameters for imaging the concrete samples.

Parameters Voltage Current Exposure time Film SFD Technique

Details 180 kV 7 mA 1.40 min AGFA D7 800 mm Single wall single image

appropriate amount of water. Fe250 graded mild TMT rebar of REBAR

diameters 12 mm, 20 mm and 30 mm (IS 456:2000 standards) 2200
are inserted during the preparation of the concrete block. The rods
are positioned longitudinally at varying spatial distances and at 2000

GROSS COUNTS
different depths from the front end of the concrete. The specimen
1800
is positioned manually on the four axes system and a computer
controlled servo motors are used to move the specimen past the
1600
collimated source and detector. The four axes system could be dis-
placed with a minimum displacement of ±10 lm in three perpen- VOID
1400
dicular directions and ±0.25° for rotary stage. The pulses from the
detector are amplified using spectroscopic amplifier and processed
1200
through 8K channel pulse height analyzer. The four axes position-
ing control as well as the data acquisition and analysis are com- 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
pletely automated through software, developed for this study. SCANNING DISTANCE (mm)
The crucial system parameter of the back scatter studies is the
‘voxel or sensitive volume’, which basically depends on the source Fig. 2. Scattered intensity profile confirming the inclusions in the concrete.
and the detector collimation and their geometry. In this case, the
voxel is attained by collimating the source and the detector using
5 mm diameter lead collimator generating a voxel of 14 mm extent
performing a scan of region of interest. The scanning is carried
along the direction of probing. The detection of photons originating
out by sweeping past the 150 mm concrete brick across the
outside the voxel volume as a result of multiple scattering is con-
source–detector collimators and the scattered photons are col-
trolled using a soft collimation within a specified energy interval
lected using an energy window as dictated by the combination of
[24]. Spectrum of each voxel is recorded by moving the test spec-
the spatial resolution desired and the energy resolution of the
imen laterally and vertically across the source and the detector col-
detector.
limators, in steps of equal increments. The other way of scanning
The first set of experiments is performed with the inclusions
the specimen is by translating the radioactive source and the
like steel rebar and a void in the concrete and this is organized
detector as a combined assembly as required in the field applica-
to test out the feasibility and reliability of the prototype instru-
tions. The 244 keV scattered photons are recorded in the HPGe
ment for the detection of the defects in the specimen. Fig. 2 shows
detector for 1Ks to achieve high count rate and for attaining high
the scattered intensity profile at a depth of 20 mm from the surface
precision. The set of experiments conducted aims at the detection
of the sample. As the scanning progresses, from the left to the right
of the rebars, its orientation and estimating the spatial resolution
as seen in the graph, there exists a variation in the gross counts
of the reinforced inclusions embedded in the concrete.
from one extreme to the other extreme of the test object. The rea-
Radiography of the concrete samples is carried out using a Bal-
son is, as the radiation perceives the steel rebar, the scattered
teu 225 kV X-ray machine with a focal spot of 0.8 mm  0.8 mm.
counts reaching the detector attains a maximum value due to the
Single wall single image technique is used. To minimize unsharp-
sudden increase in the electron density of the material (den-
ness, a source to focal distance (SFD) of 800 mm is used. The radio-
sity = 7.9 gm/cc) as seen by the sensitive volume (as per Eq. (3)),
graphic parameters used for imaging the concrete samples are
whereas the counts reduces to a minimum due to the reduction
listed in Table 1. Sensitivity achieved in the radiographic images
in the electron density of the void indicating the confirmation of
is 2–2T and optical density in region of interest is in the range of
the existence of the void. The pattern followed in the formation
2.0–2.5. These radiographs were digitized using Film Digitizer
of the crest and the trough signifies the existence of the steel rod
(Model Array 2905HD) with a resolution of 50 microns. Appropri-
and void inclusions in the sample and the local maxima and min-
ate pre-image processing techniques are adopted to enhance the
ima disclose the exact location of the integrated material. The fall
image for accurate dimensional measurements.
of counts in the in-between points is mainly because of the scatter-
The real time visualization along with automatic data collection
ing volume intermingles either between the concrete and the steel
to locate rebars is performed by a rebar locator. It works with the
rebar or with concrete and void. The least count at the extremes
eddy current principle with pulse induction as the measuring
are contributed to the reason of scattering volume partly lying in
method. This meter is used to estimate the bar size with the prior
the concrete and as well as in air. The very same reinforced con-
knowledge of the cover depth of the concrete and vice versa. When
crete sample is radiographed using 180 kV X-ray machine. The dig-
the hand-held search unit is moved along the concrete surface, a
itized radiographs with a resolution of 50 lm are processed for the
beep sound indicates the existence of the rebar and the rebar size
detection of voids and steel rebar in the concrete. The inclusions
is exhibited in the display unit of the rebar locator instrument.
revealed by the radiography technique matches very well with
Rebar detectors are used on our experimental concrete specimens
those obtained by our non destructive testing system demonstrat-
for the practical judgments of the inclusions as drawn from our
ing that our system can be used for the detection of anomalies
method.
underneath the cover of the concrete.
The specimen with the same layout as mentioned elsewhere
4. Results and discussion with a pair of rods is translated step wise across the source–detec-
tor collimators to acquire the line scan data. Fig. 3a shows clearly
The inclusions and the anomalies within a sample can be exam- the existence of two steel rods at the location of 40 and 110 mm
ined by investigating the intensity of the scattered radiation by along the abscissa with a good spatial resolution. The experiment
80 M. Margret et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 343 (2015) 77–82

