Simon Francis Teng 1302566

Title: Assignment 1: The issue of insecticide resistance

Summary

Understanding the over-all theory of resistance is crucial for insecticide discovery.

From a molecular pint of view, the underlying mechanisms of resistance are known

for the main classes of insecticides. The extreme use of insecticide for global food

production and other related areas has led to the wide-spread of development of

insecticide resistance. In addition, vegetables grown are laden with pesticide

residues to the stage that it cannot be marketed. Therefore, new harmful chemical

pesticides are being created. This promotes selection pressure towards level of

resistance. Insecticide resistance may affect horticulture, environmental integrity,

bio-security and public health which is critical for agriculture sustainability. The

farmers are also not playing a role in minimizing the development of insecticides

resistance based on their current practices. Some of the researches in IPM

programs are the discovery of beneficial insects (predators / parasites), biological

insecticides, synthetic insecticides, transgenic plants, safe cultural practices, pest-

resistant crop varieties, crop rotation techniques, and chemical attractants or

deterrents. These sound approaches may reduce the development of insecticide

resistance.

Introduction (Development of insecticide resistance)

Insecticide resistance have been the main focus point among researchers

throughout many parts of the world, as well as Malaysia. There are four major

classes of insecticide that contribute to the development of insecticide resistance,

which are carbamates, pyrethroids, organochlorines, and organophosphates

(Brewer, 1989). Several studies have reported that insect pests had developed an
increasingly high levels of enzymes, such as esterases and glutathione-S-

transferase that are responsible in breaking down these major chemical compounds

found in incesticide (Peiris, 1993). In addition, from previous studies, carbamates

and organophosphates which contain acetylcholinesterase is proven ineffective

towards the pests and had become resistant (Bourguet et. al., 1996). Insects existed

longer than human beings had live the earth. Mankind had invaded their habitat

causing destruction and imbalance in the numbers of insect predators and prey, due

to agricultural activities. Insecticides do not only cause problems to the natural

environment but also to public health and pest outbreaks in agriculture. Continuous

use of insecticide towards pest have cause the reduction in effectiveness to control

them over a long period of time. This is because these chemical insecticides do not

target only the pest but all the biotic fauna that are present in the farm. Thus, the

important natural predators will be wiped-off as well, making the use of insecticide

fully dependent. The more insecticide sprayed in the field, the more resistance the

pest will develop and a higher dosage is required to kill them.

As stated above, insecticide resistance may be described as ‘a heritable modification

in the amount of sensitivity of a pest inhabitants that is shown in the recurring

unsuccessful function of an insecticide to obtain the expected results of pest

management when used according to the brand's recommended dosage for that

particular pest species’. Insecticide resistance are developed in a few mechanisms.

The general way of understanding this mechanism is that the survival of the fittest

claimed by Charles Darwin on evolutionary theory. This involves the sublethal doses

of insecticide that kills 50% of pest population, whereby the remaining population

survives and gives rise to next generation of pest which are resistance to that
particular insecticide. That generation produces another more-resistant generation;

gradually, the way to destroy pests may be delivered unsuccessful or even destroy

other organisms or the very crops it was designed to secure. Apart from that,

metabolic resistance is also one of the mechanism of developed resistance in pest.

For a long period of time, insects have been eating various plants by breaking down

their natural toxins with modified enzymes. It plays an important role by using

increased levels of metabolic rate by enzymes, resistant pests may break down a

particular pesticide compounds faster than vulnerable insects, and quickly eliminate

insecticidal substances. Thus, developing this resistance. The pest may at the same

time have several systems of potential to deal with a single compound or number of

relevant substances. For example, target site resistance and multiple metabolic

mechanisms to deal with pyrethroids in Heliothine, unwanted pests of cotton. In

addition, by having a range level of resistance systems, insects may have several

resistances to a number of irrelevant pesticide classes.

Why was this issue exacerbated?

The ever growing human population has been a contingency with increased

urbanization. Nowadays, more than half of the world’s population is filled by urban

areas, the numbers will soon reach 70% by 2050 (Taylorluker, 2015). That will be an

estimation of 6.3 billion people. Thus, the agriculture and food production industries

must be enhanced to provide enough resources to the whole population. This leads

to the abundant use of insecticides by the farmers, which causes many problems.

