MATH 163, Spring 2020

SCRIPT 15: Sequences

Definition 15.1. A sequence (of real numbers) is a function a : N → R.

By setting an = a(n), we can think of a sequence a as a list a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . of real numbers. We

use the notation (an )∞

n=1 for such a sequence, or if there is no possibility of confusion, we sometimes

abbreviate this and write simply (an ). More generally, we also use the term sequence to refer to a

function defined on {n ∈ N ∪ {0} | n ≥ n0 } for any fixed n0 ∈ N ∪ {0}. We write (an )∞

n=n0 for such

a sequence.

Definition 15.2. We say that a sequence (an ) converges to a point p ∈ R if, for every region R

containing p, there exists N ∈ N such that if n ≥ N , then an ∈ R. If a sequence converges to some

point, we say it is convergent. If (an ) does not converge to any point, we say that the sequence

diverges or is divergent.

Exercise 15.3. Show that a sequence (an ) converges to p if and only if any region containing p

contains all but finitely many terms of the sequence.

Proof. (→) For the forward direction: Since (an ) converges to p, then for any region R 3 p, there

must exist an N ∈ N such that if n ≥ N , then an ∈ R. Let X = {n | n ∈ N, an ∈ R}, and so

N\X ⊂ {n | n ∈ N, n < N }. In other words, it must follow that N\X is finite, as {n | n ∈ N, n < N }

is finite, and thus any region containing p contains all but finitely many terms of the sequence as

N \ X being finite implies that there are a finite number of terms not in R.

(←) For the reverse direction: Let, for any region R, X to be X = {n | n ∈ N, an ∈ R}, then,

because any region containing p contains all but finitely many terms of the sequence, it follows

that N \ X is finite. Thus, because it is a finite set, the last point of N \ X is NL . Taking N to be

N = NL + 1, it must follow that for all n ≥ N n ∈

/ N \ X, as n > NL , and thus that n ∈ X and

an ∈ R. Thus, by definition, (an ) converges to p.

Theorem 15.4. Suppose that (an ) converges both to p and to p0 . Then p = p0 .

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Proof. This proof is omitted.

Definition 15.5. If a sequence (an ) converges to p ∈ R, we call p the limit of (an ) and write

lim an = p.
n→∞

Exercise 15.6. Which of the following sequences (an ) converge? Which diverge? For each that

converges, what is the limit? Give proofs for your answers.

(a) an = 5.

Proof. For all regions R 3 5, for all n ≥ 1, that an = 5 ∈ R, and thus an converges to 5.

(b) an = n.

Proof. This must diverge. If it did converge to some number p, then consider the region

(p − 1, p + 1) 3 p. It would follow that there exists some value N ∈ N such that if n ≥ N , that

an = n ∈ (p − 1, p + 1). Then considering some max n = max(N, p + 2), from which it follows

that N ≤ n = max(N, p + 2), and that an = n ≥ p + 2, which would be a contradiction, as

an = p + 2 6∈ (p − 1, p + 1). Thus, by contradiction, (an ) is divergent.

(c) an = n1 .

Proof. For all regions (a, b) 3 0, it follows that, by the Archemidean Property, that there
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must exist some k ∈ N such that 0 < k < b. It would then follow that for all n ∈ N such that
1 1
n ≥ k, that a < 0 < an = n ≤ k = ak < b, and thus that an is in (a, b). Thus, by definition

(an ) converges to 0.

(d) an = (−1)n .

Proof. Let us suppose that (an ) converged to some p. Then, consider the region (p−.5, p+.5) 3

p, and it would follow that there exists N ∈ N where for all n ≥ N , an ∈ (p − 12 , p + 21 ). This,

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 however, would be a contradiction, as it would imply that aN and aN +1 , which are a pair of

1 and −1, are both contained within (p − 12 , p + 21 ). This however is a contradiction, because

the length of the open interval is 1 while the difference between −1 and 1 is 2.

