PEST MANAGEMENT

Li
 CHAPTER V

a) Management by Chemical Pesticides

INTRODUCTION

Insecticides are used in farming, medicine, industry and at home. The use

of insecticides is supposed to be one of the major factors behind the

boost in agricultural productivity in the 20th century. Almost all

insecticides have the possible to significantly alter ecosystems. Many are

toxic to human? and other insecticides are concentrated in the food chain.

It is essential to balance agricultural needs with ecological and health

issues when using them (http//:www.insecticides-tips.com. 2007).

Compared to other forms of control, insecticide use is highly effective,

easily employed by farmers and in many cases there is no commercially

viable alternative. Insecticides are generally lipophilic ('fat-loving') but

excretory systems deal with hydrophilic ('water-loving') compounds

(Sobstdu. 2004).

The main reason behind the use of chemical insecticide by the farmers is

due to its rapid, quick-nock down action such as a single application of

chemical insecticide may control several pest species and usually forms a

persistent residue that continues to kill insects for hours or even days

after application. Because of their convenience and effectiveness,

insecticides quickly became standard practice for pest control during the

1960's and 1970's. Overuse, misuse, and abuse of these chemicals

71
have led to widespread criticism of chemical control and, in a few cases,

resulted in long-term environmental consequences (Meyer, 2003).

According to the mode of action the chemical pesticide can be grouped

as: Systemic or Stomach poisons (they have to be eaten), contact

poisons (they work via the skin) and fumigants (they produce a vapor that

kills organisms).

Systemic insecticides are a special group of insecticides that are taken

up into the plant through it's leaves or through it's roots. "Systemic"

referring to a product that travels throughout the plant's system which can

be granular or liquid, used at the base of the plant and travels through the

vascular stream. Insects ingest the insecticide while feeding on the plants.

These compounds are absorbed by the tissues of a plant (or animal)

without ill effects. Insect pests ingest the insecticide when they feed on

the treated organism and cause a special type of stomach poison. Plant

systemics can be incorporated into the soil around ornamentals or

bedding plants. The insecticides are absorbed by the roots and

translocated to leaves, stems, and flowers.

Contact insecticides are toxic to insects brought into direct contact.

These insecticides are chemicals that kill insects through skin contact; it

does not have to be ingested. The pest has to be attacking the plant

before it can be applied and it is dependent upon direct contact for a kill.

Such insecticides are used against pests that chew rather than suck.

Group of these insecticides are usually not effective on leaf miners, since

72
the insect is protected by the outer leaf surface, but thorough treatment

with a contact insecticide may provide control (Tenenbaum, 1997).

Fumigants are used for the control of stored product pests. They are

effective in the vapour phase and can be extremely hazardous to humans

(Dent, 1995).

Synthetic pesticides can be grouped by their active ingredient the

chemical class to which a toxic components belong. There are four major

types of chemical insecticides: Organochlorines, Organophosphates,

Carbamates and Pyrethroids. The orgochlorines or the chlorinated

hydrocarbons are broad spectrum and are most effective against biting

and chewing insects. They were discovered and largely developed

between 1942 and 1956 and played an important part in the early success

of synthetic insecticides (Barlow, 1985). The next large class developed

was the organophosphates, which bind to acetylcholinesterase and

other cholinesterases (Wikipedia, 2008). Organophosphate insecticides

are widely used agents which are quickly absorbed through the skin and

mucous membranes. The effects of acute exposure to these agents can

be severe and intensive therapy may be required. Specific drugs are

available to reverse the muscarinic, nicotinic and central effects of these

poisons. When given early they are very effective and early diagnosis and

treatment may therefore be life-saving (Kipling and Cruickshank,

2007).They are less persistent than the organochlorines, but this means

that the timing of application has to be more accurate. Some are highly

selective while others have an extremely mammalian toxicity. Hence they

73
need to be handled with care since doses may be cumulative (Hill and

Waller, 1982). Many of the organophosphates have systemic activity,

where the insecticide enters the vascular tissues of the plant, either

through the foliage or the roots and is translocated throughout the plant to

the sites of pest attack (Dent, 1995).

The other group, Carbamates show selective toxicity to individual groups

whereas some are fairly safe for mammals (carbaryl, pirimicarb), others'

very toxic (aldicarb) (Sobstdu, 2004). Often used where pesticide

resistance has developed in other chemical classes, carbamates are

generally of short to medium persistant,.

Pyrethroids are a group of man-made pesticides similar to the natural

pesticide pyrethrum, which is produced by chrysanthemum flowers. It is

considered as a third generation pesticides as far as evolution of pesticide

is concern. Pyrethroid insecticides have been used in agricultural and

home formulations for more than 30 years and account for approximately

one-fourth of the worldwide insecticide market. Currently, 16 pyrethroids

are registered for use in the United States in a large variety of agricultural

or consumer products. Often, pyrethroids are sold and/or used as

mixtures containing a combination of two or more compounds. Exposure

to pyrethroids has been widely documented in humans, including

exposure of pregnant women, infants, and children (Timothy et a/., 2005).

Most pyrethroids, but not all, have very low mammalian toxicity and

hence, are relatively safe for the spray operators during mixing and

application.

74
The Red pumpkin beetle, Raphidopalpa (Aulacophora) foveicollis (Lucas)

is a serious insect pest which causes heavy damage of cucurbitaceous

crops among different regions of the world including Greece South

Europe, Algeria, Egypt, Cyprus, Aden, Persia, India, Ceylon, Nepal and

Burma (Dhillon and Sharma, 1987). So it is very important to find out the

way of control of this pest. Several workers from India (Kavadia et al.,

1974; Singh and Mishra, 1977; Noor and Pareek, 1978; Krishnaiah et al.,

1979; Dabi et al., 1980; Bajwa and Mavi, 1981, 1985; Sinha and

Chakrabarti. 1983; Chattopadhyay, 1992) and abroad (Pavlakos, 1945;

Anonymous, 1994; Rahaman and Prodhan, 2007) have been reported

both the systemic and non-systemic insecticides were effective against R.

foveicollis. Keeping the above point in view the present investigation was

undertaken to study the effectiveness of various chemical pesticides

against red pumpkin beetle.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

Two sites viz., Dargakona and Alenpur were selected for the study of the

bio-efficacy of chemical pesticides on C. maxima crop during 2005 (winter

season) in Cachar district of Assam. For the study of bio-efficacy of

chemical pesticides Randomized Block Design (RBD) method was

followed. Seven insectides including three pyrethroids viz., Deltamethrin

(0.001% and 0.002%), Fenvalerate (0.001% and 0.002%) and

Cypermethrin (0.001% and 0.002%); two systemic insecticides viz.,

Dimethoate (0.02% and 0.03%) and Phosphamidon (0.02% and 0.03%);

and two contact insecticides viz., Endosulfan (0.03% and 0.05%) and

Malathion (0.03% and 0.05%)with two concentrations each were

75
evaluated against R. foveicollis in the field. The pesticides were diluted by

Pearson's Square method. Foliar application was made in the field by

hand sprayer. Three replications were followed for each treatment and

each replication consisted of 1 m2 area. All agronomical practices were

followed for the preparation of cropland. Pre-treatment population was

counted before spraying the pesticides against all the treatments. The

percent reductions of beetles were calculated following the formula

(Abbott's 1925):

Pre-treatment -Post treatment

% reduction = X 100
Pre-treatment

The per cent mortality figures were transformed to angular values to

maintain the uniformity of the data. ANOVA was calculated to find out the

significant relationship among the mortality percentage of all the

treatments. Pesticide efficacy among the concentrations was grouped by

the critical difference (CD) value.

Cost- benefit ratio (C: B ratio) was determined on C. maxima crop in the

field with seven different pesticides. The crop was treated as per label

recommendation dose with single spray. Input cost was recorded as

engagement of labour, pesticide cost, buying cow dung, bamboo for

fencing and developed infrastructure to the field. Yield was weighed after

harvesting. Total yield was calculated and expressed as Q/ha. Cost-

benefit ratio was determined and monetary earning was indicated per

hectare basis.