For example, development of insecticide resistance of pest, environmental hazards,

pollution, and jeopardize food security. Furthermore, these problems are magnified

by the uneducated farmers, as well as the “modern” use of chemical pesticides. The
farmers have been practicing the usage of several brands of insecticide together by

mixing it all at once. In their perception, by applying or mixing multiple insecticides

together, it will improve the useful life of the insecticide and are more effective. It was

thought that if insecticides were used one at a time, it will eventually become

useless, and then the next, until they were all worthless. The mixing concept is

centered on the knowledge that the pests will mostly not acquire the genetics that

would allow them to thrive several kinds of toxins. However, there are many flaws in

this approach, one of it is some individual pest may survive and resistance can be

passed down to their progenies. Besides that, the mixture of a few types of pesticide

will function to have more than one mode-of action. These enables the pest to

develop enzymes to more than one class of insecticide.

The mixing of insecticide will work better if two or more pesticides with different types

of modes-of-action to eliminate the unwanted pests at the start and were always

used together. In practical, farmers anticipate a new costly pesticide to control the

pest all by itself. In reality, farmers are required to mix the insecticide to increase the

mode of action because a single insecticide will not kill the resistant pest. So,

farmers rarely begin combining insecticides before they start to have pest outbreaks

with the first product. After a few pest outbreaks, this concept of mixing the

pesticides will not be effective because most of the pest would have developed

resistance. This would speed up the mechanism for resistance development rather

than slow down it because of the powerful selection pressure for the fittest insects to

survive, only those who could hold up against the concentrated chemical poisons.
The Regional Environmental Awareness of Cameron Highlands (Reach) has

informed that Malaysians may be unknowingly consuming pesticide-laden

vegetables. However, the accusation has been criticised by the farmers.

Ramakrishnan (2015) claimed that these vegetables in Cameron Hihglands had

failed to adhere to Singapore’s strict food safety standards and could not be sold

there. Instead, these vegetables were being sold in Malaysian markets. Singapore

takes in almost 95% of its fruits and vegetables from all parts of the world, including

Malaysia. Any vegetable that contains high or unfavourable amount of pesticide

residues will be rejected at any cost. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was

discovered in 1939. It was used during the World War II to treat malaria and typhus

disease among civilians (World Health Organization, 1979). Today, it is one of the

most popular pesticide used by farmers in Malaysia due to its effectiveness in

controlling vector-causing diseases (Larson, 2008). Over a long period of time,

insects become resistant towards DDT, and different insecticides will be applied.

Such as, the one containing organophosphorus compounds, particularly malathion. If

the target pests have developed resistance towards malathion, then a more

hazardous and expensive insecticide is used by farmer until the pest are killed. In

different ways human practices are promoting the increase in insecticide resistance.

Farmers spray a higher dose of insecticide each time the initial dose does not work.

Thus, these insect will develop resistance towards a higher dosage of insecticides

through genetic mechanism, which will then be pass on to the next generation of

pest to dominate the field.

How important is insecticide resistance in pest management:

Why insecticide resistance is so rampant?

Insects had been exposed towards natural toxin from eating various plants, even

before the establishment of agriculture. For examples, plants contains phytotoxins

for protection, which are hazardous towards herbivorous insects. As a result, the

evolution of herbivores and their variety vegetation required development of the

physical capacity to purify or withstand poisons (Ferro, 1993; Bishop, 1996). People

often rely on just about any insecticides for pest control. This promotes selection

pressure towards level of resistance. Pesticides that are not able to detoxify quickly

lead to selection for pest with resistant variations even though the application has

been stopped (Daly et. al., 1998).

As a result of resistance, farm managers may increase the quantities or frequency

which is the only way to kill these unwanted pests, which worsens the problem.

Furthermore, these insecticides do not only kill the predators that feed on the pest

but also the pest competitor. This can allow the pest population to flourish,

demanding of more insecticide. This scheme is sometimes referred to as "pesticide

trap" (Marten, 2017) or pesticide treadmill, since farm owners are force to buy more

chemical insecticides to control the pest and have to pay more for less profit (Miller,

2014). Thus, the farmers will become poorer.

Insecticides are rather more harmful to natural predators and parasitoids than it is to

the targeted pests. This is due to the predators and parasitoid communities are

smaller and is less likely to develop resistance for they do not eat the plant. Downfall
of these beneficial insects allows the unwanted pests to flourish (Daly et. al., 1998).

