1.

Inverse Z-transform - Partial Fraction

1. Inverse Z-transform - Partial Fraction

Find the inverse Z-transform of

2z 2 + 2z
G(z) = 2
z + 2z − 3
1. Inverse Z-transform - Partial Fraction

Find the inverse Z-transform of

2z 2 + 2z
G(z) = 2
z + 2z − 3
G(z) 2z + 2
=
z (z + 3)(z − 1)
1. Inverse Z-transform - Partial Fraction

Find the inverse Z-transform of

2z 2 + 2z
G(z) = 2
z + 2z − 3
G(z) 2z + 2
=
z (z + 3)(z − 1)
A B
= +
z+3 z−1
1. Inverse Z-transform - Partial Fraction

Find the inverse Z-transform of

2z 2 + 2z
G(z) = 2
z + 2z − 3
G(z) 2z + 2
=
z (z + 3)(z − 1)
A B
= +
z+3 z−1
Multiply throughout by z + 3 and let z = −3 to get
1. Inverse Z-transform - Partial Fraction

Find the inverse Z-transform of

2z 2 + 2z
G(z) = 2
z + 2z − 3
G(z) 2z + 2
=
z (z + 3)(z − 1)
A B
= +
z+3 z−1
Multiply throughout by z + 3 and let z = −3 to get

2z + 2 
A=
z − 1 z=−3
1. Inverse Z-transform - Partial Fraction

Find the inverse Z-transform of

2z 2 + 2z
G(z) = 2
z + 2z − 3
G(z) 2z + 2
=
z (z + 3)(z − 1)
A B
= +
z+3 z−1
Multiply throughout by z + 3 and let z = −3 to get

2z + 2  −4
A=  = =1
z − 1 z=−3 −4
Digital Control 1 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
2. Inverse Z-transform - Partial Fraction
2. Inverse Z-transform - Partial Fraction

G(z) A B
= +
z z+3 z−1
2. Inverse Z-transform - Partial Fraction

G(z) A B
= +
z z+3 z−1
Multiply throughout by z − 1 and let z = 1
2. Inverse Z-transform - Partial Fraction

G(z) A B
= +
z z+3 z−1
Multiply throughout by z − 1 and let z = 1 to get
4
B= =1
4
2. Inverse Z-transform - Partial Fraction

G(z) A B
= +
z z+3 z−1
Multiply throughout by z − 1 and let z = 1 to get
4
B= =1
4
G(z) 1 1
= + |z| > 3
z z+3 z−1
2. Inverse Z-transform - Partial Fraction

G(z) A B
= +
z z+3 z−1
Multiply throughout by z − 1 and let z = 1 to get
4
B= =1
4
G(z) 1 1
= + |z| > 3
z z+3 z−1
z z
G(z) = + |z| > 3
z+3 z−1
2. Inverse Z-transform - Partial Fraction

G(z) A B
= +
z z+3 z−1
Multiply throughout by z − 1 and let z = 1 to get
4
B= =1
4
G(z) 1 1
= + |z| > 3
z z+3 z−1
z z
G(z) = + |z| > 3
z+3 z−1
↔ (−3)n1(n) + 1(n)
Digital Control 2 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
3. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles
3. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles

N (z)
G(z) =
(z − α)pD1(z)
3. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles

N (z)
G(z) =
(z − α)pD1(z)
α not a root of N (z) and D1(z)
3. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles

N (z)
G(z) =
(z − α)pD1(z)
α not a root of N (z) and D1(z)
A1 A2 Ap
G(z) = + + ··· + + G1(z)
z−α (z − α)2 (z − α)p
3. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles

N (z)
G(z) =
(z − α)pD1(z)
α not a root of N (z) and D1(z)
A1 A2 Ap
G(z) = + + ··· + + G1(z)
z−α (z − α)2 (z − α)p
G1(z) has poles corresponding to those of D1(z).
3. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles

N (z)
G(z) =
(z − α)pD1(z)
α not a root of N (z) and D1(z)
A1 A2 Ap
G(z) = + + ··· + + G1(z)
z−α (z − α)2 (z − α)p
G1(z) has poles corresponding to those of D1(z).
Multiply by (z − α)p
3. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles

N (z)
G(z) =
(z − α)pD1(z)
α not a root of N (z) and D1(z)
A1 A2 Ap
G(z) = + + ··· + + G1(z)
z−α (z − α)2 (z − α)p
G1(z) has poles corresponding to those of D1(z).
Multiply by (z − α)p
(z − α)pG(z) = A1(z − α)p−1 + A2(z − α)p−2 + · · ·
+ Ap−1(z − α) + Ap + G1(z)(z − α)p

Digital Control 3 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007

4. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles
4. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles

(z − α)pG(z) = A1(z − α)p−1 + A2(z − α)p−2 + · · ·

+ Ap−1(z − α) + Ap + G1(z)(z − α)p
4. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles

(z − α)pG(z) = A1(z − α)p−1 + A2(z − α)p−2 + · · ·

+ Ap−1(z − α) + Ap + G1(z)(z − α)p
Substituting z = α,
4. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles

(z − α)pG(z) = A1(z − α)p−1 + A2(z − α)p−2 + · · ·

+ Ap−1(z − α) + Ap + G1(z)(z − α)p
Substituting z = α,
Ap = (z − α)pG(z)|z=α
4. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles

(z − α)pG(z) = A1(z − α)p−1 + A2(z − α)p−2 + · · ·

+ Ap−1(z − α) + Ap + G1(z)(z − α)p
Substituting z = α,
Ap = (z − α)pG(z)|z=α
Differentiate and let z = α:
4. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles

(z − α)pG(z) = A1(z − α)p−1 + A2(z − α)p−2 + · · ·

+ Ap−1(z − α) + Ap + G1(z)(z − α)p
Substituting z = α,
Ap = (z − α)pG(z)|z=α
Differentiate and let z = α:
d
Ap−1 = (z − α)pG(z)|z=α
dz
4. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles

(z − α)pG(z) = A1(z − α)p−1 + A2(z − α)p−2 + · · ·

+ Ap−1(z − α) + Ap + G1(z)(z − α)p
Substituting z = α,
Ap = (z − α)pG(z)|z=α
Differentiate and let z = α:
d
Ap−1 = (z − α)pG(z)|z=α
dz
Continuing,
4. Partial Fraction - Repeated Poles

(z − α)pG(z) = A1(z − α)p−1 + A2(z − α)p−2 + · · ·

+ Ap−1(z − α) + Ap + G1(z)(z − α)p
Substituting z = α,
Ap = (z − α)pG(z)|z=α
Differentiate and let z = α:
d
Ap−1 = (z − α)pG(z)|z=α
dz
1 dp−1 p
Continuing, A1 = (z − α) G(z)|z=α
(p − 1)! dz p−1

Digital Control 4 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007

5. Repeated Poles - an Example
5. Repeated Poles - an Example

11z 2 − 15z + 6
G(z) = =
(z − 2)(z − 1)2
5. Repeated Poles - an Example

11z 2 − 15z + 6 A1 A2 B
G(z) = = + +
(z − 2)(z − 1)2 z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
5. Repeated Poles - an Example

