Kurepova Kristina

Research seminar
Literature review
This work acquaints the reader with the main biopesticides most used in the agricultural sector
at the moment.
Overview of biopesticides and their action against pests
1. Introduction
The world population is constantly growing and food demand is also growing. The rise of
demands forces the agricultural system to improve their technology in order to get high
productivity. Pest control is the main cause of healthy and high crop yield that can provide food
for the increasing population. In other words, the high productivity of agricultural crops in
modern conditions is impossible without integrated plant protection from pests and diseases.
Chemical protection products (pesticides) are currently the main tool in plant protection
measures. Their effectiveness is quite high, but there are problems associated with their high
carcinogenicity. The current situation in agriculture shows, on the one hand, an increase in
pesticide load on fields, mainly associated with the use of plant protection chemicals and
fertilizers, on the other hand, the accumulation of negative consequences of their use in the
biosphere. The main environmental problems of the use of pesticides are their ability to
accumulate in soil and transfer by living organisms along the trophic chain up to humans, a
decrease in biological productivity and disruption of the normal functioning of soil
microbiocenoses, a decrease in the intensity of soil self-cleaning processes, accumulation in
rivers, seas and groundwater.(Liu et al., 2019). Moreover, “inappropriate and expanded uses of
pesticide lead to the resistance among the organisms and the rejuvenation of the new pest
problems”(Thakur et al., 2020).
In addition, large companies such as Byer, Monsanto, Syngenta are becoming more and
more interested in biopesticide production. They have bought small biopesticide research and
development companies in order to have access to their technology. There are several reasons
for this (Marrone, 2014). According to Marrone (2014), the first reason is the difficulty in
finding, developing, introducing new synthetic pesticides to the market. The main difficulty is
that pesticide discovery is becoming more and more expensive, scientists have to check at least
140,000 chemicals in order to get one new synthetic pesticide, it costs $ 250 million and takes
ten years. In contrast, the discovering of one new biopesticides costs $ 3-7 million and takes 3
years to get to the market (Marrone, 2014). The second is the demand of importers and
exporters for healthy, quality products without pesticide residues. Today's agribusiness buyers
carefully select raw materials to meet consumer demand for healthy food. The third one is
governmental restrictions. For instance, “many chemicals have been eliminated or restricted
for plant parasitic nematode control”(Marrone, 2014). The demand for effective and
sustainable bio-based crop protection products continues to grow. “The global market for
biopesticides was valued at $1.6 billion for 2009” and it will have been doubled to $ 4.5 billion
by 2023(Marrone, 2014). All of these problems with pesticides illustrate that the field of study
biopesticides are the most prospective in the following decades.
 Thus, modern agricultural production is faced with the need to address two major problems
at once - protecting crops from pests, diseases and weeds, and at the same time protecting the
environment from man-made pollution. The development of microbiology contributes a lot in
the decision of the agricultural problems. Chemical protection products are being replaced by
biological protection products or biopesticides during recent years.
2. Biopesticides: types and their action mode.
Nowadays biopesticides are an alternative to conventional synthetic pesticides that are
currently used to control crop diseases and pests. Plants, insects and microorganisms are
sources of biopesticides that are readily available, cheaper and eco-friendly (Thakur et al.,
2020). Biopesticides are non-toxic not only for humans, but also for the environment, soil, and
other organisms. Biological protection products are made up of living organisms, biochemicals
such as pheromones, plant extracts that are pathogens of insects or other pests. They are
microorganisms like bacteria, viruses or fungi, plants and animals. Biological protection
products are able to control insect pests and plant diseases “by their nontoxic eco- friendly
mode” (Senthil-Nathan, 2015). They do not affect other organisms because biopesticides are
very specific in their actions. They are aimed to particular plant-damaging organisms.
There are three different categories of biopesticides: microbial (virus, bacteria, fungi,
nematode), botanical and biochemical pesticides (“natural compounds or synthetic compounds
with a same structure as natural compounds which has no direct toxicity to the pest, but has
special effects such as regulating growth, interfering with mating or attracting ”(Liu et al., 2019)).