76
RESULTS
Bio-efficacy of chemical pesticides against R. foveicollis showed cent per

cent population reduction by both phosphamidon (0.03%.) and endosulfan

(0.05%.) after 1 s t day of treatment followed by fenvalerate (0.002%.)

where per cent reduction observed as 94.44 (Table ). The lowest

reduction (33.33%) was showed by dimethoate (0.02 %.) after 1st day of

application. After 5th day, phosphamidon (0.02%, 0.03 %) and endosulfan

(0.05%) afforded cent per cent reduction of pest population along with

deltamethrin (0.001%) and cypermethrin (0.001% and 0.002%.).

Fenvalerate (0.001%) gave efficacy up to 95.23%. Again fenvalerate

(0.002%) also showed same efficacy as in the case of 1st day of

treatment. Dimethoate (0.02 %.) performed percent reduction up to

66.66% which was lowest than the other treatments. After 10th day of

treatment per cent reduction was afforded to be 72.22% by

phosphamidon (0.03%). Endosulfan (0.05%) afforded 16.66% which was

recorded to be the lowest after 10th day of application. Both the

concentrations of cypermethrin and fenvalerate (0.001%, 0.002%)

registered cent per cent pest population reduction along with dimethoate

(0.03%) and malathion (0.03%) but deltamethrin (0.001%) gave 95.83%

reduction. The per cent reduction after 15th day of application afforded to

be cent per cent by fenvalerate (0.002%) and cypermethrin (0.001% and

0.002%) whereas in case of fenvalerate (0.001%), dimethoate (0.03%)

and malathion (0.03%) showed decreased trend of per cent reduction.

Hereafter, Dimethoate (0.03%) afforded 50.00% reduction which was

recorded to be the lowest performance on 15th day post treatment.

77
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Whereas fenvalerate (0.001%). malathion (0.03%) showed 77.77% and

80.55% reductions, respectively. Twentieth (20th) day of post- treatment

with fenvalerate (0.002%) and cypermethrin (0.002%) afforded cent

percent reduction whereas it was recorded to be decreased by other

treatments. The lowest per cent reduction (26.66%) was afforded by

endosulfan (0.03%).

ANOVA was employed to test the significance level among the various

treatments against pre-treatment population at different treatment periods.

Study indicated that there was no significant difference (p>0.05) between

nil the treatments.

As regards the efficacy of pesticides it was found that after 1 s t day of

application in lieu of high per cent reduction only phosphamidon (0.03%)

and endosulfan (0.05%) with high doses significantly different from other

concentrations followed by deltamethrin (0.001) and fenvalerate (0.001%).

The least effective group was determined as dimethoate (0.02%) (Table

14). The order of effective group in decreased way: phosphamidon

(0.03%) = endosulfan (0.05%) > deltamethrin (0.001%) = fenvalerate

(0.001%) > deltamethrin (0.002%) = phosphamidon (0.02%) >

cypermethrin (0.002%)= endosulfan (0.03%)= malathion (0.05%) >

cypermethrin (0.001%) > dimethoate (0.03%) > malathion (0.03% )>

dimethoate (0.02%).

Fifth day post treatment indicated that although the reduction per cent

varied among deltamethrin (0.001%), fenvalerate (0.001%), cypermethrin

(0.001%. 0.002%). phosphamidon (0.02%, 0.03%) and endosulfan

(0.05%) but they belongs to same group as per the significant test (p>

78
0.05). Fenvalerate (0.002%) and endosulfan (0.03%) also belonged to

second effective group. The least effective group was found to be

dimethoate (0.02%) (Table 14). The orders of effective group were:

deltamethrin (0.001%) = fenvalerate (0.001%) = cypermethrin (0.001%.

0.002%) = phosphamidon (0.02%. 0.03%) = endosulfan (0.05%) >

fenvalerate (0.002%) = endosulfan (0.03%) > malathion (0.05%) >

dimethoate (0.03%) > deltamethrin (0.002%) > malathion (0.03%) >

dimethoate (0.02%).

Fenvalerate (0.001%. 0.002%) and cypermethrin (0.001%. 0.002%)

appeared as most effective treatments after 10th day of application along

with dimethoate (0.03%) and malathion (0.03%) (Table 14). Deltamethrin

(0.001%) belongs to 2 nd highest effective group. But phosphamidon

(0.03%). dimethoate (0.02%) and malathion (0.05%) gone back to lower

effective group after 10th day of application. Here least effective pesticide

was found to be (endosulfan 0.03%). The order of effective group were:

fenvalerate (0.001%. 0.002%) = cypermethrin (0.001%. 0.002%) =

dimethoate (0.003%) = malathion (0.03%) > = cypermethrin (0.001%.

0.002%) deltamethrin (0.001%) > deltamethrin (0.002%) > phosphamidon

(0.03%) = dimethoate (0.02%) = malathion (0.05%) > phosphamidon

(0.03%) > endosulfan (0.05%) > endosulfan (0.03%).

After 15th day of treatment it was found that fenvalerate (0.002%) and

cypermethrin (0.001%. 0.002%) maintained their superiority in efficacy

over other treatments. Both the concentration of deltamethrin (0.001%.

0.002%) belonged to different groups. The order of efficacy of the

treatment were: fenvalerate (0.002%) = cypermethrin (0.001%. 0.002%) >

70
deltamethrin (0.001%) > deltamethrin (0.002%) > phosphamidon (0.02%,

0.03%) > malathion (0.03%) > endosulfan (0.05%) = malathion (0.05%) >

dimethoate (0.02%) > endosulfan (0.03%) > dimethoate (0.03%).

The least effective dose was recorded dimethoate (0.03%) after 15th day

of application.

As far as efficacy of grouping is concern, it is observed that fenvalerate

(0.002%) and cypermethrin (0.002%) belonged to same group and proved

to be superior among all the treatments after 20th day of application (Table

14). Deltamethrin (0.001%, 0.002%), cypermethrin (0.001%) and

phosphamidon (0.02%. 0.03%) belonged to 2 nd effective group. The least

effective grouped dose was found to be endosulfan (0.03%), and

malathion (0.05%) was placed above the least effective group. The order

of efficacy of effective group was: fenvalerate (0.002%) = cypermethrin

(0.002%) > deltamethrin (0.001%. 0.002%) = cypermethrin (0.001%) =

phosphamidon (0.02%, 0.03%) > malathion (0.03%) > fenvalerate

(0.001%) = dimethoate (0.03%) > dimethoate (0.02%) = endosulfan

(0.05%) > malathion (0.05%) > endosulfan (0.03%).

Cost- Benefit Analysis of different insecticides on pumpkin (C.

maxima):

Data obtained on the cost- benefit analysis of various treatments (Table

15) indicated that the application of cypermethrin (0.002%) was the most

economically viable treatment which gave the highest cost-benefit-ratio

(1:3.36) followed by fenvalerate (0.001%) as it was registered C:B ratio =

1:3.04. A sum of Rs. 7569.80 and 6926.20 were the net profit against

80
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yield by cypermethrin and fenvalerate respectively, followed by the third

pyrethroid (deltamethrin) which earn the monetary benefit of Rs

6541.40/-. On the other hand, an organophosphate compound

(phosphamidon) showed fourth ranking of yield which given cost benefit

ratio up to 1:2.33. The least C: B ratio was obtained by endosulfan was 1:

1.39 with a monetary benefit of Rs 3465.00/-. The C: B ratio in the

decreasing order was: cypermethrin (1:1.36) > fenvalerate (1:3.04) >

deltamethrin (1:2.87) > phosphamidon (1:2.33) > dimethoate (1:1.98) >

malathion (1:1.91) > endosulfan (1:1.39) (Table 15 ).