11z 2 − 15z + 6 A1 A2 B
G(z) = = + +
(z − 2)(z − 1)2 z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
× (z − 2),
5. Repeated Poles - an Example

11z 2 − 15z + 6 A1 A2 B
G(z) = = + +
(z − 2)(z − 1)2 z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
× (z − 2), let z = 2, to get B = 20.
5. Repeated Poles - an Example

11z 2 − 15z + 6 A1 A2 B
G(z) = = + +
(z − 2)(z − 1)2 z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
× (z − 2), let z = 2, to get B = 20. × (z − 1)2,
5. Repeated Poles - an Example

11z 2 − 15z + 6 A1 A2 B
G(z) = = + +
(z − 2)(z − 1)2 z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
× (z − 2), let z = 2, to get B = 20. × (z − 1)2,
11z 2 − 15z + 6 (z − 1)2
= A1(z − 1) + A2 + B
z−2 z−2
5. Repeated Poles - an Example

11z 2 − 15z + 6 A1 A2 B
G(z) = = + +
(z − 2)(z − 1)2 z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
× (z − 2), let z = 2, to get B = 20. × (z − 1)2,
11z 2 − 15z + 6 (z − 1)2
= A1(z − 1) + A2 + B
z−2 z−2
With z = 1, get A2 = −2.
5. Repeated Poles - an Example

11z 2 − 15z + 6 A1 A2 B
G(z) = = + +
(z − 2)(z − 1)2 z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
× (z − 2), let z = 2, to get B = 20. × (z − 1)2,
11z 2 − 15z + 6 (z − 1)2
= A1(z − 1) + A2 + B
z−2 z−2
With z = 1, get A2 = −2.
Differentiating with respect to z and with z = 1,
5. Repeated Poles - an Example

11z 2 − 15z + 6 A1 A2 B
G(z) = = + +
(z − 2)(z − 1)2 z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
× (z − 2), let z = 2, to get B = 20. × (z − 1)2,
11z 2 − 15z + 6 (z − 1)2
= A1(z − 1) + A2 + B
z−2 z−2
With z = 1, get A2 = −2.
Differentiating with respect to z and with z = 1,

A1 =
5. Repeated Poles - an Example

11z 2 − 15z + 6 A1 A2 B
G(z) = = + +
(z − 2)(z − 1)2 z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
× (z − 2), let z = 2, to get B = 20. × (z − 1)2,
11z 2 − 15z + 6 (z − 1)2
= A1(z − 1) + A2 + B
z−2 z−2
With z = 1, get A2 = −2.
Differentiating with respect to z and with z = 1,

(z − 2)(22z − 15) − (11z − 15z + 6) 
2
A1 = 
(z − 2)2 z=1
5. Repeated Poles - an Example

11z 2 − 15z + 6 A1 A2 B
G(z) = = + +
(z − 2)(z − 1)2 z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
× (z − 2), let z = 2, to get B = 20. × (z − 1)2,
11z 2 − 15z + 6 (z − 1)2
= A1(z − 1) + A2 + B
z−2 z−2
With z = 1, get A2 = −2.
Differentiating with respect to z and with z = 1,

(z − 2)(22z − 15) − (11z − 15z + 6) 
2
A1 =  = −9
(z − 2) 2
z=1
5. Repeated Poles - an Example

11z 2 − 15z + 6 A1 A2 B
G(z) = = + +
(z − 2)(z − 1)2 z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
× (z − 2), let z = 2, to get B = 20. × (z − 1)2,
11z 2 − 15z + 6 (z − 1)2
= A1(z − 1) + A2 + B
z−2 z−2
With z = 1, get A2 = −2.
Differentiating with respect to z and with z = 1,

(z − 2)(22z − 15) − (11z − 15z + 6)  2
A1 =  = −9
(z − 2) 2
z=1
9 2 20
G(z) = − − +
z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
Digital Control 5 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
6. Important Result from Differentiation
6. Important Result from Differentiation

Problem 4.9 in Text:

6. Important Result from Differentiation

Problem 4.9 in Text: Consider

n z
1(n)a ↔
z−a
6. Important Result from Differentiation

Problem 4.9 in Text: Consider

X∞
z  −1
1(n)an ↔ = anz −n, az  < 1
z−a n=0
6. Important Result from Differentiation

Problem 4.9 in Text: Consider

X∞
z  −1
1(n)an ↔ = anz −n, az  < 1
z−a n=0

Differentiating with respect to a,

6. Important Result from Differentiation

Problem 4.9 in Text: Consider

X∞
z  −1
1(n)an ↔ = anz −n, az  < 1
z−a n=0

Differentiating with respect to a,

z
(z − a)2
6. Important Result from Differentiation

Problem 4.9 in Text: Consider

X∞
z  −1
1(n)an ↔ = anz −n, az  < 1
z−a n=0

Differentiating with respect to a,

∞
X
z
= nan−1z −n
(z − a)2 n=0
6. Important Result from Differentiation

Problem 4.9 in Text: Consider

X∞
z  −1
1(n)an ↔ = anz −n, az  < 1
z−a n=0

Differentiating with respect to a,

∞
X
z n−1 −n n−1 z
= na z , na 1(n) ↔
(z − a)2 n=0
(z − a)2
6. Important Result from Differentiation

Problem 4.9 in Text: Consider

X∞
z  −1
1(n)an ↔ = anz −n, az  < 1
z−a n=0

Differentiating with respect to a,

∞
X
z n−1 −n n−1 z
= na z , na 1(n) ↔
(z − a)2 n=0
(z − a)2
Substituting a = 1, can obtain the Z-transform of n:
6. Important Result from Differentiation

Problem 4.9 in Text: Consider

X∞
z  −1
1(n)an ↔ = anz −n, az  < 1
z−a n=0

Differentiating with respect to a,

∞
X
z n−1 −n n−1 z
= na z , na 1(n) ↔
(z − a)2 n=0
(z − a)2
Substituting a = 1, can obtain the Z-transform of n:
z
n1(n) ↔
(z − 1)2
6. Important Result from Differentiation

Problem 4.9 in Text: Consider

X∞
z  −1
1(n)an ↔ = anz −n, az  < 1
z−a n=0

Differentiating with respect to a,

∞
X
z n−1 −n n−1 z
= na z , na 1(n) ↔
(z − a)2 n=0
(z − a)2
Substituting a = 1, can obtain the Z-transform of n:
z
n1(n) ↔
(z − 1)2
Through further differentiation,
6. Important Result from Differentiation

Problem 4.9 in Text: Consider

X∞
z  −1
1(n)an ↔ = anz −n, az  < 1
z−a n=0

Differentiating with respect to a,

∞
X
z n−1 −n n−1 z
= na z , na 1(n) ↔
(z − a)2 n=0
(z − a)2
Substituting a = 1, can obtain the Z-transform of n:
z
n1(n) ↔
(z − 1)2
Through further differentiation, can derive Z-transforms of n2,
n3, etc.
Digital Control 6 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
7. Repeated Poles - an Example
7. Repeated Poles - an Example