2.1. Microbial biopesticides
Microbial biopesticides are produced by bacteria, fungi, viruses and nematodes. They are
applied by spraying or watering, or directly to the roots in the form of tablets, seed coating or
root treatment before sowing and various insects (Montesinos and Bonaterra, 2009). Microbial
biopesticides produce several compounds that act as major pest control agents. They protect
plants by producing a crystalline protein that kills insets directly or siderophore which prevents
access to ions minerals for insects that leads to death(Kumari et al., 2014). Now 230 species
that are commercially available have been discovered.(van Lenteren, 2012).
2.1.1. Bacterial biopesticides
Bactria biopesticides are divided into four groups: “crystalliferous spore formers (Bacillus
thuringiensis), obligate pathogens (Bacillus popilliae), potential pathogens (Serratia marcesens),
facultative pathogens (Pseudomonas aeruginosa)” (Opender Koul, 2011).
The most useful and available bacteria are Bacillus thuringiensis and Bacillus sphaericus.
Bacillus thuringiensis
It “is a widely occurring gram-positive, pore-forming soil bacterium that produces
parasporal, proteinaceous, crystal inclusion-bodies during sporulation”(Copping and Menn,
2000). B. thuringiensis is effective against 400 species of insects, including pests in fields,
forests, orchards and vineyards. The greatest effect from the use of these drugs is obtained in
the fight against leaf-eating pests. More than 100 Bt strains are known, combined into 30
groups according to serological and biochemical characteristics.
 Bacillus thuringiensis produces special crystalline proteins that are toxic to insects. When
the crystalline proteins enter the insect's body, they dissolve, and the proteases of the insect's
intestines convert them into four toxins. These toxins bind to insect gut cells, where they
violate active amino acid symport mechanism. This violation causes an increase in the
permeability of the cell membrane. As a result, cells swell from a lot of water and cell lysis
occurs in the gut wall.(Copping and Menn, 2000).

Subspecies
of B. thuringiensis that are used as
biopesticides include
B. thuringiensis tenebrionis (targeting
Colorado potato
beetle and elm leaf beetle larvae), B.
thuringiensis kurstaki
(targeting a variety of caterpillars), B.
thuringiensis israe-
lensis (targeting mosquito, black fly
and fungus gnat larvae)
and B. thuringiensis aizawai (targeting
wax moth larvae
and various caterpillars, especially the
diamondback moth
caterpillar).
In addition, there are several subspecies which are also commonly used as biopesticides. For
example, “B. thuringiensis tenebrionis (targeting Colorado potato beetle and elm leaf beetle
larvae), B. thuringiensis kurstaki (targeting a variety of caterpillars), B. thuringiensis israelensis
(targeting mosquito, black fly and fungus gnat larvae) and B. thuringiensis aizawai (targeting
wax moth larvae and various caterpillars, especially the diamondback moth
caterpillar)”(Opender Koul, 2011).
Bacillus sphaericus
It “is a Gram-positive strict aerobic bacterium, which produces round spores in a swollen club-
like terminal or subterminal sporangium” (Opender Koul, 2011). The mechanism of action is the
same as Bacillus thuringiensis. Intracellular protein toxin (SSII-1) and a parasporalcrystalline
toxin are produced by Bacillus sphaericus (Opender Koul, 2011). The mechanism of action is the
same as Bacillus thuringiensis.
“Other species of bacteria have little impact on pest management” (Opender Koul, 2011).
2.1.2. Viral biopesticides
Baculoviruses are the most effective in insect control because they are highly specific to
insects. They are used against Lepidoptera pests of cotton, vegetables, forests and ornamental
plants. Baculoviruses include nuclear polyhedroviruses (NPVs) and granuloviruses (GVs). In
order to the virus will work, the insect must swallow it. After swallowing the virus particles
enter the insect's haemolymph. This virus affects all cells of the insect. Intoxication leads to
hyperactivity of the nervous system and muscles, which leads to death(Copping and Menn,
2000).
However, there are several problems with producing such type of biopesticides. Viral
biopesticides are active only against a narrow spectrum of hosts and, after application to the
surface of plants, baculovirus bodies are rapidly inactivated by solar ultraviolet radiation in the
range of 280–320 nm. Also high cost, low efficacy and poor field stability are the main problems
of the usage viral biopesticides(Opender Koul, 2011).