DISCUSSION

Present findings based on the reduction in the pest population, it is

evident that out of seven insecticides belonging to different chemical

groups, cypermethrin (0.002%) and fenvalerate (0.002%) performance

were the most effective in controlling the beetles and afforded cent per

cent reduction up to 20 days. Phosphamidon (0.03%) and endosulfan

(0.05%) were registered to be superior in population reduction and

showed quick-nock down effect to control the pests just after one day of

application. Cypermethrin (0.001%) showed cent per cent reduction after

5 day till 15 days whereas fenvalerate (0.001%) gave cent per cent

reduction at 10th day of application although the reduction continued up to

20 days. This finding highly corroborates the investigation of Omkar and

Tripathi (1986) who observed cypermethrin and fenvalerate as the potent

chemicals which offered effective control of R. foveicollis for about 2

weeks. This finding also in conformity with Rajak and Singh (2002) who

81
reported cypermethrin and fenvalerate treatments were significantly

superior over control. Data reveals that higher concentration of all the

treatments showed more efficacy than lower treatments except

deltamethrin and malathion.

Among synthetic pyrethroids the efficacy of cypermethrin and fenvalerate

were followed by deltamethrin which partially supports the report of Ray

(2000) who observed deltamethrin and fenvalerate were the most potent

insecticides. But the residual effects of fenvalerate and deltamethrin which

was continued up to 20 days against the pests are highly corroborates

Ray (2000) and Nath and Ray (2006b). Both the deltamethrin 0.001% and

0.002% registered rapid quick-nock effect on reduction of pest population

where deltamethrin (0.001%) gave 100% reduction after 5th day of

application. Ray (2000) proposed the residual effects of deltamethrin and

fenvalerate was continued up to 15 days for protection the pests, whereas

Nath and Ray (2006b) reported deltamethrin (0.001%) affords cent per

cent reduction after 5 days though the residual action continues up to 20

days which highly supports our present findings. Pyrethroids are

photodegradable, possess less mammalian toxicity and therefore, these

chemicals may be recommended against this Chrysomelid beetle.

Two systemic insecticides Viz., phosphamidon (0.02% and 0.03%) and

dimethoate (0.03%) were found to be second most effective insecticides.

It appears from the result that phosphamidon (0.03%) possess the quick

nock action just after 1 s t day of treatment where cent per cent reduction

was observed and continued up to 5th day. Phosphamidon (0.02%) and

dimethoate (0.03%) afforded cent per cent reduction after 5th day and 10th

82
day, respectively. Dimethoate (0.02%) was noticed to be less effective in

the beginning but 66.00% reduction has been observed from 5th to 10th

day of application. The slow action of the insecticides (dimethoate 0.02%

and 0.03%) in beginning may be attributed to the time taken by the

chemicals to get absorbed in the plant system (Ray, 2000). The high

efficacy of systemic insecticides were reported by several workers

(Sharma, 1970; Dabi ef al., 1980; Rajak and singh, 2002; Nath and Ray,

2006b) on R. foveicollis favours our present findings. Phosphamidon was

observed to be most effective by Sharma (1970), Dabi ef al. (1980) and

Ray (2000). Dimethoate was also effective reported by Ray (2000) and

Nath and Ray (2006b). Nath and Ray (2006b) reported dimethoate

(0.03%) gave cent per cent population reduction after 10th day of

application and residual action continued up to 20 days that favours our

present investigation.

Out of two contact insecticides endosulfan (0.05%) was found highly

active at the beginning where cent per cent reduction proved after 1 st day

up to 5th day and thereafter the effectiveness decreasing. Endosulfan was

one of the most effective insecticide reported by several workers (Kavadia

ef al., 1974; Krishnaiah ef al., 1979; Dabi ef al., 1980 and Ray, 2000)

corroborates our present investigation. Endosulfan (0.05%) though initially

proved one of the best treatment, took a moderate position in due course

of time which corroborates the work of Ray (2000). Dabi ef al. (1980) also

reported it possess moderate toxicity against pest.

The control of R. foveicollis with both the systemic and non-systemic

insecticides has been reported as effective by several workers from India

83
(Kavadia et al., 1974; Singh and Mishra, 1977; Noor and Pareek, 1978;

Krishnaiah et al., 1979; Davi et al., 1980; Bajwa and Mavi, 1981, 1985;

Sinha and Chakrabarti, 1983; ChSttopadhyay, 1992) and abroad

(Pavlacos, 1945; Anonymous, 1994; Rahaman and Prodhan, 2007)

among others. According*to Kavadia et al. (1974) BHC (chlorinated group)

is not advisable for field application. A number of authors (Sandhu and

Bhalla 1973; Kavadia et al., 1974; Singh and Mishra, 1977; Krishnaiah et

al., 1979; Bajwa and Mavi, 1985; Mavi and Bajwa, 1985; Dimsey, 1994;

Brown, 2003; Velusamy, 2006) have reported carbaryl as one of the most

effective insecticide and with long residual life. Though carbaryl is

effective but not advisable to spray on flowering crops, as it may be toxic

to bees, because cucurbits depend on bees for pollination (Brown, 2003).

Malathion was found to be less effective in present study than the other

insecticides. This is in agreement with a number of earlier workers (Dabi

et al., 1980; Bajwa and Mavi, 1981; Mavi and Bajwa, 1985; Pareek and

Kavadia, 1998; Ray, 2000). But per cent reduction was recorded to be

100% by malathion (0.03%) after 5th day of treatment and continue the

residual action up to 20 days that confirms the reports of Nath and Ray

(2006b). Dimsey (1994) also reported that the spray of malathion for

control the red pumpkin beetle. Ray (2000) reported malathion lost its

effectiveness before the expiry of 7 days and also proposed its residual

life varying from 6 to 8 days which disagrees our present findings. The

residual life of malathion (0.03%) was continued up to 20 days whereas

malathion (0.05%) showed 72.22% reduction up to 15 days. This variation

84
may be due to the difference in formulation brands, the efficacy of which

is known to vary as well as variation of agro-climatic conditions.

As regards the cost-benefit-ratio it may be said that the cypermethrin and

fenvalerate showed the highest performance of crop yield. This finding

corroborates the work of Bhattacharjee (2008) who also found the best

performance by both the pyrethroids in rice field. Even the third pyrethroid

(deltamethrin) also showes better performance as far as yield is concern

where C: B belongs to third position. Phosphamidon (0.03%) also proves

higher yield performance which gives profit money of Rs. 5585/- from a

hectare of land. Endosulfan (0.05%) shows least profit pesticides

corroborates the work of Das and Ishahaque (1999) where the C: B ratio

was 1: 1.39 and profitable money was Rs. 3465/- per hectare. The entire

treatments yield was found to be profitable against control. Since

pyrethroids are possess less mamalian toxicity, photodegradable and

short residual life and moreover, the yield is high, therefore, cypermethrin

and fenvalerate may be recommended which earn Rs. 7659/- per hectare

and Rs. 6926/- per hectare, respectively.

85
 CHAPTER V

b) Management by Bio-Pesticides

INTRODUCTION

With increasing awareness about the toxic and deleterious effects of

chemical insecticides, farmers are looking into eco-friendly options to

manage crop pests. Botanical insecticides, cultural practices and bio-

control agents come in handy for them to keep the pests at bay.

Companion planting with repellent and trap crops is one among the safe,

but sure ways to manage the insect pests of crops. Trap crops planted

along the borders and on bunds help in attracting the key pests of crops,

and the crop is removed along with the concentration of insects so that

the main crop is saved from pest ravage. Repellent crops are plants with

strong natural aroma with which they drive away the insect pests

(www.hinduonnet.com).

An increasing number of commercially available biocontrol products are

made up of microorganisms, including fungi, bacteria, nematodes, and

viruses.