Theorem 15.7. A sequence (an ) converges to p ∈ R if, and only if, for all  > 0, there is some

N ∈ N such that for all n ≥ N we have |an − p| < .

Proof. (→) For the forward direction: let  > 0. Since (an ) converges to a p ∈ R, there exists an

open set in the form R = (p − , p + ), which also contains all but a finite amount of terms of the

sequence. This means that R \ R contains a finite amount of terms in the sequence, so it must

contain an N such that aN is the maximum of the indexed terms of R \ R. As such, for all n < N ,

an ∈ R. By Script 8, R can be rewritten as |x − p| < . As such, for all n ≥ N , it holds that

|an − p| < .

(←) For the reverse direction: let I be an interval. By Script 8, having the relation |x − p| < 

corresponds to a region (p−, p+). Also by Script 8, there must exist a region R = (p−, p+) ⊂ I.

From the assumption, there exists an N ∈ N such that for all n ≥ N, |an − p| <  is true. As such,

since R ⊂ I, by Script 15.2, there must exist some N ∈ N such that for all n ≥ N , there must be

an an ∈ R ∈ I, and so (an ) converges to p.

(−1)n
Exercise 15.8. (a) Prove that lim = 0.
n→∞ n

(b) Let x ∈ R with |x| < 1. Prove that lim xn = 0.

n→∞

Hint: Use Bernoulli’s inequality (Sheet 0, Exercise 4) to show that if |y| > 1, then |y|n ≥

n(|y| − 1) + 1.

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Proof. (a) Let  > 0, and let an N ∈ N such that N < . As such, for any n ≥ N , it must be that
n
1
n ≤ 1
N < , and also that | (−1) 1
n − 0| = | n | =
1
n < . As such, by Script 15.7, the expression

converges to 0.

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(b) To prove the hint by induction: let |y| > 1, and let n = 1. As such, |y| ≥ (|y| − 1) + 1 = |y|.

Let |y|k ≥ k(|y| − 1) + 1. Since |y| > 1, then it must be that |y|k > 1 and |y| − 1 > 0.

Multiplying them together gives |y|k (|y|−1) > (|y|−1). Adding this to the first inequality gives

|y|k +|y|k (|y|−1) ≥ k(|y|−1)+1+(|y|−1). Simplification leads to |y|k+1 ≥ (k +1)(|y|−1)+1,

which proves that, by induction, this inequality holds for all n ∈ N.

Now, let x = 0. Then, for all  > 0 and for all n ≥ 1, |xn − 0| = |xn | < . As such,

limn→∞ (xn ) = 0.

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If x 6= 0: it must be that |x| < 1. Let |y| = |x| , so |y| > 1. As such, the following equations

hold:

|y|n ≥ 1 + n(|y| − 1)

1 1
≤
|y|n 1 + n(|y| − 1)
1
|x|n ≤
1 + n(|y| − 1)

.
1
−1
Now, let  > 0 and N such that 
| x1 |−1
< N . As such, the following lines hold:

1
 −1
1 <N
|x| − 1
1
 −1
<N
|y| − 1

1 < (1 + N (|y| − 1))

1
<
(1 + N (|y| − 1))

|xN | < 

1
−1
As such, for all  > 0, 
| x1 |−1
< N , and for all n ≥ N , |xn − 0| < . As such, limn→∞ (xn ) = 0.

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Theorem 15.9. If lim an = a and lim bn = b both exist, then
n→∞ n→∞

(a) lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn .

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
   
(b) lim (an · bn ) = lim an · lim bn .
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

Moreover, if lim bn 6= 0, then

n→∞

an lim an
(c) lim = n→∞ .
n→∞ bn lim bn
n→∞

(Hint for (b): an bn − ab = an (bn − b) + b(an − a).)

Proof. (a) Since limn→∞ (an ) = a and limn→∞ (bn ) = b, then limn→∞ (an ) + limn→∞ (bn ) = a + b.