On the other hand, resistant natural predators can be produced in labs (Daly et. al.,

1998). Pest with a specific diet mostly tend to develop resistance, due to the high

levels of insecticide that they consume and has less opportunity to reproduce with

the unexposed communities (Daly et. al., 1998). As compare to natural predators,

most of the pest species produce a larger brood than the natural predators. Thus,

the probability of producing a resistant strain population is much higher and

guarantees the fast growth of resistant communities.

How does it affect agriculture sustainability?

Insecticide is a major input in many areas of agriculture. These areas include

horticulture, environmental integrity, bio-security and public health which is critical for

agriculture sustainability. Insecticide may play a role in effective pest management

but the large numbers of pest along with short life-cycles enables them to develop

resistance rapidly towards the insecticides that were once effective in controlling

them. Even though public health accounts for the least amount of insecticide used,

many significant species of vectors towards public health had been reported for

being resistant to a few insecticide. The mechanism of resistance development in

vectors are complex and dynamic that is caused by many factors. Generally it is

caused by the increase in vector population that causes the frequency of mutated

individuals to increase and develop this resistance. This gives rise to vector-borne

diseases that will result in chronic health problems to human population.

Pesticides may contaminate water, soil, other vegetation, and turf. Notwithstanding

elimination of other insects or weeds, pesticides can be harmful to a large group of

different life forms including fishes, fowls, non-target plants, and beneficial insects.

Beneficial insects such as, the decomposers, natural predators, parasitoids and

pollinators. Insecticides are usually contains the most dangerous class of pesticides,

however herbicides can likewise posture dangers to non-target animals. Herbicides

can harm spiders when it destroys the nearby plants in the way which these

creatures requirement for nourishment and habitat. For instance, carabid beetle and

spider population had decreased when 2,4-D applications wiped-out their natural

surroundings (Asteraki et. al., 1992). Besides that, spiders are natural predators that

feed on other insects, including the pests. The species variation and abundance in

population densities of spiders in a farm can be as high as in natural environments

(Turnbull 1973, Tanaka 1989, Riechert 1981). These spiders tend to move away

from the sprayed area of the field and will come back later into the field. Their wide

range of insect prey can have a synergistic impact in stifling the densities of pest

when they are utilized, instead of the harmful insecticides (Joon-Ho and Seung-Tae,

2001).

Are we promoting resistance in our current practices?

There are many studies done by researchers regarding the current pest control

practices among Malaysian farmers. However, studies were done particularly on

farms at the highland areas and targeting only pest for certain types of vegetable

crop (Mazlan and Mumford, 2005; Badenes-Perez and Shelton, 2006; Grzywacz et

al., 2010). These studies showed a similar trend in the way that the local farmers

utilize pesticides for pest control. It has been reported that more than 50% of the

farmers practice spraying a higher dosage or frequency of pesticide if pest outbreak

occurs. Besides that, farmers tend to mixed different types of insecticides in the
spraying tank if a single insecticide is not able to control the pest (Xu et al., 2008).

Furthermore, the farmers are most likely to ignore the suggested pre-harvest interval

printed on the label because they want the crops to have a good appearance so that

it can be marketed. Most of the farmers are concern on profitability, whereby it is a

common practice for them to spray the crops in the afternoon and begin to harvest in

the next morning. Whereas for calendar spraying method, the application of pesticide

is set at a constant interval days although there is no alarming sign of a pest

outbreak but only to prevent minor pest damages on their crops which will reduce the

price of their products (Dinham, 2003). In a tropical country such as Malaysia, the

change in weather will affect the spraying frequency of pesticides by the farmers.

During the wet and rainy season, farmers tend to spray insecticide more frequently

due to the rapid wash off pesticide by water (Mazlan and Mumford, 2005). Thus,

these practices will most likely to promote pesticide resistance.

What kind of research is required to support effort to minimize insecticide

resistance?

There have been many studies done on the effort to minimize insecticide resistance.

There are some studies regarding the concern of introduction of non-native natural

enemies in biological pest control programs (Louda, 2003) .Whereas, there is also

effort in improving the use of chemical control options associated with integrated

pest management (IPM) programs whereby selective insecticides are needed

(Drogui, 2012). The main reason for efforts of these ecological approaches is to

prevent the global development of insecticide resistance.