The potential for non-target effects following the release of exotic species

has raised concerns ever since biological control programmes were first

set up. However, Howarth (1983; 1991) and Louda (1997) highlighted this

issue of unwanted non-target effects in biological control and stimulated

with these articles intense discussion even beyond the scientific

community. Subsequently, a number of papers on non-target effects have

been published within the last ten years (Follett et al., 2000a, b; Louda et

86
al. 2003a). As host-specificity testing of entomophagous biological control

agents has lagged behind that of phytophagous biological control agents,

recent international efforts have been initiated. Selection of appropriate

species for testing potential impacts of candidate biological control agents

is the first critical step and although several independent arthropod

biological control projects applied different approaches aiming the

development of a test species list a standardized method needs to be

developed.

In broader sense, biopesticides include pesticides of biological origin.

There is no unanimity in the definition of biopesticides, which vary from a

very narrow to wide scope. For example, Van Latum and Gerrits (1991)

interpreted bio-pesticides as simply the plant- derived substances.

Similarly Lisansky (1989) defined bio-pesticides as preparations or

formulations manufactured to be used in the control of eradication of

pests, weeds or disease organisms, in which the active ingredient or

principle is based on a living microorganism or is derived from one without

significant purification or modification. These narrow definitions stand in

contrast to the wider one, which includes all organic substances having a

protective effect on plants, whether found in nature or chemically

synthesized. Zechendorf (1995) included substances such as plant

extracts, hormones, pheromones and toxins from organic origin in the

scope of bio-pesticides. Hagler (2000) used the strict definition of

biological control and considered only predators, parasitoids and

pathogens as biological control agents. He regarded pheromones, natural

plant components, insect growth regulators, sterile insect releases and

87
genetic manipulations as parabiological control agents. Copping and

Menn (2000) referred the term bio-pesticides to encompass many aspects

of pest control such as microbial, entomophagous, nematodes, plant

derived pesticides, secondary metabolites from microorganisms,

pheromones and genes used to transform crop to express resistance to

pests. Most recently, the encouragement of natural enemies (parasitoids,

predators, microbes etc.) and the use of transgenic crop varieties,

pheromones, growth regulators and plant derived materials in pest

management, has been considered to constitute bio-pesticide umbrella

(Koul ef a/., 2003).

Bellows (2005) suggested that biological control is the most powerful ally

that a disturbed ecosystem has in the efforts to return it to ecological

health and may have in helping manage ecosystems at risk from invading

species. The attack of red pumpkin beetle can be controlled by biological

pesticides. The pest enemies are used to limit the pest attack for R

foveicollis Tachinid fly Medinodexia morgani, mite Histiostoma sp. and

Reduviid bug Rhinocoris fuscipes are reported to be the enemies.

Generally predators keep away from Raphidopalpa sps perhaps due to

the presence of distasteful toxics or repellent to general predators. It has

also been suggested that on the basis of existing knowledge the

prospects for achieving biological control of Aulacophora sp. appear to be

remote (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987). A very negligible number of works

have been carried out in North-East India in general and in Barak Valley

of Assam in particular no work was reported on R foveicollis so far except

Nath and Ray (2006b). Considering this issue in mind the present

88
investigation was undertaken to control the R. foveicollis by using bio-

pesticides.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

Alenpur crop field was selected for the study of bio-pesticides trial in

terms of mortality of the pest and a Randomized Block Design (RBD) was

followed. Five different bio-pesticides viz., Azacel, Cal- MB, Cal- 10, Cal

paste and Larvocel were collected from local market. All the pesticides

were selected with two concentrations each and sprayed against R.

foveicollis on the foliage of the crop. Three replications for each treatment

were followed and each consisted of 1m2 area. Mortality was observed

after 1 s t , 3rd, 5th and 7th day of application. The per cent reductions of

beetles were calculated following the formula (Abbott's 1925):

Pre-treatment -Post treatment

% reduction = X 100
Pre-treatment

The per cent mortality figures were transformed to angular values to

maintain the uniformity of the data. ANOVA was calculated to find out the

significant relationship among the mortality percentage of all the

treatments. The efficacy of bio-pesticide among the concentrations was

grouped by the critical difference (CD) value.

Composition of Biopesticides:

1. Azacel: Azadirachtin

89
 2. Cal-MB: Andropogon nardus (30%), Annona reticulata (20%),

famesol (10%), fatty acid (20%) and dissolving agent (20%).

3. Cal-10: Anthemis nobilis (43%) ellagic acid (15%) Euphorbia

thymifolia (27%) and dissolvingg agent (15%).

4. Cal-paste: Castor oil (25%) Curbuma longa (10%) Chitinase (15%)

Jatropha oil (25%), neem oil (10%) and dissolving

agent 0 5%).

5. Larvocel: 1.5% B. bassiana (Bals) Vuill,

RESULTS

The data regarding the bio-efficacy of 5(five) bio-pesticides against R.

foveicollis revealed that Cal-paste (0.4%) afforded cent per cent mortality

after 1 s t day of application followed by larvocel (1.0%) where 83.33%

reduction was recorded (Table 16). The lowest per cent reduction was

observed by Larvocel (0.5%) which registered 19.44 per cent reduction.

After 3rd day of application Larvocel (0.5%) showed cent per cent

reduction followed by Cal-paste (88.88%} whereas the minimum reduction

was recorded to be 36.66%. by using Azacel (0.5%). Fifth day post

application afforded cent per cent efficacy by both the Cal-paste (0.2%)

and Larvocel (0.5%) followed by Cal-MB (0.2%) where the population was

reduced to be 44.44%. After 7th day of treatment the highest per cent

reduction (75.00%) was recorded by Cal-paste (0.2%) followed by

Larvocel (0.5%) where the per cent reduction was recorded to be 72.22%.

The least bio-efficacy was obtained by Cal-MB (0.2%) where it registered

90
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20.00% pest reduction. Efficacy of Cal-10 (0.4%) showed no mortality of

population after 7th day of application. ANOVA was recorded to be non-

significant among different bio-pesticide concentrations.

Cal-paste and Larvocel were recorded to be the high effective treatments.

Cal-paste (0.4%) showed the rapid quick nock down effect with 100%

reduction after 1 day and considered as the most superior thereafter its

effectiveness trend was decreasing but the residual effect was continued

up to 7th day of application. At 3rd day of post application its efficacy was

recorded to be the second highest among all the treatments. Larvocel

(0.5%) showed highest performance i.e., cent per cent population

reduction of the beetles during 3rd to 5th day of post application thereafter

its effectiveness was diminished but its residual effect was continued up

to 7th day where it registered 72.22% reduction. It was reduced at 7th day

though gave good performance i.e., 55.55% reduction was counted. Cal-

paste (0.2%) did not show good performance initially to control the

population but gave cent per cent population reduction at 5th day of

treatment. After 7th day its activity was recorded to be the highest among

all the treatments where it gave 75.00% reduction. Azacel and Cal-MB

showed moderate performance during the entire study period. As

comparison to other treatments Cal-10 proved to be the least effective

group. Although, the per cent reduction was varied among the various

concentrations and treatments it was proved that Cal paste and Larvocel

was positioned as a superior.

DISCUSSION

91
The data reveals the effectiveness of bio-pesticides in two concentrations

of each of five treatments. All the treatments proved their various

performances that they belong to almost different groups. Treatments

were found to be active up to 7th day of post application except Cal-10

(0.4%), in which the effectiveness disappears after one week and

population resurgence. Lower concentrations were followed as per label

recommendation dose.