As such, by Script 15.7, for all  > 0, there exists an N 0 ∈ N such that for all n ≥ N ,

|an − a| < 
2 and a similar N 00 ∈ N such that |bn − b| < 2 . Let N = max{N 0 , N 00 }. As such,

for all n ≥ N , |an − a| < 2 and |bn − b| < 2 , so |an − a| < 
2 + |bn − b| < 
2 < . By the triangle

inequality, |(an + bn ) − (a + b)| ≤ |an − a| + |bn − b|. Therefore, |(an + bn ) − (a + b)| <  for

all n ≥ N . Again, by Script 15.7, limn→∞ (an + bn ) = a + b.

(b) Omitted.

(c) Omitted.

Exercise 15.10. Which of the following sequences (an ) converge? Which diverge? For each that

converges, what is the limit? Give proofs for your answers.

(a) an = (−1)n · n.

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(b) an = n2 +1
(2 + n1 )

5n+1
(c) an = 2n+3 .

(−1)n +1
(d) an = n .

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Proof. (a) Let p > 0 ∈ R. Let I = (0, p + 1). Then, for any N ∈ N, there exist terms an ∈
/ I

such that n > N , because all odd terms of (an ) are negative, and I only contains positive

numbers. As such, (an ) does not converge to any p > 0.

A similar argument follows for (an ) not converging to any p < 0.

If p = 0, let I = (− 21 , 21 ). As such, p ∈ I but no points in (an ) are in I, so (an ) does not

converge to p = 0.

Therefore, (an ) does not converge.

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(b) Let  > 0. Then, by the Archimedean Property, there must exist an N ∈ N such that N < .
1 1
Since N 2 +1
< N, and both are positive, then | N 21+1 | < | N1 | < , and so | N 21+1 − 0| < . Since
1 1 1
for all n ≥ N , n ≤ N and n2 +1
< n1 , so the inequalities hold. As such, by Script 15.7, | n21+1

converges to 0.

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Also, 2 converges to 2 and n converges to 0 by Script 15.6. Therefore, the limit of (an ) =

0 · (2 + 0) = 0.

5+ 1
(c) (an ) can be rewritten as ( nn ) · ( 2+ n3 ) = ( nn ) · (5 + n1 ) · ( 2+3
1
1 ). Script 15.6 has proven that
n n
1
sequences of the form an = q for q ∈ N converge, and that the sequence an = n also converges.
1
Furthermore, 5, 2, and 3 converge to 5, 2, 3 respectively. Finally, the sequence n also converges

to 0. Since all of the constituent sequences of an converge, then, by Script 15.9, the entire
1
sequence will converge as well, to 1 · (5 + 0) · ( 2+3·0 ) = 52 .

(−1)n 1
(d) (an ) can be rewritten as n +n. By Script 15.6 and Script 15.8, both of these constituent

sequences converge, so the entire sequence must converge as well, by Script 15.9. The limit

of this sequence is 0 + 0 = 0.

Next we have a useful characterization of convergent sequences.

Theorem 15.11. A sequence (an ) of real numbers converges if, and only if, for all  > 0, there is

some N ∈ N such that |an − am | < , ∀n ≥ N, m ≥ N.

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 (→) For the forward direction: Let an converge to p, and let  > 0. As such, there must exist

an N ∈ N such that |an − p| < /2 for all n ≥ N . As such, the following holds: |an − am | ≤

|an − p| + |p − am | < .

(←) For the reverse direction: it can be said that am −  < an < am +  for some  > 0 and for

all n ≥ N ∈ N. Since a1 , . . . , aN is finite, it must have a first and last point, so it is bounded.

As such, it will be enough to show that there exists a ank ⊂ an such that ank converges to some

point p. If {an |n ∈ N} is finite, then there is at least one point am = M that repeats. Let p = M .

If {an |n ∈ N} is infinite, then by 10.18 it must have at least one limit point p.