9 2 20
G(z) = − − +
z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
7. Repeated Poles - an Example

9 2 20
G(z) = − − +
z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
9z 2z 20z
zG(z) = − − +
z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
7. Repeated Poles - an Example

9 2 20
G(z) = − − +
z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
9z 2z 20z
zG(z) = − − +
z−1 (z − 1)2
z−2
↔ (−9 − 2n + 20 × 2n)1(n)
7. Repeated Poles - an Example

9 2 20
G(z) = − − +
z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
9z 2z 20z
zG(z) = − − +
z−1 (z − 1)2
z−2
↔ (−9 − 2n + 20 × 2n)1(n)
Use shifting theorem:
G(z)
7. Repeated Poles - an Example

9 2 20
G(z) = − − +
z−1 (z − 1)2 z−2
9z 2z 20z
zG(z) = − − +
z−1 (z − 1)2
z−2
↔ (−9 − 2n + 20 × 2n)1(n)
Use shifting theorem:
G(z) ↔ (−9 − 2(n − 1) + 20 × 2n−1)1(n − 1)

Digital Control 7 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007

8. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals
8. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

8. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ),
8. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ), − ∞ < t < ∞
8. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ), − ∞ < t < ∞
A: amplitude
8. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ), − ∞ < t < ∞
A: amplitude
Ω: frequency in rad/s
8. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ), − ∞ < t < ∞
A: amplitude
Ω: frequency in rad/s
θ: phase in rad
8. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ), − ∞ < t < ∞
A: amplitude
Ω: frequency in rad/s
θ: phase in rad
F : frequency in cycles/s or Hertz
Ω = 2πF
8. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ), − ∞ < t < ∞
A: amplitude
Ω: frequency in rad/s
θ: phase in rad
F : frequency in cycles/s or Hertz
Ω = 2πF
1
Tp =
F
Digital Control 8 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
9. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals
9. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

9. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ),
9. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ), − ∞ < t < ∞
9. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ), − ∞ < t < ∞
With F fixed, periodic with period Tp
9. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ), − ∞ < t < ∞
With F fixed, periodic with period Tp

ua[t + Tp]
9. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ), − ∞ < t < ∞
With F fixed, periodic with period Tp
1
ua[t + Tp] = A cos (2πF (t + ) + θ)
F
9. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ), − ∞ < t < ∞
With F fixed, periodic with period Tp
1
ua[t + Tp] = A cos (2πF (t + ) + θ)
F
= A cos (2π + 2πF t + θ)
9. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ), − ∞ < t < ∞
With F fixed, periodic with period Tp
1
ua[t + Tp] = A cos (2πF (t + ) + θ)
F
= A cos (2π + 2πF t + θ)
= A cos (2πF t + θ)
9. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

ua(t) = A cos (Ωt + θ)

ua(t) = A cos (2πF t + θ), − ∞ < t < ∞
With F fixed, periodic with period Tp
1
ua[t + Tp] = A cos (2πF (t + ) + θ)
F
= A cos (2π + 2πF t + θ)
= A cos (2πF t + θ) = ua[t]

Digital Control 9 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007

10. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals
10. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

Cont. signals with different frequencies are different

10. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

Cont. signals with different frequencies are different

 
t
u1 = cos 2π ,
8
10. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

Cont. signals with different frequencies are different

   
t 7t
u1 = cos 2π , u2 = cos 2π
8 8
10. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

Cont. signals with different frequencies are different

   
t 7t
u1 = cos 2π , u2 = cos 2π
8 8
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
coswt

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
t
10. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

Cont. signals with different frequencies are different

   
t 7t
u1 = cos 2π , u2 = cos 2π
8 8
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
coswt

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
t

Different wave forms for different frequencies.

10. Properties of Cont. Time Sinusoidal Signals

Cont. signals with different frequencies are different

   
t 7t
u1 = cos 2π , u2 = cos 2π
8 8
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
coswt

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
t

Different wave forms for different frequencies.

Can increase f all the way to ∞ or decrease to 0.
Digital Control 10 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
11. Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signals
11. Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signals

u(n) = A cos (wn + θ), −∞ < n < ∞

11. Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signals

u(n) = A cos (wn + θ), −∞ < n < ∞

w = 2πf
11. Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signals

u(n) = A cos (wn + θ), −∞ < n < ∞

w = 2πf
n integer variable, sample number
11. Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signals

u(n) = A cos (wn + θ), −∞ < n < ∞

w = 2πf
n integer variable, sample number
A amplitude of the sinusoid
11. Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signals

u(n) = A cos (wn + θ), −∞ < n < ∞

w = 2πf
n integer variable, sample number
A amplitude of the sinusoid
w frequency in radians per sample
11. Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signals

u(n) = A cos (wn + θ), −∞ < n < ∞

w = 2πf
n integer variable, sample number
A amplitude of the sinusoid
w frequency in radians per sample
θ phase in radians.
11. Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signals

u(n) = A cos (wn + θ), −∞ < n < ∞

w = 2πf
n integer variable, sample number
A amplitude of the sinusoid
w frequency in radians per sample
θ phase in radians.
f normalized frequency, cycles/sample

Digital Control 11 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007

12. Discrete Time Sinusoids - Identical Signals
12. Discrete Time Sinusoids - Identical Signals

Discrete time sinusoids whose frequencies are sepa-

rated by integer multiple of 2π are identical, i.e.,
cos ((w0 + 2π)n + θ) = cos (w0n + θ), ∀n
12. Discrete Time Sinusoids - Identical Signals

Discrete time sinusoids whose frequencies are sepa-

rated by integer multiple of 2π are identical, i.e.,
cos ((w0 + 2π)n + θ) = cos (w0n + θ), ∀n
• All sinusoidal sequences of the form,
12. Discrete Time Sinusoids - Identical Signals

Discrete time sinusoids whose frequencies are sepa-

rated by integer multiple of 2π are identical, i.e.,
cos ((w0 + 2π)n + θ) = cos (w0n + θ), ∀n
• All sinusoidal sequences of the form,
uk (n) = A cos (wk n + θ),
12. Discrete Time Sinusoids - Identical Signals

Discrete time sinusoids whose frequencies are sepa-

rated by integer multiple of 2π are identical, i.e.,
cos ((w0 + 2π)n + θ) = cos (w0n + θ), ∀n
• All sinusoidal sequences of the form,
uk (n) = A cos (wk n + θ),
wk = w0 + 2kπ,
12. Discrete Time Sinusoids - Identical Signals

Discrete time sinusoids whose frequencies are sepa-

rated by integer multiple of 2π are identical, i.e.,
cos ((w0 + 2π)n + θ) = cos (w0n + θ), ∀n
• All sinusoidal sequences of the form,
uk (n) = A cos (wk n + θ),
wk = w0 + 2kπ, −π < w0 < π,
12. Discrete Time Sinusoids - Identical Signals

Discrete time sinusoids whose frequencies are sepa-

rated by integer multiple of 2π are identical, i.e.,
cos ((w0 + 2π)n + θ) = cos (w0n + θ), ∀n
• All sinusoidal sequences of the form,
uk (n) = A cos (wk n + θ),
wk = w0 + 2kπ, −π < w0 < π,
are indistinguishable or identical.
12. Discrete Time Sinusoids - Identical Signals