3200 (b)
3900 12, 20 & 30mm rebar
3000
2800 3800

GROSS COUNTS
GROSS COUNTS

2600
3700
2400
2200 3600
(a)
2000
3500
1800
1600 3400

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

SCANNING DISTANCE(mm) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
POSITION OF THE SAMPLE(mm)
Fig. 3. Indication of presence of pair of rods for different counting time. (a) 1000 s,
(b) 2000 s. Fig. 6. Detector response for the rods of different diameters sited at a depth of
10 mm.

708 mm

Fig. 4. Radiographic image of the rebars in the concrete.

is further resumed by increasing the counting time 1000 s more to
witness the presence of the inclusions (Fig. 3b). It is observed that
the contour followed for this case reflects the same features as in
the Fig. 3a, but the intensity of the scattered component has been
increased by 45%. The line profile from the radiographic image as
shown in Fig. 4 indicates the distance of separation of rebars as
708 mm, which coincides with the measurements made by our
method with a marginal error of only 1.1%. This analysis reveals
that our system can be used for the assured detection of the steel
reinforcement in the concrete.
For the successive detection of rebars of different diameters as
shown in Fig. 5, the sample is scanned across the direction of the
incident source beam. The back scattered signal of the sample with
three rods of diameter 12, 20 and 30 mm located at a depth of
10 mm is collected for a specified time interval in equal pace by
focusing the source and detector collimators for each voxel in the
region of interest. The pulse height spectrum is obtained and the
scattered counts registered at the region of interest are plotted
against the scanning distance as shown in Fig. 6. Analysis of the
Fig. 7. Radiographic images of the rebars with different diameters in the concrete.
graph depicts the existence of the reinforcement at the proper
location as conferred by the radiographic images (Fig. 7). The con-
firmation of the signature of the inclusions in the figures proves the
position sensitive capability of the Compton scattering to distin-
guish between the rods of various diameters embedded in the
concrete.
A series of scanning is also carried out at different depths (20–
60 mm) to explore the potential of the experimental set up present
in our laboratory. The counts profile of the scattered spectrum at
different depths for a single rod is divulged against the stepping
motion in Fig. 8. It is found from the graph, the presence of intru-
sions are prominently seen up to a depth of 40 mm at the scanning
position of 60 mm in the less dense matrix. As the scanning pro-
gresses to a deeper depth, the incident and scattered photons
attenuates to a larger degree, the counts registered at the detector
falls rapidly and hence the resolution of detection of rebars