2.1.3. Fungal biopesticides
Numerous species of entomopathogenic fungi infect a wide range of insects, possessing
various mechanisms for this, including contact. Fungi are well preserved in the form of spores
and produce a variety of biologically active substances that enhance their pathogenicity.
One of the more successful speciality biofungicides is Trichoderma or Gliocladium. It is a
general soil fungus that produces antibiotic compounds including gliotoxin, diketopiperazine,
which is the main fungicidal antibiotic component which prevents root diseases. Also
Trichoderma secretes various metabolites: growth factors (auxins, cytokines and ethylene),
organic acids, intracellular amino acids, vitamins. This fungus promotes the growth of the root
system of plants, which makes them more resistant to pests. (Copping and Menn, 2000).
Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana, Nomuraea rileyi, Verticillium lecanii, and
Paecilomyces farinosus are effective against a range of Coleoptera and Lepidoptera on a variety
of different crops, including vegetables and ornamental plants grown in greenhouses. Fungi
enter the hemolymph of an insect through the integument or intestines and spread their
conidia inside. Individuals completely fill up with mycelium and die. The mycotic insects remain
attached to the crop and additional spores are released, allowing the spreading of the fungal
biopesticides (Senthil-Nathan, 2015; Thakur et al., 2020).
2.1.4. Nematodes
 Nematode species are being used to control the insect population. The main biological
feature of nematodes of the Steinernematidae family is a symbiotic relationship with
pathogenic bacteria of the genera Proteus, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, Flavobacterium.
"They enter into the host body mainly through mouth, anus, and from spiracles. When the
nematodes get entered into the host, the bacteria are released into the haemocoel of the
insect and multiply there. Symbiotic bacteria produce the toxins inside the haemocoel which
makes the host weak. Bacteria also secrete the metabolites which create an appropriate
environment for the reproduction of nematode "(Thakur et al., 2020).
2.2. Botanical biopesticides
Botanical biopesticides are made from parts or whole plants, their extracts, oils and chemical
compounds. This has the ability to control pests' population and regulate the growth, the
productivity of plants (Regnault-Roger and Philogène, 2008).
2.2.1. Nicotine
The most famous and old biopesticide is Nicotine. It is widely used against
organophosphorus- and pyrethroid-resistant whitefly, which attacks all plant species by feeding
on foliage sap. Nicotine "binds to the cholinergic acetylcholine nicotinic receptor in the nerve
cells of insects, leading to a continuous firing of the neuroreceptor"(Copping and Menn, 2000).
"This causes stimulation followed by depression in the vegetative system, muscles, and the
central nervous system"(Regnault-Roger and Philogène, 2008).
2.2.2. Neem
Neem contains over 100 limonoid compounds. They affect insects differently. For example,
azadirachtin appears to be the most effective insect growth inhibitors. It inhibits the synthesis
of ecdysteroids, which disrupts the moulting and reproductive cycle of insects(Schmutterer,
1990).

2.3. Biochemical pesticides

Biochemical pesticides are substances produced by living organisms. They contain chemicals
that are used to control pests. Biochemicals do not kill insects directly, they have a distracting
effect. That is, they scare away pests from any plant, attract them into a trap or to another
plant. The most famous and used biochemical biopesticides are pheromones. They are secreted
by insects to communicate over long distances, but are currently being synthesized and used
commercially for pest control. There are several groups of pheromones according to evoked
response, for instance, sex pheromones, aggregation pheromones, alarm pheromones.
Sex pheromones are produced by female mating insects. These pheromones are applied to
special surfaces and used as a trap for males, which prevents the possibility of reproduction.
Aggregation pheromones are secreted by insects to indicate to others that they have a good
food source. These pheromones are also used as a trap. Alarm pheromones are secreted by
insects when in danger. Application of these pheromones to plants scares insects away from
agricultural products(Copping and Menn, 2000; Shani, 2000). Currently there are 30 registered
mating-disruption pheromone-based products(Copping and Menn, 2000).
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