All parts of the neem tree (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) are insecticidal

although the seed possess the largest concentrations of Azadirachtin

(Azt) a steroid like tetranortriterpenoid. The products of neem have been

studied against a large number of insects (Ladd ef al., 1978; Saxena and

Khan, 1985; Ali Niazee ef at., 1997; Ghoneim ef a/., 2000) where the

efficacy against red pumpkin beetle was reported by several workers

(Chakraborty ef al., 1969; Ahmed and Micheal, 1988; Gujar and Marhotra,

1998; Das and Ishahaque, 1999; Khan and Wasim, 2001; Ray, 2000

among others). The chemical composition of neem was studied by Isman

et al. (1990), Schmutterer (1990), and Gujar (1997). Isman ef al. (1990)

and Schmutterer (1990) reported Azadirachtin is a major limnoid found in

the neem extract, appears to be the most potent component. The

physiological effects of neem are highly correlated with the percentage of

Azadirachtin in the extract. Along with limnoid, salanim, nimbin and

deacetyi nimbin have also been shown to be biologically active. The

feeding and oviposition deters by the use of this extract (Rice et al.,

1985). The study of Cohen et al. (1996) suggested that the limnoids in the

neem extracts could be cytotoxic (Guerrini, 2000). It is noteworthy to

92
mention that, the structural analysis of Azt could act as

genotoxiccarcinogen (Rozencrantz and Klopman, 1995). Chakraborty et

al, (1969); Das and Ishahaque (1999); Khan and Wasim (2001) among

others suggested that the neem extract was found to be most active

against red pumpkin beetle which is not totally agrees with our present

findings. The present study of Azacel among all the concentrations

revealed that it was not to be too much active as such Cal-paste and

Larvocel which corroborates the report of Ray (2000). Ray (2000)

reported A. indica extract was found to be low toxic against R. foveicollis.

The higher concentration of Cal-paste (0.4%) gave rapid quick nock down

action against red pumpkin beetle where cent per cent reduction was

recorded just after a day. From 3rd day its activity decreased but it

remains active up to 7th day of application. This finding highly

corroborates the finding of Nath and Ray (2006b) who reported cal-paste

(0.4%) afforded very effective performance where cent per cent mortality

recorded only after 1 day of treatment. Thereafter its efficacy reduces and

continues up to a week. The lower concentration of Cal-paste (0.2%) was

found to be initially less active but after 5th day it showed cent per cent

performance to decrease the population and residual action persists for a

week. The activity of Cal-paste recorded to be higher may be due to the

combination of different composition along with neem oil (10%), whereas

Azacel is composed of a single product i.e., Azadirachtin..

Highest efficacy (100%) of ILarvocel (0.5%) showed from 3rd to 5th day of

post treatment and continued up to 7th day though initially it was less

active. This finding also highly favours Nath and Ray (2006b) who

93
reported that Larvocel (0.5%) shows cent per cent mortality after 3 days

and continues up to 5 days of application. Therefore, both the

concentrations of Larvocel remain active for a week. Larvocel is

composed of B. bassiana, a fungal spore for which effectiveness remains

for a long time. Toepfer et al. (2005) studied the effect of B. bassiana on

D. V. hgifera and found suitable results. The main reasons behind the

effectiveness of the fungal spore is that when spore contact with the

beetles cuticle then they germinate and grow into their bodies that lead to

the formation of toxins and kill the pest eventually. The delay in response

by the spore may take when get touched with the pest species body. All

the products performance are also very effective. However, the Larvocel

(0.5% and 1.0%) may be recommended since this contains a fungal spore

as one of the main constituent which is a microbial product. The Cal-paste

(0.2% and 0.4%) may also be recommended since it shows high

effectiveness in which neem oil is one of the major component of the

mixture because the combined or mixture forms of bio-pesticides give

high effectiveness.

94
 CHAPTER V

c) Management by Plant Indigenous Materials

INTRODUCTION

In spite of wide recognition that many plants possess insecticidal

properties, only a handful of pest control products directly obtained from

plants, i.e., botanical insecticides, are in use in developed countries

(Isman, 1997). Plants have evolved for over 400 million years and to

defend themselves from insect attack they have developed protection

mechanisms such as repellents and even insecticidal effects. The oldest

known pest control method is human sacrifice, but since it is not effective,

or may be because of the lack of volunteers, dusts began being used and

also plant extracts which are mentioned even in the Bible. After the

Second World War the few plant and plant extracts that had shown

promising effects, and were of widespread use replaced by synthetic

insecticides. There is no doubt that botanical insecticides are an

interesting alternative to insect pest control, and on the other hand only a

few of the more than 250,000 plant species on our planet have been

properly evaluated for this purpose. This means the potential for the future

may be huge (Silva-Aguayo, 2004). Various isolated compounds from

these plants indicated that approximately 350 compounds are insecticidal

(Dev and Koul, 1997). In fact, plants like neem (Azadirachta indica J.,

Meliaceae), have shown excellent results and there are already

commercial products in the market made from it. But one should not think

success is at hand and botanical insecticides will replace all synthetic

products. They are only alternatives that may be used in Integrated Pest

95
Management programs and they should be used together with other

available control measures (Silva-Aguayo, 2004).

Around 1850 a new plant insecticide known as rotenone was introduced.

It is obtained from the roots of plants called timbo. Until that time this plant

was used for fishing purposes only as natives had known for a long time

that throwing root pieces to the water caused fish to start floating a few

minutes later, making them very easy to catch. Later on plants with

irritating properties like incense and sabadilla were used: extracts from

the latter plant were used as decongestants. These plants did not kill

insects directly but it was said that they "scared them off." More recently

other plants used are quasia (Quaisa amara, Simaroubaceae), neem or

Margosa (A. indica) mentioned above, which besides giving excellent

results for insect control are also a source of compounds used against

cancer. In Mexico and several Central American countries even today it is

common practice to treat pests with plants known for their insecticidal

properties as far back as the era of the Aztecs and Mayans. A case in

point is the use of a mixture of corn and beans with chilly (Capsicum

frutescens; Solanaceae), rue (Ruta graveolens; Rutaceae) or garlic

(Allium cepa; Alliaceae). At present, there are a number of botanical

insecticides being marketed which are extracted from neem, grapefruit

seeds and garlic, among other plants. Besides, there are the synthetic

copies of natural active ingredients like neonicotinoids where imidacloprid

stands out. Lastly, it is worth mentioning that this is a field where new

discoveries are made every day. One example is the development of a

96
new kind of insecticide obtained from the plant of Chilean Andes origin

known as Calceolaria andina (Scrophulariaceae) (Silva-Aguayo, 2004).

The use of organochlorine insecticides have been banned in developed

countries and alternative methods of insect pest control are being

investigated. Botanicals are a promising source of pest control

compounds. The pool of plants possessing insecticidal substances is

enormous. These have generated extraordinary interest in recent years

as potential sources of natural insect control agents. In the middle of the

17th century, pyrethrum, nicotine, and rotenone were recognized as

effective insect-control agents (Silva-Aguayo, 2004).

Botanical pesticides are prepared in various ways. They can be as

simple as pureed plant leaves, extracts of plant parts, or chemicals

purified from plants. Pyrethrum, neem formulations, and rotenone are

examples of botanicals. Some botanicals are broad-spectrum pesticides.

Others, like ryania, are very specific. Botanicals are generally less harmful

in the environment than synthetic pesticides because they degrade

quickly, but they can be just as deadly to beneficial as synthetic

pesticides. However, they are less hazardous to transport and in some

cases can be formulated on-farm. The manufacture of botanicals

generally results in fewer toxic by-products (Rex Dufour, 2001).

Many investigations have been conducted on the antifeedant effects,

growth inhibition and abnormal development in various insects caused by

neem seed extracts and Azadirachtin (Schmutterer and Ascher, 1984).

Neem seed and leaf extracts, as well as, the purified compound

97
Azadirachtin, are powerful insect antifeedant and repellents (Butterworth

and Morgan, 1968; Zanno et a/., 1975). They may also disrupt growth;

inhibit moulting (Garcia and Rembold, 1984; Koul, 1984; Dorn et a/.,

1986) and oogenesis (Rembold and Sieber, 1981). More than 140

compounds, which are chemically diverse and structurally complex, have

been isolated from the leaves, seed, oil and bark of neem (Koul and

Dhaliwal, 2001; Koul, 2004).