Discrete time sinusoids whose frequencies are sepa-

rated by integer multiple of 2π are identical, i.e.,
cos ((w0 + 2π)n + θ) = cos (w0n + θ), ∀n
• All sinusoidal sequences of the form,
uk (n) = A cos (wk n + θ),
wk = w0 + 2kπ, −π < w0 < π,
are indistinguishable or identical.
• Only sinusoids in −π < w0 < π are different
12. Discrete Time Sinusoids - Identical Signals

Discrete time sinusoids whose frequencies are sepa-

rated by integer multiple of 2π are identical, i.e.,
cos ((w0 + 2π)n + θ) = cos (w0n + θ), ∀n
• All sinusoidal sequences of the form,
uk (n) = A cos (wk n + θ),
wk = w0 + 2kπ, −π < w0 < π,
are indistinguishable or identical.
• Only sinusoids in −π < w0 < π are different
1 1
−π < w0 < π or − < f0 <
2 2
Digital Control 12 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
13. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries
13. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

Let analog signal ua[t] have a frequency of F Hz

13. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

Let analog signal ua[t] have a frequency of F Hz

ua[t] = A cos(2πF t + θ)
13. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

Let analog signal ua[t] have a frequency of F Hz

ua[t] = A cos(2πF t + θ)
Uniform sampling rate (Ts s) or frequency (Fs Hz)
13. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

Let analog signal ua[t] have a frequency of F Hz

ua[t] = A cos(2πF t + θ)
Uniform sampling rate (Ts s) or frequency (Fs Hz)
n
t = nTs =
Fs
13. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

Let analog signal ua[t] have a frequency of F Hz

ua[t] = A cos(2πF t + θ)
Uniform sampling rate (Ts s) or frequency (Fs Hz)
n
t = nTs =
Fs
u(n) = ua[nTs] − ∞ < n < ∞
13. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

Let analog signal ua[t] have a frequency of F Hz

ua[t] = A cos(2πF t + θ)
Uniform sampling rate (Ts s) or frequency (Fs Hz)
n
t = nTs =
Fs
u(n) = ua[nTs] − ∞ < n < ∞
= A cos (2πF Tsn + θ)
13. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

Let analog signal ua[t] have a frequency of F Hz

ua[t] = A cos(2πF t + θ)
Uniform sampling rate (Ts s) or frequency (Fs Hz)
n
t = nTs =
Fs
u(n) = ua[nTs] − ∞ < n < ∞
= A cos (2πF Tsn + θ)
 
F
= A cos 2π n + θ
Fs
13. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

Let analog signal ua[t] have a frequency of F Hz

ua[t] = A cos(2πF t + θ)
Uniform sampling rate (Ts s) or frequency (Fs Hz)
n
t = nTs =
Fs
u(n) = ua[nTs] − ∞ < n < ∞
= A cos (2πF Tsn + θ)
 
F
= A cos 2π n + θ
Fs
4
= A cos(2πf n + θ)
Digital Control 13 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
14. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries
14. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

In our standard notation,

u(n) = A cos (2πf n + θ)
14. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

In our standard notation,

u(n) = A cos (2πf n + θ)
It follows that
F
f =
Fs
14. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

In our standard notation,

u(n) = A cos (2πf n + θ)
It follows that
F Ω
f = w= = ΩTs
Fs Fs
14. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

In our standard notation,

u(n) = A cos (2πf n + θ)
It follows that
F Ω
f = w= = ΩTs
Fs Fs
Reason to call f normalized frequency, cycles/sample.
14. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

In our standard notation,

u(n) = A cos (2πf n + θ)
It follows that
F Ω
f = w= = ΩTs
Fs Fs
Reason to call f normalized frequency, cycles/sample.
Apply the uniqueness condition for sampled signals
14. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

In our standard notation,

u(n) = A cos (2πf n + θ)
It follows that
F Ω
f = w= = ΩTs
Fs Fs
Reason to call f normalized frequency, cycles/sample.
Apply the uniqueness condition for sampled signals
1 1
− <f <
2 2
14. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

In our standard notation,

u(n) = A cos (2πf n + θ)
It follows that
F Ω
f = w= = ΩTs
Fs Fs
Reason to call f normalized frequency, cycles/sample.
Apply the uniqueness condition for sampled signals
1 1
− <f < −π < w < π
2 2
14. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

In our standard notation,

u(n) = A cos (2πf n + θ)
It follows that
F Ω
f = w= = ΩTs
Fs Fs
Reason to call f normalized frequency, cycles/sample.
Apply the uniqueness condition for sampled signals
1 1
− <f < −π < w < π
2 2
Fs
Fmax =
2
14. Sampling a Cont. Time Signal - Preliminaries

In our standard notation,

u(n) = A cos (2πf n + θ)
It follows that
F Ω
f = w= = ΩTs
Fs Fs
Reason to call f normalized frequency, cycles/sample.
Apply the uniqueness condition for sampled signals
1 1
− <f < −π < w < π
2 2
Fs π
Fmax = Ωmax = 2πFmax = πFs =
2 Ts
Digital Control 14 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
15. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias
15. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

• As w0 ↑, freq. of oscillation ↑, reaches maximum

at w0 = π
15. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

• As w0 ↑, freq. of oscillation ↑, reaches maximum

at w0 = π
• What if w0 > π?
15. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

• As w0 ↑, freq. of oscillation ↑, reaches maximum

at w0 = π
• What if w0 > π?

w1 = w0
15. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

• As w0 ↑, freq. of oscillation ↑, reaches maximum

at w0 = π
• What if w0 > π?

w1 = w0
w2 = 2π − w0
15. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

• As w0 ↑, freq. of oscillation ↑, reaches maximum

at w0 = π
• What if w0 > π?

w1 = w0
w2 = 2π − w0
u1(n) = A cos w1n
15. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

• As w0 ↑, freq. of oscillation ↑, reaches maximum

at w0 = π
• What if w0 > π?

w1 = w0
w2 = 2π − w0
u1(n) = A cos w1n = A cos w0n
15. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

• As w0 ↑, freq. of oscillation ↑, reaches maximum

at w0 = π
• What if w0 > π?

w1 = w0
w2 = 2π − w0
u1(n) = A cos w1n = A cos w0n
u2(n) = A cos w2n
15. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

• As w0 ↑, freq. of oscillation ↑, reaches maximum

at w0 = π
• What if w0 > π?

w1 = w0
w2 = 2π − w0
u1(n) = A cos w1n = A cos w0n
u2(n) = A cos w2n = A cos(2π − w0)n
15. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

• As w0 ↑, freq. of oscillation ↑, reaches maximum

at w0 = π
• What if w0 > π?

w1 = w0
w2 = 2π − w0
u1(n) = A cos w1n = A cos w0n
u2(n) = A cos w2n = A cos(2π − w0)n
= A cos w0n
15. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

• As w0 ↑, freq. of oscillation ↑, reaches maximum

at w0 = π
• What if w0 > π?