In the 1950s, IPM was establish to promote the intensive use of chemicals and

biological techniques for pest management (Smith, 1967). The principle of IPM was

consequently extended to include the incorporation of cultural, chemical and

biological techniques in a suitable manner to obtain positive environmental and

economic repercussions. IPM is designed to reduce the use of insecticide, so that

the impact towards the environment and to non-targeted organism can be also

reduced. Some of the researches in IPM programs are the discovery of beneficial

insects (predators / parasites), biological insecticides, synthetic insecticides,

transgenic plants, safe cultural practices, pest-resistant crop varieties, crop rotation

techniques, and chemical attractants or deterrents. These sound approaches may

reduce the development of insecticide resistance. Today, IPM has become a

essential tactic of sustainable farming in pest management in most developed and

developng countries (Peshin et. al., 2009). Development of a concept and practice of

IPM in city environments that is similar to IPM in agroecosystems is a pushing need

among modern entomologists, stakeholders and pest control firms. The target of

agriculture IPM is to prevent economic damage by maintaining the population of

pests at a low level of establishment.

What areas of modern science can sustain minimizing insecticide resistance in

our country?

Recent advances in areas of modern science may help minimize the development of

insecticide resistance at a controllable pace. Chemists from pesticide companies rely

on many molecular targets with different active ingredients for the making pesticides.

At the same time, they need to prevent the risk of cross-resistance of that product in
pest. Moreover, even though the pesticide’s target is known, the mode-of action of

pesticides is difficult to be determined due to the diverse types of compounds

needed. Furthermore, entomology is an important study on insects, which is valuable

in pest management and applied ecology. In addition, with advances in structural

biology and electrophysiology are key components of research programs. Insect

physiology is also an important scope of science for the discovery of new molecular

targets on pest to develop new effective insecticides. With the knowledge of these

related studies, insecticide resistance mitigation will most likely to succeed.

In the long run, technological innovation like entomopathogens, genetically modified

plants and insects, and nanoapplication of pesticides, and RNAi-mediated crop

security may be used one day. At the time, we need particular, sustainable

substance control choices that are appropriate for use in IPM programs to secure

crops, as well as offering choices for the treatment of obtrusive pest insects and

vectors of human illness.

Biosecurity programs are also important in minimizing the development of insecticide

resistance. This be because it provides two main services which are export

certification and import regulation that controls the movement of harmful pests. For

example, diamondback moth (DBM) was introduced in Malaysia through the spread

of leafy brassica vegetables which had turn out to become one of the major insect

pests in Malaysia. In 1920s, it became one of the most important pest followed by

Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae). Then by 1941, DBM was widely spread throughout

Malaysia became one of the crucial pest of brassicas, it had become widely

established all over Malaysia as a serious pest of brassicas (Corbett

and Pagden, 1941). Besides that, conservation of beneficial insects is just as

important for insecticide resistance mitigation. Ecological approach in discovery of

new natural enemies through the study of entomology may provide the eradication in

the use to chemical insecticides. Besides that, there is significant overlap between

the areas of biosecurity and conservation when considering the significance of the

control and treatment of obtrusive pest varieties.

References: (10%)
1. Asteraki EJ, Hanks CB, Clements RO. The impact of the chemical removal of
the hedge-based flora on the community structure of carabid beetles (Col.
Carabidae) and spiders (Araneae) of the field and hedge bottom. J Appl Ent.
1992;113:398–406.

2. Badenes-Perez, F. R. and Shelton, A. M. 2006. Pest management and other

agricultural practices among farmers growing cruciferous vegetables in the
Central and Western Highlands of Kenya and the Western Himalayas of India.
International Journal of Pest Management 52(4): 303-315.

3. Bishop B. A and EJ Grafius. 1996. Insecticide resistance in the Colorado

potato beetle. In: P Jolivet and TH Hsiao. Chrysomelidae Biology, Volume 1.
SBP Academic Publishing, Amsterdam.

4. Brewer KK, Keil CB (1989) A mixed function oxidase factor contributing to

permethrin and dichlorvos resistance in Lycoriella mali (Fitch) (Diptera:
Sciaridae). Pestic. Sci. 26: 29–39.

5. Bourguet D, Capela R, Raymond M (1996) An insensitive

acetylcholinesterase in Culex pipiens (Diptera:Culicidae) from Portugal. J.
Econ. Entomol. 89: 1060–1066.

6. Corbett, G. H. and H. T. Pagden. 1941. A review of some recent

entomological investigations and observations. Malay. Agric. J. 29:347-375.