Fig. 5. Front view and top view of the concrete sample (specimen) used for detection of rebars of different diameters (12, 20 and 30 mm).
 M. Margret et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 343 (2015) 77–82
3000
REBAR
2800
2600
2400 30 mm
GROSS COUNTS
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
0 20 40 60
SCANNING DISTANCE(mm)
Fig. 8. Scattered counts profile at different depths of the test specimen.
decreases. It is also evident from the same figure, at the target
depth over 60 mm, the intensity of the scattered counts remains
almost the same, with a little variation of counts at the region of
interest in all the scanning position implying that the detection
sensitivity of the system within the statistical limit can be
extended at a maximum of 60 mm with this experimental set up.
The feasibility of penetration of the gamma radiation, over the
extended depths (>60 mm) is possible in our experimental set
up, if the source to sample distance is minimized. The detailed
analysis of the elements present in the graph confirms the charac-
teristic behavior of the radiation with respect to the material den-
sity, mainly focusing on the region of interest with the aid of
sensitive volume, to infer the presence and depth of steel bar in
the concrete mortar.
A further attempt to establish the orientation of the steel inclu-
sions in the specimen has been carried on by placing the sample in
the test bed. A single rod with 12 mm diameter and 50 mm height
is inserted from the top portion of the concrete and a vertical scan-
ning is performed along the direction of the insertion. The pulse
height spectrum is recorded for every 10 mm step and the gross
counts retrieved from the region of interest are plotted against
the scanning distance (Fig. 9). The lower counts along the horizon-
tal co-ordinate indicates the presence of the low density mate-
rial(concrete) focused by the voxel volume and the region of the
saturated counts designate the upright position of the high dense
material(rebar) implanted in the concrete. The experimental evi-
dence is furthermore extended to promote the established fact
with 30 mm rod in the same layout. The only difference in the
trend followed with respect to the previous case is the reduction
of scattered intensity signal and the basis behind it, is due to the
3500 12 mm rebar
3000
30 mm rebar
GROSS COUNTS
2500
2000
1500
1000
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
SCANNING DISTANCE(mm)
Fig. 9. Vertical orientation of 12 and 30 mm rebar.
81
45
Rebar
40 Concrete
20 mm
COUNTS / energy bin
35
30
40 mm
25
50 mm 20
15
60 mm 10
5
80 100 230 235 240 245 250 255 260
ENERGY(KeV)
Fig. 10. Pulse height back scattered spectra for a voxel lying in the steel rebar and
concrete.
attenuation cum absorption of photons by 30 mm rebar. Since
the Compton scattering cross-section is susceptible to the density
of the target material, even the orientations of the inclusion are
easily detectable with high sensitivity.
The variation of counts that is recorded in the energy bins of the
pulse height spectrum for the rebar (12 mm diameter) and the con-
crete at the depth of 20 mm from the outlook of the sample is
shown in Fig. 10. The photon backscatter measurements exhibit
changes as the source beam scans across the test specimen. The
graph clearly illustrates the detector response, wherein a sharper
peak is seen for the rebar and a subdue peak for the concrete.
The increase of counts as in the case of rebar is almost 23% when
compared to concrete, for a precise voxel and this is due to the var-
iation in the material density during the scanning and supports the
previous arguments, leading to the indication and strong confirma-
tion of presence of steel rebar embedded in the concrete. The mea-
sured differences between the materials offer a promising hold for
the sensitivity of this technique for density spatial distribution
within the test object.
5. Conclusion
Compton back scatter imaging is a relatively new and promising
non-invasive NDE technology that is unique among ionizing radia-
tions methods by requiring access to only one side of an object. The
object is interrogated by a collimated gamma ray beam and the
collimated detector measure the Compton scatter signal produced
by each voxel. The acquired signal can be analyzed for evaluating
the density, thickness and inhomogeneities present in the material
as a function of position. In this paper, we have demonstrated its
feasibility for the detection, orientation and spatial distribution
of rebars in concrete. The depth of detection has been successfully
extended up to 60 mm and the results have been correlated with
the well established radiography method. While the present indig-
enously developed system is quite large, a miniature version would
pave the way for its application in the field. This would open up
possibilities for rebar corrosion detection, structural assessment
including conservation of heritage structures by precisely locating
inhomogeneities wherein prior knowledge of as-built drawings
does not exist to identify the location of reinforcement during
rehabilitation of the old buildings.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Shri. S.A.V. Satya Murty, Director, Electronics,
Instrumentation and Radiological Safety Group (EIRSG) and
Dr.P.R.Vasudeva Rao, Director, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic
82 M. Margret et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 343 (2015) 77–82
Research, Kalpakkam for their constant support and encourage-
ment. Authors are also thankful to Dr.R.Baskaran, Shri N.Raghu
and Quality Assurance Division colleagues for their support.
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