w1 = w0
w2 = 2π − w0
u1(n) = A cos w1n = A cos w0n
u2(n) = A cos w2n = A cos(2π − w0)n
= A cos w0n = u1(n)
15. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

• As w0 ↑, freq. of oscillation ↑, reaches maximum

at w0 = π
• What if w0 > π?

w1 = w0
w2 = 2π − w0
u1(n) = A cos w1n = A cos w0n
u2(n) = A cos w2n = A cos(2π − w0)n
= A cos w0n = u1(n)
w2 is an alias of w1
Digital Control 15 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
16. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias
16. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

t
u1[t] = cos (2π ),
8
16. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

t 7t
u1[t] = cos (2π ), u2[t] = cos (2π ),
8 8
16. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

t 7t
u1[t] = cos (2π ), u2[t] = cos (2π ), Ts = 1
8 8
16. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

t 7t
u1[t] = cos (2π ), u2[t] = cos (2π ), Ts = 1
8 8
7n
u2(n) = cos (2π )
8
16. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

t 7t
u1[t] = cos (2π ), u2[t] = cos (2π ), Ts = 1
8 8
7n 1
u2(n) = cos (2π ) = cos 2π(1 − )n
8 8
16. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

t 7t
u1[t] = cos (2π ), u2[t] = cos (2π ), Ts = 1
8 8
7n 1
u2(n) = cos (2π ) = cos 2π(1 − )n
8 8
2π
= cos (2π − )n
8
16. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

t 7t
u1[t] = cos (2π ), u2[t] = cos (2π ), Ts = 1
8 8
7n 1
u2(n) = cos (2π ) = cos 2π(1 − )n
8 8
2π 2πn
= cos (2π − )n = cos ( )
8 8
16. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

t 7t
u1[t] = cos (2π ), u2[t] = cos (2π ), Ts = 1
8 8
7n 1
u2(n) = cos (2π ) = cos 2π(1 − )n
8 8
2π 2πn
= cos (2π − )n = cos ( ) = u1(n)
8 8
16. Properties of Discrete Time Sinusoids - Alias

t 7t
u1[t] = cos (2π ), u2[t] = cos (2π ), Ts = 1
8 8
7n 1
u2(n) = cos (2π ) = cos 2π(1 − )n
8 8
2π 2πn
= cos (2π − )n = cos ( ) = u1(n)
8 8
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
coswt

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
t

Digital Control 16 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007

17. Fourier Transform of Aperiodic Signals
17. Fourier Transform of Aperiodic Signals

Z ∞
X(F ) = x(t)e−j2πF tdt
Z−∞
∞
x(t) = X(F )ej2πF tdF
−∞
If we let radian frequency Ω = 2πF
Z ∞
1
x(t) = X[Ω]ejΩtdΩ,
2π −∞
17. Fourier Transform of Aperiodic Signals

Z ∞
X(F ) = x(t)e−j2πF tdt
Z−∞
∞
x(t) = X(F )ej2πF tdF
−∞
If we let radian frequency Ω = 2πF
Z ∞
1
x(t) = X[Ω]ejΩtdΩ,
2π −∞
Z ∞
X[Ω] = x(t)e−jΩtdt
−∞
17. Fourier Transform of Aperiodic Signals

Z ∞
X(F ) = x(t)e−j2πF tdt
Z−∞
∞
x(t) = X(F )ej2πF tdF
−∞
If we let radian frequency Ω = 2πF
Z ∞
1
x(t) = X[Ω]ejΩtdΩ,
2π −∞
Z ∞
X[Ω] = x(t)e−jΩtdt
−∞
x(t), X[Ω] are Fourier Transform Pair
Digital Control 17 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
18. Frequency Response
18. Frequency Response

Apply u(n) = ejwn to g(n) and obtain output y:

18. Frequency Response

Apply u(n) = ejwn to g(n) and obtain output y:

y(n) = g(n) ∗ u(n)

18. Frequency Response

Apply u(n) = ejwn to g(n) and obtain output y:

∞
X
y(n) = g(n) ∗ u(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
18. Frequency Response

Apply u(n) = ejwn to g(n) and obtain output y:

∞
X
y(n) = g(n) ∗ u(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
∞
X
= g(k)ejw(n−k)
k=−∞
18. Frequency Response

Apply u(n) = ejwn to g(n) and obtain output y:

∞
X
y(n) = g(n) ∗ u(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
∞
X ∞
X
= g(k)ejw(n−k) = ejwn g(k)e−jwk
k=−∞ k=−∞
18. Frequency Response

Apply u(n) = ejwn to g(n) and obtain output y:

∞
X
y(n) = g(n) ∗ u(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
∞
X ∞
X
= g(k)ejw(n−k) = ejwn g(k)e−jwk
k=−∞ k=−∞

Define Discrete Time Fourier Transform

18. Frequency Response

Apply u(n) = ejwn to g(n) and obtain output y:

∞
X
y(n) = g(n) ∗ u(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
∞
X ∞
X
= g(k)ejw(n−k) = ejwn g(k)e−jwk
k=−∞ k=−∞

Define Discrete Time Fourier Transform

∞
X
4
G(ejw ) = g(k)e−jwk
k=−∞
18. Frequency Response

Apply u(n) = ejwn to g(n) and obtain output y:

∞
X
y(n) = g(n) ∗ u(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
∞
X ∞
X
= g(k)ejw(n−k) = ejwn g(k)e−jwk
k=−∞ k=−∞

Define Discrete Time Fourier Transform


∞ ∞ 
4 X X 
−k 
G(ejw ) = g(k)e−jwk = g(k)z 
k=−∞ k=−∞ 
z=ejw
18. Frequency Response

Apply u(n) = ejwn to g(n) and obtain output y:

∞
X
y(n) = g(n) ∗ u(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
∞
X ∞
X
= g(k)ejw(n−k) = ejwn g(k)e−jwk
k=−∞ k=−∞

Define Discrete Time Fourier Transform


∞ ∞ 
4 X X 
−k 
G(ejw ) = g(k)e−jwk = g(k)z 
k=−∞ k=−∞ 
z=ejw
= G(z)|z=ejw
18. Frequency Response

Apply u(n) = ejwn to g(n) and obtain output y:

∞
X
y(n) = g(n) ∗ u(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
∞
X ∞
X
= g(k)ejw(n−k) = ejwn g(k)e−jwk
k=−∞ k=−∞

Define Discrete Time Fourier Transform


∞ ∞ 
4 X X 
−k 
G(ejw ) = g(k)e−jwk = g(k)z 
k=−∞ k=−∞ 
z=ejw
= G(z)|z=ejw
Provided the sequence converges absolutely
Digital Control 18 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
19. Frequency Response
19. Frequency Response