7. Drogui, P.; Lafrance, P. Pesticides and Sustainable Agriculture. In Farming for

Food and Water Security; Lichtfouse, E., Ed.; Springer
Netherlands:Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2012; Volume 10, pp. 23–55. Smith,
R.F.; van dan Bosch, R. Integrated control. In Pest Control: Biological,
Physical, and Selected Chemical Methods; Kilgore, W.W., Doutt, R.L., Eds.;
Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 1967; pp. 295–340.
8. Dinham, B. 2003. Growing vegetables in developing countries for local urban
populations and export markets: problems confronting small-scale producers.
Pest Management Science 59(5): 575-582.

9. Daly H, Doyen J. T., and Purcell AH III (1998), Introduction to insect biology
and diversity, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. New York, New York.
Chapter 14, Pages 279-300.

10. Ferro DN. 1993. Potential for resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis: Colorado
potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) – a model system. American
Entomologist 39:38-44.

11. Grzywacz, D., Rossbach, A., Rauf, A., Russell, D. A., Srinivasan, R. and
Shelton, A. M., 2010. Current control methods for diamondback moth and
other brassica insect pests and the prospects for improved management with
lepidopteran-resistant Bt vegetable brassicas in Asia and Africa. Crop
Protection 29(1): 68-79.
12. Joon-Ho L. and Seung-Tae K., 2001. “Use Of Spiders As Natural Enemies To
Control Rice Pests In Korea”. Journal of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul
National Univ., 1, 1-8

13. Larson K (December 1, 2007). "Bad Blood". On Earth (Winter 2008).

Retrieved June 5, 2008.

14. Louda, S.M.; Russell, F.L. Invasiveness of some biological control insects and
adequacy of their ecological risk assessment and regulation. Conserv. Biol.
2003, 17, 73–82.

15. Marten, Gerry "Non-pesticide management" for escaping the pesticide trap in
Andrah Padesh, India Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine..
ecotippingpoints.org. Retrieved on September 17, 2007.

16. Mazlan, N. and Mumford, J. 2005. Insecticide use in cabbage pest

management in the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia. Journal of Crop Protection
24(1): 31-39.

17. Miller GT (2004), Sustaining the Earth, 6th edition. Thompson Learning, Inc.
Pacific Grove, California. Chapter 9, Pages 211-216.
18. Peshin, R.; Bandral, R.S.; Zhang, W.; Wilson, L.; Dhawan, A.K. Integrated
pest management: A global overview of history, programs and adoption. In
 Integrated Pest Management: Innovation-Development Process,1st ed.;
Peshin, R., Dhawan, A.K., Eds.; Springer Science + Business Media: Berlin,
Germany, 2009; pp. 1–49.

19. Peiris HTR, Hemingway J (1993) Characterization and inheritance of elevated

esterases in organophosphorus and carbamate insecticide resistant Culex
quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) from Sri Lanka. Bull. Entomol. Res. 83:
127–132.

20. Riechert, S.E. 1981. The consquences of being territorial: Spiders, a case
study. Amer. Nat. 117: 871-892.

21. Ramakrishnan Ramasamy. 2015. Rampant use of pesticides for vegetable

cultivation. [ONLINE] Available at:
http://www.therakyatpost.com/news/2015/03/06/rampant-use-of-pesticides-
for-vegetable-cultivation-raises-serious-concerns/. [Accessed 5 July 2017].

22. Taylorluker—Own Work. Percentage of World Population Urban Rural.

Licensed under Attribution via Wikimedia Commons. Available online:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Percentage_of_World_Population_Urb
an_Rural.PNG#mediaviewer/File:Percentage_of_World_Population
_Urban_Rural.PNG (accessed on 8 December 2015).

23. Tanaka, K. 1989. Movement of the spiders in arable land. Plant Protection
43,1:34-39.

24. Turnbull, A.L. 1973. Ecology of the true spiders (Araneomorphae). Ann. Rev.
Entomol. 18: 305-348.

25. World Health Organization, 1979. Environmental Health Criteria monograph

No. 009, Geneva: DDT and its derivatives.

26. Xu, R., Kuang, R., Pay, E., Dou, H. and de Snoo, G. R. 2008. Factors
contributing to overuse of pesticides in western China. Environmental
Sciences 5(4): 235- 249.