Haque (2002) analyzed chemically Bankalmi, Polygonum hydropiper and

evaluated against rice hispa beetle. Hot water extracts of Bankalmi

(Jpomoea sepiaha) and Bishkatali (Polygonum hydropiper) (1: 10; W/V)

can efficiently be controlled the Hispa beetle and Bankalmi leaf extract

with 25-95% ethyl alcohol. Ahmed and Micheal (1988) observed neem,

hermal and bakain extrtacts were effective against red pumpkin beetle.

Khan and Wasim (2001) found that the plant extracts of Neem, Bakain

and Hermal extract in ethanol and benzene were found significantly

effective in the repellency of red pumpkin beetles compared to control.

Pande et al. (1987) tested the toxicity of a leaf extract of Ageratum

conyzoides against R. foveicollis (A. foveicollis). Das and Ishahaque,

1999 reported that P. hydropiper, A indica and E. odoratum leaf extracts

by water were effective against R. foveicollis. Ray (2000) tested the

mortality of the beetle caused by the leaf extract of H. suareolens and

found to be superior than the A. indica. A number of commercial

formulations of botanical pesticides are now available in the market and

these have extensively evaluated against a variety of insect pests.

98
There are a lot of publications with lists of plants with insecticidal

properties. But to use them it is not enough that the plant be considered

as promising or even with proven insecticidal properties. It is also

necessary to conduct an analysis of the risks to the environment and to

human health. Another example is that it may not be appropriate to

recommend the use of plants in danger of extinction, that are difficult to

find, or if their use results in important alterations to their population

density in natural conditions. So we must not forget that the toxic potential

of a molecule is the nature of its chemical structure and not its origin.

Paracelsus wrote in 1564 "the difference between something that kills and

something that cures is the rate" (Silva-Aguayo, 2004).

However, it must be borne in our minds that there is no feasible one

hundred per cent alternatives to chemical pesticides and they are must

when situations are demanding. In the light of integrated pest control we

have evaluated the repellent properties of the extract of common available

plants of this region by scientific approaches are discussed..

MATERIALS A N D METHODS

For the study of bioefficacy of plant indigenous materials six plants viz., a)

Bankalmi -Ipomoea quamoclit L. syn- Quamoclit pinnata (Desr.) Boj., b)

Verenda- Ricinus communis L, c) Chilly- Capsicum frutescens L, d)

Pisach- Eupatorium odoratum L, e) Karabi- Nerium indicum Mill, and f)

Nayan tara- Vinca rosea L. were selected. Leaves of /. quamoclit, R.

communis, E. odoratum, N. indicum, V. rosea and the fruits of C.

frutescens were air dried and grinded. The Grinded leaves were

extracted by Soxhlet method using Ethanol (b.p.78.3), Methanol

99
(b.p.64.7), Acetone (b.p.56.5) and Hexane (b.p.68.7) as solvents for 48

hours. In ethanol solvent, four plant materials (viz., /. quamoclit, E.

odoratum, R. communis and C. frutescens), in methanol four plants

materials (viz., /. quamoclit, R. communis, N. indicum and V. rosea), in

hexane one (C. frutescens) and in case of N. indicum acetone were

used.. Crude extract was prepared after distillation thereafter the desired

concentrations (0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%) were prepared from the crude

extract by using 0.5ml emulsifier (Triton x 100) for treatment. Three

replications were considered as RBD and each replication consisted of

1m2 area of foliage. Mortality was recorded after 1s<, 3rd, 5th and 7fh day of

treatment. The percent reduction of beetles was calculated following the

formula (Abbott's 1925):

Pre-treatment -Post treatment

% reduction = X 100
Pre-treatment

The per cent mortality figures were transformed to angular values to

maintain the uniformity of the data. ANOVA was calculated to find out the

significant relationship among the mortality percentage of all the

treatments. Pesticide efficacy among the concentrations was grouped by

the critical difference (CD) value.

RESULTS

i) Bio-efficacy of plant extract in ethanol solvent against R.

foveicollis:

Four plants in ethanol solvent among different concentrations (0.5% to

2.0%) were evaluated (Table 18). After 1 s t day of application E. odoratum

100
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showed cent per cent reduction by both 1.0% and 1.5% concentrations

followed by 2.0% and R. communis (1.0%), where population reduction

was observed as 72.22%. C. frutescens (1.5%) was found to be the least

effective treatment where efficacy was observed as 12.22%. The various

concentrations of different plant extracts did not show significant

difference among all the treatments. After 3rd day of application cent per

cent population reduction was obtained by E. odoratum (1.0%, 1.5% and

2.0%) followed by R. communis (2.0%) where 93.33% reduction was

observed. The least efficacy (13.33%) was shown by C. frutescens

(1.5%). Bioefficacy by different treatments was not significantly (p>0.05)

different from each other. After fifth day of application the highest percent

reduction (100%) was obtained by E. odoratum (1.0%, 1.5% and 2.0%),

C. frutescens (2.0%) and /. quamoclit (2.0%) whereas the least (33.03%)

was revealed by C. frutescens (0.5%). The efficacy data was found to be

significantly (p<0.01) different among treatments. After 7th day of

treatment also found the same trend of result by E. odoratum as in case

of 5th day and R. communis (2.0%) also gave the same result. The least

performance (54.34%) was obtained by C. frutescens (0.5%). The data

was found to be significantly different among all the treatments (p<0.05).

All the treatments of E. odoratum (0.5% to 2.0%) were found to be most

active from 1 st to 7th day of post application. In case of C. frutescens all

the concentrations were found to be less active at beginning but the

higher concentrations (2.0% and 1.5%) were found to be active after 3rd

and 5th day of post application whose residual life was continued up to a

week. The 2.0% concentration of C. frutescens showed cent per cent

101
efficacy after 5 days. All the treatments of R. communis were recorded to

be initially less active whereas from 3rd day up to a week gave good

performance. The cent per cent population reduction was performed by R.

communis (2.0%) at 7th day. /. quamoclit treatments were recorded to be

initially less active but due course of time they gave good performance

where cent per cent reduction was recorded to be 2.0% concentration at

5th day post treatment.

ii) Bio-efficacy of plant extract in methanol solvent against R.

foveicollis:

Here also the extract of four plants viz., Ipomoea quamoclit, Ricinus

communis, Neirium indicum and Vinca rosea in four concentrations each

(0.5% to 2.0%) by methanol solvent were extracted and tested against the

beetle to evaluate the bio-efficacy (Table 18). At 1 st day of post treatment

N. indicum (1.0%, 1.5%, and 2.0%) showed the highest per cent reduction

(100%) followed by (1.5%) where 94.44 per cent reduction was observed.

/. quamoclit (0.5%) showed the lowest i.e., 6.67% reduction. All the

treatments were proved to be significantly different (p<0.01). The 3rd day

post application revealed cent per cent reduction by N. indicum (1.0% and

1.5%) and V. rosea (2.0 %) followed by N. indicum (0.5% and 2.0%) and

R. communis (2.0 %) where population reduction was recorded as

94.44% whereas the least efficacy (25.00%) was obtained by V. rosea

(0.5%).

Efficacy of all the treatments were significantly different (p<0.01). After 5th

day of application the highest efficacy (100%) showed by N. indicum

(1.0%, 1.5% and 2.0%), R. communis (2.0 %) and V. rosea (2.0%)

102
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followed by N. indicum (0.5%) where per cent reduction was recorded to

be 93.33%, but the least reduction (52.77%) was shown by V. rosea

(0.5%). ANOVA was found to be non-significant (p<0.05) of population

reduction among different treatments. The efficacy after one week

showed the highest population reduction (100%) by N. indicum (2.0%)

and R. communis (0.5% to 2.0 %) followed by N. indicum (1.5 %) and /.

quamoclit (1.5%) where 93.33% reduction was recorded by both the

treatments. The lowest performance (24.44%) showed by V. rosea (0.5%)

(Table 18).