∞
X
y(n) = ejwn g(k)e−jwk
k=−∞
19. Frequency Response

∞
X
y(n) = ejwn g(k)e−jwk = ejwnG(ejw )
k=−∞
19. Frequency Response

∞
X
y(n) = ejwn g(k)e−jwk = ejwnG(ejw )
k=−∞

Write in polar coordinates: G(ejw ) = |G(ejw )|ejϕ - ϕ is

phase angle:
y(n) = ejwn|G(ejw )|ejϕ
19. Frequency Response

∞
X
y(n) = ejwn g(k)e−jwk = ejwnG(ejw )
k=−∞

Write in polar coordinates: G(ejw ) = |G(ejw )|ejϕ - ϕ is

phase angle:
y(n) = ejwn|G(ejw )|ejϕ = |G(ejwn)|ej(wn+ϕ)
19. Frequency Response

∞
X
y(n) = ejwn g(k)e−jwk = ejwnG(ejw )
k=−∞

Write in polar coordinates: G(ejw ) = |G(ejw )|ejϕ - ϕ is

phase angle:
y(n) = ejwn|G(ejw )|ejϕ = |G(ejwn)|ej(wn+ϕ)
1. Input is sinusoid ⇒ output also is a sinusoid with following
properties:
19. Frequency Response

∞
X
y(n) = ejwn g(k)e−jwk = ejwnG(ejw )
k=−∞

Write in polar coordinates: G(ejw ) = |G(ejw )|ejϕ - ϕ is

phase angle:
y(n) = ejwn|G(ejw )|ejϕ = |G(ejwn)|ej(wn+ϕ)
1. Input is sinusoid ⇒ output also is a sinusoid with following
properties:
• Output amplitude gets multiplied by the magnitude of
G(ejw )
19. Frequency Response

∞
X
y(n) = ejwn g(k)e−jwk = ejwnG(ejw )
k=−∞

Write in polar coordinates: G(ejw ) = |G(ejw )|ejϕ - ϕ is

phase angle:
y(n) = ejwn|G(ejw )|ejϕ = |G(ejwn)|ej(wn+ϕ)
1. Input is sinusoid ⇒ output also is a sinusoid with following
properties:
• Output amplitude gets multiplied by the magnitude of
G(ejw )
• Output sinusoid shifts by ϕ with respect to input
19. Frequency Response

∞
X
y(n) = ejwn g(k)e−jwk = ejwnG(ejw )
k=−∞

Write in polar coordinates: G(ejw ) = |G(ejw )|ejϕ - ϕ is

phase angle:
y(n) = ejwn|G(ejw )|ejϕ = |G(ejwn)|ej(wn+ϕ)
1. Input is sinusoid ⇒ output also is a sinusoid with following
properties:
• Output amplitude gets multiplied by the magnitude of
G(ejw )
• Output sinusoid shifts by ϕ with respect to input
Digital Control 19 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
2. At ω where |G(ejw )| is large, the sinusoid gets amplified
2. At ω where |G(ejw )| is large, the sinusoid gets amplified
and at ω where it is small, the sinusoid gets attenuated.
2. At ω where |G(ejw )| is large, the sinusoid gets amplified
and at ω where it is small, the sinusoid gets attenuated.
• The system with large gains at low frequencies and small
gains at high frequencies are called low pass filters
 2. At ω where |G(ejw )| is large, the sinusoid gets amplified
and at ω where it is small, the sinusoid gets attenuated.
• The system with large gains at low frequencies and small
gains at high frequencies are called low pass filters
• Similarly high pass filters

Digital Control 20 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007

20. Discrete Fourier Transform
20. Discrete Fourier Transform

Define Discrete Time Fourier Transform

20. Discrete Fourier Transform

Define Discrete Time Fourier Transform

∞
X
4
G(ejw ) = g(k)e−jwk
k=−∞
20. Discrete Fourier Transform

Define Discrete Time Fourier Transform


∞
X X∞ 
4 
−k 
G(ejw ) = g(k)e−jwk = g(k)z 
k=−∞ k=−∞ 
z=ejw
20. Discrete Fourier Transform

Define Discrete Time Fourier Transform


∞
X X∞ 
4 
−k 
G(ejw ) = g(k)e−jwk = g(k)z 
k=−∞ k=−∞ 
z=ejw
= G(z)|z=ejw
20. Discrete Fourier Transform

Define Discrete Time Fourier Transform


∞
X X∞ 
4 
−k 
G(ejw ) = g(k)e−jwk = g(k)z 
k=−∞ k=−∞ 
z=ejw
= G(z)|z=ejw
Provided, absolute convergence
∞
X
|g(k)e−jwk | < ∞
k=−∞
20. Discrete Fourier Transform

Define Discrete Time Fourier Transform


∞
X X∞ 
4 
−k 
G(ejw ) = g(k)e−jwk = g(k)z 
k=−∞ k=−∞ 
z=ejw
= G(z)|z=ejw
Provided, absolute convergence
∞
X ∞
X
|g(k)e−jwk | < ∞ ⇒ |g(k)| < ∞
k=−∞ k=−∞
20. Discrete Fourier Transform

Define Discrete Time Fourier Transform


∞
X X∞ 
4 
−k 
G(ejw ) = g(k)e−jwk = g(k)z 
k=−∞ k=−∞ 
z=ejw
= G(z)|z=ejw
Provided, absolute convergence
∞
X ∞
X
|g(k)e−jwk | < ∞ ⇒ |g(k)| < ∞
k=−∞ k=−∞

For causal systems,

20. Discrete Fourier Transform

Define Discrete Time Fourier Transform


∞
X X∞ 
4 
−k 
G(ejw ) = g(k)e−jwk = g(k)z 
k=−∞ k=−∞ 
z=ejw
= G(z)|z=ejw
Provided, absolute convergence
∞
X ∞
X
|g(k)e−jwk | < ∞ ⇒ |g(k)| < ∞
k=−∞ k=−∞

For causal systems, BIBO stability.

20. Discrete Fourier Transform

Define Discrete Time Fourier Transform


∞
X X∞ 
4 
−k 
G(ejw ) = g(k)e−jwk = g(k)z 
k=−∞ k=−∞ 
z=ejw
= G(z)|z=ejw
Provided, absolute convergence
∞
X ∞
X
|g(k)e−jwk | < ∞ ⇒ |g(k)| < ∞
k=−∞ k=−∞

For causal systems, BIBO stability. Required for DTFT.

Digital Control 21 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007

21. FT of Discrete Time Aperiodic Signals - Defi-
nition
21. FT of Discrete Time Aperiodic Signals - Defi-
nition
21. FT of Discrete Time Aperiodic Signals - Defi-
nition

∞
X
4
U (ejω ) = u(n)e−jωn
n=−∞
21. FT of Discrete Time Aperiodic Signals - Defi-
nition

∞
X
4
U (ejω ) = u(n)e−jωn
n=−∞
Z π
1
u(m) = U (ejω )ejωmdω
2π −π
21. FT of Discrete Time Aperiodic Signals - Defi-
nition

∞
X
4
U (ejω ) = u(n)e−jωn
n=−∞
Z π
1
u(m) = U (ejω )ejωmdω
2π −π
Z 1/2
= U (f )ej2πf mdf
−1/2

Digital Control 22 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007

22. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example
22. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

1
y(n) = [u(n + 1) + u(n) + u(n − 1)]
3
22. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

1
y(n) = [u(n + 1) + u(n) + u(n − 1)]
3
X∞
y(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
22. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

1
y(n) = [u(n + 1) + u(n) + u(n − 1)]
3
X∞
y(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
= g(−1)u(n + 1)
22. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

1
y(n) = [u(n + 1) + u(n) + u(n − 1)]
3
X∞
y(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
= g(−1)u(n + 1) + g(0)u(n)
22. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

1
y(n) = [u(n + 1) + u(n) + u(n − 1)]
3
X∞
y(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
= g(−1)u(n + 1) + g(0)u(n) + g(1)u(n − 1)
22. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

1
y(n) = [u(n + 1) + u(n) + u(n − 1)]
3
X∞
y(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
= g(−1)u(n + 1) + g(0)u(n) + g(1)u(n − 1)
1
g(−1) = g(0) = g(1) =
3
22. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

1
y(n) = [u(n + 1) + u(n) + u(n − 1)]
3
X∞
y(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
= g(−1)u(n + 1) + g(0)u(n) + g(1)u(n − 1)
1
g(−1) = g(0) = g(1) =
3
X∞
jw


G e = g(n)z −n|z=ejw
n=−∞
22. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

1
y(n) = [u(n + 1) + u(n) + u(n − 1)]
3
X∞
y(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
= g(−1)u(n + 1) + g(0)u(n) + g(1)u(n − 1)
1
g(−1) = g(0) = g(1) =
3
X∞
jw


G e = g(n)z −n|z=ejw
n=−∞
1 jw −jw


= e +1+e
3
22. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

1
y(n) = [u(n + 1) + u(n) + u(n − 1)]
3
X∞
y(n) = g(k)u(n − k)
k=−∞
= g(−1)u(n + 1) + g(0)u(n) + g(1)u(n − 1)
1
g(−1) = g(0) = g(1) =
3
X∞
jw


G e = g(n)z −n|z=ejw
n=−∞
1 jw −jw

1
= e +1+e = (1 + 2 cos w)
3 3
Digital Control 23 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
23. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example
23. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

jω

1
G e = (1 + 2 cos w)
3
23. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

jω

1 jw

1
G e = (1 + 2 cos w), |G e | = | (1 + 2 cos w)|
3 3
23. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

jω

1 jw

1
G e = (1 + 2 cos w), |G e | = | (1 + 2 cos w)|
3
( 3
0 0 ≤ w < 2π3
Arg(G) =
π 2π
3
≤w<π
 23. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

jω

1 jw

1
G e = (1 + 2 cos w), |G e | = | (1 + 2 cos w)|
3
( 3
0 0 ≤ w < 2π3
Arg(G) =
π 2π
3
≤w<π
1 / / U p d a t e d ( 1 8 − 7 − 0 7 )

2 / / 5 . 3

4 w = 0 : 0 . 0 1 : %pi ;
5 subplot ( 2 , 1 , 1 ) ;
6 plot2d1 ( ” g l l ” ,w , abs(1+2∗ cos (w) ) / 3 , s t y l e = 2 ) ;
7 l a b e l ( ’ ’ , 4 , ’ ’ , ’ Magnitude ’ , 4 ) ;
8 subplot ( 2 , 1 , 2 ) ;
9 plot2d1 ( ” g l n ” ,w , phasemag(1+2∗ cos (w ) ) , s t y l e = 2 , r e c t =[0.
10 l a b e l ( ’ ’ , 4 , ’w ’ , ’ Phase ’ , 4 )
Digital Control 24 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
24. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example
24. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

jw

1
|G e | = | (1 + 2 cos w)|
3
24. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

jw

1
|G e | = | (1 + 2 cos w)|,
(3
0 0 ≤ w < 2π 3
Arg(G) = 2π
π 3 ≤w<π
24. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

jw

1
|G e | = | (1 + 2 cos w)|,
(3
0 0 ≤ w < 2π 3
Arg(G) = 2π
π 3 ≤w<π
0
10
Magnitude

−1
10

−2
10

−3
10
−2 −1 0 1
10 10 10 10

200

150
Phase

100

50

0
−2 −1 0 1
10 10 10 10
w
24. FT of a Moving Average Filter - Example

jw

1
|G e | = | (1 + 2 cos w)|,
(3
0 0 ≤ w < 2π 3
Arg(G) = 2π
π 3 ≤w<π
0
10
Magnitude

−1
10

−2
10

−3
10
−2 −1 0 1
10 10 10 10

200

150
Phase

100

50

0
−2 −1 0 1
10 10 10 10
w
Digital Control 25 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
25. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform
25. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Symmetry of real and imaginary parts for real valued sequences

25. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Symmetry of real and imaginary parts for real valued sequences

∞
X
jw


G e = g(n)e−jwn
n=−∞
25. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Symmetry of real and imaginary parts for real valued sequences

∞
X
jw


G e = g(n)e−jwn
n=−∞
X∞ ∞
X
= g(n) cos wn − j g(n) sin wn
n=−∞ n=−∞
25. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Symmetry of real and imaginary parts for real valued sequences

∞
X
jw


G e = g(n)e−jwn
n=−∞
X∞ ∞
X
= g(n) cos wn − j g(n) sin wn
n=−∞ n=−∞
X∞
−jw


G e = g(n)ejwn
n=−∞
25. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Symmetry of real and imaginary parts for real valued sequences

∞
X
jw


G e = g(n)e−jwn
n=−∞
X∞ ∞
X
= g(n) cos wn − j g(n) sin wn
n=−∞ n=−∞
X∞
−jw


G e = g(n)ejwn
n=−∞
X∞ ∞
X
= g(n) cos wn + j g(n) sin wn
n=−∞ n=−∞
25. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Symmetry of real and imaginary parts for real valued sequences

∞
X
jw


G e = g(n)e−jwn
n=−∞
X∞ ∞
X
= g(n) cos wn − j g(n) sin wn
n=−∞ n=−∞
X∞
−jw


G e = g(n)ejwn
n=−∞
X∞ ∞
X
= g(n) cos wn + j g(n) sin wn
n=−∞ n=−∞
 jw

  −jw


Re G e = Re G e
25. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Symmetry of real and imaginary parts for real valued sequences

∞
X
jw


G e = g(n)e−jwn
n=−∞
X∞ ∞
X
= g(n) cos wn − j g(n) sin wn
n=−∞ n=−∞
X∞
−jw


G e = g(n)ejwn
n=−∞
X∞ ∞
X
= g(n) cos wn + j g(n) sin wn
n=−∞ n=−∞
 jw

  −jw


Re G e = Re G e
 jw

  −jw


Im G e = −Im G e
Digital Control 26 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
26. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform
26. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Recall
jw

∗ −jw


G e =G e
26. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Recall
jw

∗ −jw


G e =G e
Symmetry of magnitude for real valued sequences
26. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Recall
jw

∗ −jw


G e =G e
Symmetry of magnitude for real valued sequences
jw

 jw

∗ jw
1/2
|G e |= G e G e
26. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Recall
jw