All the concentrations of N. indicum gave higher performance up to a

week. V. rosea (2.0%) also registered good performance where cent per

cent reduction was obtained from 3rd to 5th day; thereafter its efficacy was

going to be reduced but residual life was continued up to 7th day. R.

communis was found to be comparatively less active initially but its

residual effect increased due course of time where cent percent efficacy

proved by all the concentrations at 7th day. 2.0% concentration of R.

communis gave cent per cent reduction after 5th day of post treatment.

The lower concetrations of /. quamoclit (0.5% and 1.0%) concentrations

were less in action as compared to other whereas the higher

concentrations of /. quamoclit (1.5% and 2.0%) gave good performance

where 88.88 to 93.33 % efficacy were observed from 5th to 7th day.

iii) Bio-efficacy of plant extract i n acetone and hexane solvents

against R. foveicollis:

Two different products of C. frutescens and N. indicum were tested in

hexane and acetone solvents, respectively. Four concentrations of each

103
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have been used. Data indicated that N. indicum (0.5% to 1.5%) in acetone

solvent gave cent per cent pest population reduction after 24 hours

followed by (2.0%) in acetone solvent where reduction value was

recorded as 72.22% (Table 19). The least performance was shown by C.

frutescens (0.5%) and it gave 21.66% reduction. ANOVA was found to be

non-significant effect among different concentrations. After 3rd day of

treatment the highest efficacy (100%) showed by the acetone extract of N.

indicum (1.0% to 2.0%) followed by 0.5% that registered 83.33%

reduction and the least (27.22%) was obtained by hexane extract of C.

frutescens (1.0%). All the treatments were found to be significantly

(p<0.01) different. The 5th day data revealed cent per cent reduction by

acetone extract of N. indicum (1.0% to 2.0%) followed by hexane extract

of C. frutescens (2.0%) where 95.00% reduction was observed. The least

performance (33.33%) was obtained by acetone extract of N. indicum

(0.5%). All the treatments were found to be significantly (p<0.05) different.

Seventh day post application revealed cent percent population reduction

by acetone extract on the same plant(2.0%) and hexane extract of C.

frutescens (2.0%) followed by hexane extract of C. frutescens (1.5%)

which registered 95.23% reduction. The least efficacy (50.00%) was

obtained by acetone extract of N. indicum (0.5%). ANOVA employed

which indicated no significant difference (p >o.o5 ) between the

treatments.

DISCUSSION

104
The bio-efficacy of six plant extract (Ipomoea quamoclit, Ricinus

communis, Capsicum frtescens, Eupatorium odoratum, Neirium indicum

and Vinca rosea) in different solvents against R. foveicollis revealed that

highest performance was obtained by all the concentrations of

Eupatorium odoratum in ethanol, Neirium indicum in methanol and

hexane solvents where almost cent per cent efficacy obtained and remain

active up to a week. The lower concentrations (0.5%) of E. odoratum in

ethanol and N. indicum in methanol and hexane solvents also provided

cent per cent mortality after one day of application thereafter their efficacy

diminishes. In comparison with the higher concentrations of above saying

products the higher concentrations were less active initially but from 3rd

day up to a week they performed cent per cent efficacy. It is a clear cut

evident that the lower concentrations showed good performance initially

but thereafter effectiveness decreases whereas the higher concentrations

were less active initially but they showed good performance from third day

of application up to a week. This may be due to the chemical components

of those extracts attributed to the time taken by plant system to get

absorbed. The 3rd day post treatment by methanol extract of V. rosea

(2.0%) gave cent per cent efficacy which was continued up to 5 days. It

showed 70.00% efficacy up to one week. The lower concentrations of

methanol extract of V. rosea obtained less performance. The 5th day post

treatment showed cent per cent efficacy by ethanol extract of /. quamoclit

(2.0%), C. frutescens (2.0%) and methanol extract of R. communis

(2.0%). After one week the cent per cent performance obtained by ethanol

extract of R. communis (2.0%), methanol extract of R. communis (0.5 to

105
1.5%) and hexane extract of C. frutescens (2.0%). The lower

concentrations of /. Quamoclit and R. communis (0.5 to 1.5%) in methanol

solvent, V. rosea in methanol, C. frutescens in hexane were less effective.

All the concentrations differ significantly (p <0.05) different from each

other i.e., they belongs to different groups. However, higher

concentrations showed more effectiveness than the lower and proved to

be significantly different from each treatment.

Das and Ishahaque (1999) evaluated Polygonum hydropyper, Eupetorium

odoratum, Azadirachta indica plant extract in water solvent against red

pumpkin beetle where they reported Eupatorium odoratum was the least

effective treatment. But our present findings regarding ethanol extract of

E. odoratum gave cent per cent reduction up to one week may be due to

the insecticidal properties of the plant component which properly

dissolved by alcohol than water. A number of authors (Chand, 1975;

Ahmed et al., 1976; Deb-Kirtaniya et al., 1980) reported the valuable

effectiveness in population control of different insects which highly favours

our present findings among the higher concentrations of ethanol and

hexane extract of C. frutescens. We found ethanol extract of C. frutescens

(2.0%) gave cent per cent efficacy after 5th day whereas hexane extract

(2.0%) proved at 7th day. This finding also in conformity with Deb-Kirtaniya

et al. (1980) who tested the fruits of C. frutescens in petroleum benzene

and methanol extracts against Sitophilus oryzae. They reported all the

fractions at the concentrations were quite effective to give cent per cent

mortality within 72 hours after treatments. The effectiveness of higher

106
concentrations of C. fmtescens in alcohol and methanol solvents may be

due to the presence of more ingredients in the solution and wee-versa.

Rajak and Singh (2002) reported different plant extracts (A indica, M.

azadirachta, C. gigentia and Neirum odorum) against R foveicollis and

found to be effective. The present findings of all the fractions of N.

indicum in methanol and acetone solvents gave about 100% reduction

within 24 hours which favours observation. /. quamoclit were found to be

effective in case of higher concentrations both in ethanol and methanol

solvents where cent per cent reduction obtained after 5 days of

application by 2.0% concentration in ethanol. Similar works were carried

out by different workers on red pumpkin beetle. Gujar and Marhotra

(1998) reported biological activity of leaf extract of neem against red

pumpkin beetle. Chandravandana and Pal (1983) and Pande et al. (1987)

reported leaf extracts of Mmordica charantia and Ageratium conyzoids

against red pumpkin beetle also to be effective. Chakraborty et al. (1969)

reported thionimone (extracted from neeem Karnel) on treated plants lead

to remain less number of pests at least for five days. Pajni (1964) opined

that 10% ethanolic extract of dried fruits of bakain (M. azadirachta)

caused 6.00 to 78.3% of mortality of R. foveicollis within 96 hours. Ahmed

and Micheal (1988) and Khan and Wasim (2001) observed the neem,

hermal and bakain extracts were effective against red pumpkin beetle.

Pande et al. (1987) and Ray (2000) reported Ageratum conyzoids and

Hyptis suaveolens extracts were much effective against red pumpkin

beetle.

107
More than 2300 plants have been identified with pest control properties

and another 100 plants are being studied (Graigne and Ahmed, 1988). A

number of commercial formulations of botanical pesticides are now

available in the market and these have been extensively evaluated

against a number of insect pests. The self perpuating nature and

selectivity of most entomopathgens is an asset, which could be explored,

is sustainable agriculture.

Lower concentrations afforded less per cent reduction than the higher

concentrations for all the solvents. With the increase of post-treatment

days the per cent mortality was effective to give about 100% up to a

week. Highest efficacy (100%) performed by using the extract of E.

Odoratum and N. indicum indicates that they have highly insecticidal

properties which grows abundantly in Southern part of Assam and

adjoining regions may be recommended for the control of R. foveicollis.

108
 CHAPTER V

d) Management by Traditional Methods

INTRODUCTION

Insects are the dominant components of most ecosystems and agro-

ecosystems are no exception. They play a key role in pollination and

natural pest control, but it is a fact most of the agricultural pests are

insects (La Salle, 1999) and the pest management is an ecological

matter.

The size of a pest population and the damage it inflicts is, to a great

extent, a reflection of the design and management of a particular

agricultural ecosystem. We wish to secure a maximum amount of the food

resource from a given area with minimum input of resources and energy.

However, if the agricultural system design and/or management is faulty—

making it easy for pests to develop and expand their populations or,

conversely, making it difficult for predators and parasites of pests to

exist—then we will be expending unnecessary resources for pest

management. The design and management of our agricultural systems

need re-examining. We've come to accept routine use of biological

poisons in our food systems as normal. But routine use of synthetic

chemicals represents significant energy inputs into the agricultural

system, and carries both obvious and hidden costs to the farmer and

society (Rex Dufour. 2001).

Attempting to implement an ecology-based discipline like the traditional

methods of pest management practices by different ethnic groups can be

109
an exercise in futility and inefficiency, which substitute chemical inputs for

ecological design.

The farmers from different ethnic diversity of the region have their own

system in cultivation of various crops (Sharma and Gogoi, 1999). These

practices are commonly known as indigenous technical knowledge (ITK)

are therefore, quite endemic to this region which may be true for other

regions of the country as well (Deka et ai, 2006).

Local knowledge related to agriculture can be defined as skills, knowledge

and technology accumulated by local people derived from their direct

interaction with the environment (Altieri, 1990).

Crop loss due to pests is a serious problem resulting in reduced

production. The chemical control of pests is predominant, but traditional

pest control practice is still continued especially in remote areas. The

traditional pest control practices play an important role in the management

of agricultural land and it is an inevitable practice for sustainable

agriculture. The proper control of pests minimizes economic losses and

damage to the environment (Murdoch et ai, 1985). Though, traditional

practices of pest management are boon for sustainable agriculture, but

the traditional pest management practices are now replaced by chemical

control of pests and are at the verge of extinction (Kiruba et ai, 2006).

Indigenous knowledge linked with the manipulation and use of natural

resources in various ways, forms the basis for their link with nature, and

the varied levels refinement depend on the level at which the society find

itself in the social evolutionary basis (Ramakrishnan, 2001; Kumar et ai,

2005 and Majhi, 2008).

110
The ITK based pest management practices of R. foveicollis are carrying

out from generation after generation by the farmers of this region. But

now-a-days they are mainly based on chemical pesticides in this regard

and such traditional practices are disappearing quickly. So, it is very

important to proper incorporation of such practices which can help to a

great extent to keep a check on increasing pest population and can be

safe and cheap for economical and ecological regards. In this context we

have evaluated scientific design of the traditional pest management

practices in cucurbit field against red pumpkin beetle.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Six traditional methods of practices were studied for the bio-efficacy of R.

foveicollis viz., Wood ash (100% powder), Fly ash (after burning straw-

100% powder), Lime water (1:6 ratio), Cow dung: water mixture (1:5

ratio), Chilly water mixture (1:10 ratio), and Tobacco + turmeric mixture in

water (1:2.5:15 ratio). All the preparations were prepared according to the

farmers' opinion (Table 20). The preparations were sprayed on the foliage

of the crop. Three replications were considered as RBD method and each

replication consisted of 1 m2 area of foliage. Reduction of pest population

was recorded after 1 s t , 3rd, 5th and 7th day of treatment. The percent

reductions of beetles were calculated following the formula (Abbott's

1925):
Pre-treatment -Post treatment
% reduction = X 100
Pre-treatment

111
The per cent mortality figures were transformed to angular values to

maintain the uniformity of the data. ANOVA was calculated to find out the

significant relationship among the mortality percentage of all the

treatments. Efficacy among different preparations was grouped by the

critical difference (CD) value.

RESULTS

Six treatments of traditional methods viz., wood ash, fly ash (after burning

straw), lime water, cow dung, chilly water mixture, and tobacco and

turmeric water mixtures were tested against R. foveicollis to evaluate the

bio-efficacy (Table 20). Out of the six treatments, wood ash, fly ash, lime

water and cow dung were found to be equally effective after one day of

treatment. These afforded cent per cent population reduction after 1 st day

treatment followed by tobacco and turmeric mixture where per cent

reduction was recorded as 88.88 and chilly water mixture showed

comparatively the lowest efficacy (83.33%). The performance after 3rd day

of treatment also gave cent per cent effectiveness by fly ash, lime water

and cow dung followed by wood ash and chilly water mixture by which

88.88% reduction was recorded. The least efficacy (71.11%) for

population reduction was afforded by tobacco and turmeric mixture. Fifth

day post application showed cent percent efficacy by fly ash, cow dung

and chilly water mixture followed by wood ash and tobacco and turmeric

mixture where 88.88% reduction was observed. The lowest efficacy

112
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proved by lime water where 66.66% reduction was found. After 7 day of

treatment the highest (65.55%) reduction was obtained by chili water

mixture followed by fly ash and cow dung where 63.88% population

reduction was observed but the lowest (41.66%) was afforded by lime

water treatment. The efficacy in descending order was as follows:

Fly ash = cow dung > lime water > wood ash > chilly water mixture >

tobacco and turmeric mixture.

DISCUSSION

The study of bio-efficacy by using traditional methods revealed that wood

ash and fly ash gave cent per cent pest population reduction within 24

hours thereafter this was decreased in case of wood ash from third day.

In case of fly ash, the cent per cent effectiveness was continued up to 5th

day thereafter it was found to be decreased. But residual effects of both

the above treatments were continued up to a week. The above finding is

in conformity with the finings of Sandhu and Bhalla (1974) Das and

Ishahaque (1999) and Rajak and Singh (2002). Das and Ishahaque

(1999) reported wood ash was found to be effective in reducing the

infestation of R. foveicollis after one day of treatment. Sandhu and Bhalla

(1974) mentioned dusting of ash was found to be short term repellent for

the adult beetles. The use of wood ash repellent against cucumber and

other insect pests was reported by a number of authors from abroad

(Concher, 1980; Raymond and Alkazar, 1983; Rankin, 1984). Raymond

and Alkazar (1983) reported wood ash is employed successfully against

leaf miner (Lirimyza heidoobrensis). IRRI (1985) mentioned that ash from

straw, maize, cobs and quinoa is also used, the efficacy of which did not

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vary among them. However our findings revealed that the repellent

property of fly ash is much higher than the wood ash. Their study

contradicts our findings. This may be fineness of fly ash which can easily

be attached with the leaves or twigs of the crops. Preparation of wood ash

by the farmers of Zimbabwe was different than that of our preparation.

This may be the reason for which less effectiveness was observed which

corroborates the work of Rankin (1984). Majhi (2008) reported that

rhinoceros beetle and white mites can be pest control by mixing salt and

sand in the ratio of 1: 1. Brown sheep dung mixed with either cow dung or

buffalo dung in equal quantities and 5 times the volume of water is added

to it in Kanchipuram, South India which effectively controlled the beetle

within 4 days (Subramanian, 2002 and 2003). Chilly water mixture gave

80 to 100% efficacy up to 5 days thereafter decreased (65.55%). The use

of indigenous method of chilly mixture was also reported from different

parts of the world (Anonymous, 1977). It was stated that 87% pests were

killed which highly corroborates our present investigation. Tobacco and

turmeric mixture was found to be comparatively less effective but gave 70

to 90% mortality up to 5 days. The toxic constituent nicotine is well known

which have insecticidal, repellent, fungicidal and acaricidal property.

These indigenous materials are used for pest control in different parts of

the world. Tobacco sprays are most effective when they are used at

temperature above 30°C (Lai, 1955).

It is clearly evident that all the above treatments are used by the farmers

of Cachar district including other parts of India and abroad are much

effective and have significant effect in pest control. Due to modernization,

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people are not using such practices at a large scale in this region. But

these methods are easiest and safest for both the economical and

ecological point of view. For sustainable farming these practices may be

recommended to control the red pumpkin beetle.

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