∗ −jw


G e =G e
Symmetry of magnitude for real valued sequences
jw

 jw

∗ jw
1/2
|G e |= G e G e
 ∗ −jw


−jw 1/2
= G e G e
26. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Recall
jw

∗ −jw


G e =G e
Symmetry of magnitude for real valued sequences
jw

 jw

∗ jw
1/2
|G e |= G e G e
 ∗ −jw


−jw 1/2
= G e G e
= |G(e−jw )|
26. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Recall
jw

∗ −jw


G e =G e
Symmetry of magnitude for real valued sequences
jw

 jw

∗ jw
1/2
|G e |= G e G e
 ∗ −jw


−jw 1/2
= G e G e
= |G(e−jw )|
This shows that the magnitude is an even function.
26. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Recall
jw

∗ −jw


G e =G e
Symmetry of magnitude for real valued sequences
jw

 jw

∗ jw
1/2
|G e |= G e G e
 ∗ −jw


−jw 1/2
= G e G e
= |G(e−jw )|
This shows that the magnitude is an even function. Similarly,
26. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Recall
jw

∗ −jw


G e =G e
Symmetry of magnitude for real valued sequences
jw

 jw

∗ jw
1/2
|G e |= G e G e
 ∗ −jw


−jw 1/2
= G e G e
= |G(e−jw )|
This shows that the magnitude is an even function. Similarly,
 −jw

  jw


Arg G e = −Arg G e
26. Additional Properties of Fourier Transform

Recall
jw

∗ −jw


G e =G e
Symmetry of magnitude for real valued sequences
jw

 jw

∗ jw
1/2
|G e |= G e G e
 ∗ −jw


−jw 1/2
= G e G e
= |G(e−jw )|
This shows that the magnitude is an even function. Similarly,
 −jw

  jw


Arg G e = −Arg G e
⇒ Bode plots have to be drawn for w in [0, π] only.

Digital Control 27 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007

27. Sampling and Reconstruction
27. Sampling and Reconstruction

u(n) = ua(nTs), −∞ < n < ∞

27. Sampling and Reconstruction

u(n) = ua(nTs), −∞ < n < ∞

Fast sampling:
27. Sampling and Reconstruction

u(n) = ua(nTs), −∞ < n < ∞

Fast sampling:
ua (t) Ua(F )
1

Fs
F0 − Fs 2
t F
−B F0 B F0 + Fs
 
F
ua (nT ) = u(n) U Fs

Fs

t F
Ts − 32 Fs − F2s Fs
2
3
F
2 s
Digital Control 28 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
28. Slow Sampling Results in Aliasing
28. Slow Sampling Results in Aliasing

ua(t) Ua(F )

t F
−B B

 
F
U Fs

Fs

t F
Ts − F2s Fs
2

 
F
U Fs

u(n) Fs

t F
Ts − F2s Fs
2

Digital Control 29 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007

29. What to Do When Aliasing Cannot be Avoided?
29. What to Do When Aliasing Cannot be Avoided?
Ua(F )

 
1 F
Fs
U Fs

Ua(F + Fs ) Ua(F ) Ua(F − Fs )

29. What to Do When Aliasing Cannot be Avoided?
Ua(F )

 
1 F
Fs
U Fs

Ua(F + Fs ) Ua(F ) Ua(F − Fs )

Ua′ (F )

 
1 F
Fs
U′ Fs

Ua′ (F + Fs ) Ua(F ) Ua′ (F − Fs )

Digital Control 30 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007

30. Sampling Theorem
30. Sampling Theorem

• Suppose highest frequency contained in an analog

signal ua(t) is Fmax = B.
30. Sampling Theorem

• Suppose highest frequency contained in an analog

signal ua(t) is Fmax = B.
• It is sampled at a rate Fs > 2Fmax = 2B.
30. Sampling Theorem

• Suppose highest frequency contained in an analog

signal ua(t) is Fmax = B.
• It is sampled at a rate Fs > 2Fmax = 2B.
• ua(t) can be recovered from its sample values:
30. Sampling Theorem

• Suppose highest frequency contained in an analog

signal ua(t) is Fmax = B.
• It is sampled at a rate Fs > 2Fmax = 2B.
• ua(t) can be recovered from its sample values:
n o
∞
X sin Tπ (t − nTs)
s
ua(t) = ua(nTs) π
n=−∞ T (t − nTs)
s
30. Sampling Theorem

• Suppose highest frequency contained in an analog

signal ua(t) is Fmax = B.
• It is sampled at a rate Fs > 2Fmax = 2B.
• ua(t) can be recovered from its sample values:
n o
∞
X sin Tπ (t − nTs)
s
ua(t) = ua(nTs) π
n=−∞ T (t − nTs)
s

• If Fs = 2Fmax, Fs is denoted by FN , the

Nyquist rate.
30. Sampling Theorem

• Suppose highest frequency contained in an analog

signal ua(t) is Fmax = B.
• It is sampled at a rate Fs > 2Fmax = 2B.
• ua(t) can be recovered from its sample values:
n o
∞
X sin Tπ (t − nTs)
s
ua(t) = ua(nTs) π
n=−∞ T (t − nTs)
s

• If Fs = 2Fmax, Fs is denoted by FN , the

Nyquist rate.
• Not causal: check n > 0
Digital Control 31 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007
31. Rules for Sampling Rate Selection
31. Rules for Sampling Rate Selection

• Minimum sampling rate = twice band width

31. Rules for Sampling Rate Selection

• Minimum sampling rate = twice band width

• Shannon’s reconstruction cannot be implemented,
have to use ZOH
31. Rules for Sampling Rate Selection

• Minimum sampling rate = twice band width

• Shannon’s reconstruction cannot be implemented,
have to use ZOH
• Solution:
31. Rules for Sampling Rate Selection

• Minimum sampling rate = twice band width

• Shannon’s reconstruction cannot be implemented,
have to use ZOH
• Solution: sample faster
31. Rules for Sampling Rate Selection

• Minimum sampling rate = twice band width

• Shannon’s reconstruction cannot be implemented,
have to use ZOH
• Solution: sample faster
– Number of samples in rise time = 4 to 10
31. Rules for Sampling Rate Selection

• Minimum sampling rate = twice band width

• Shannon’s reconstruction cannot be implemented,
have to use ZOH
• Solution: sample faster
– Number of samples in rise time = 4 to 10
– Sample 10 to 30 times bandwidth
31. Rules for Sampling Rate Selection

• Minimum sampling rate = twice band width

• Shannon’s reconstruction cannot be implemented,
have to use ZOH
• Solution: sample faster
– Number of samples in rise time = 4 to 10
– Sample 10 to 30 times bandwidth
– Use 10 times Shannon’s sampling rate
31. Rules for Sampling Rate Selection

• Minimum sampling rate = twice band width

• Shannon’s reconstruction cannot be implemented,
have to use ZOH
• Solution: sample faster
– Number of samples in rise time = 4 to 10
– Sample 10 to 30 times bandwidth
– Use 10 times Shannon’s sampling rate
– ωcTs = 0.15 to 0.5, where,
ωc = crossover frequency
Digital Control 32 Kannan M. Moudgalya, Autumn 2007