Let I = (p − 1, p + 1). There must exist an an1 ∈ I because p is a limit point. Similarly for

an2 ∈ (p − 12 , p + 12 ) for n2 > n1 . Now, for an ank ∈ (p − k1 , p + k1 ), for all  > 0 by the Archimedean

Proprety there must exist a K such that for all k ≥ K, |ank − p| < .

Let k be such that nk ≥ N and k ≥ K. Then, |an − ank + ank − p| = |an − p| ≤ |an − ank | +
 
|ank − p| < 2 + 2 = . As such, an converges.

Exercise 15.12. Use Theorem 15.11 to show that the sequence in Exercise 15.10a) does not

converge.

Proof. Let  = 12 , and let e, o ∈ N > N such that e is even and o is odd. Since (−1)n = 1 for even

n and (−1)n = −1 for odd n, let |ae − ao | = |((−1)e · e) − ((−1)o · o)| = |e + o|. Since e, o ∈ N,

|e + o| > . Therefore, by Script 15.11, (an ) does not converge.

We’ve used the word “limit” in two contexts now: the limit points of a set, and the limit of

a sequence. The definitions of these two terms may seem similar. Is there a formal connection?

Theorem 15.13 alludes to an answer.

Theorem 15.13. Let A ⊂ R. Then p ∈ A if and only if there exists a sequence (an ), with each

an ∈ A, that converges to p.

Proof. (→) For the forward direction: If p ∈ A, then let an = p ∈ A, which converges to p.

If p ∈ LP (A), then it follows by the definition of a limit point that Xn = (p− n1 , p+ n1 )∩(A\{p}) 6=

Ø for all n ∈ N.

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 Then pick an to be some element an ∈ Xn ⊂ A. For all regions R 3 p it follows that there exists

N ∈ N such that for all k ≥ N , (p− k1 , p+ k1 ) ⊂ R. For all n ≥ N , then an ∈ Xn ⊂ (p− n1 , p+ n1 ) ⊂ R.

Thus, the sequence an converges to p, with each an ∈ A.

(←) For the reverse direction: If p ∈ A, then trivially p ∈ A. If p ∈

/ A, it needs to be shown

that p ∈ LP (A). Let R be any region such that R 3 p. Because an converges to p, it follows that

there exists N ∈ N such that for all k ≥ N , that ak ∈ R and ak is in R, as each ak ∈ A. Thus, it

follows that R ∩ (A \ {p}) 6= Ø as aN ∈ R ∩ (A \ {p}). Thus, because R ∩ (A \ {p}) 6= Ø for all

regions R 3 p, it follows that p ∈ LP (A) ⊂ A, completing the proof.

Definition 15.14. A sequence (an ) is bounded if its image {an | n ∈ N} is bounded.

Theorem 15.15. Every convergent sequence is bounded.

Proof. For any convergent sequence (an ) that converges to some p, it follows that, for every region

R = (a, b) 3 p, there exists some N ∈ N such that for all n ≥ N . As such, it follows that an ∈ R,

for all an ∈ R, a < an < b. Let the set B = {an | an ∈

/ R}. Then, for all an ∈
/ R, such that an ∈ B,

since R contains all but finitely many an terms, it follows that B is finite, and thus bounded below

by some m and above by some M .

As such, for all n ∈ N, that min(m, a) < an < max(M, b), and thus (an ) is bounded.

The converse is not true, but there are two important partial converses. For the first, Theorem

15.16, we need a definition.

Theorem 15.16. Every bounded increasing sequence converges to the supremum of its image.

Every bounded decreasing sequence converges to the infimum of its image.

Proof. Let an be a bounded and increasing sequence, and let  > 0. As such, the image of an is

non-empty and bounded, and, by Script 5.17, the image of an has a supremum S. There must

also exist an aN ∈ {an |n ∈ N} such that S −  < aN ≤ S. Since an is increasing, then for any n

such that n ≥ N , aN ≤ an . Then, S −  < an ≤ S, and |an − S| <  for all n ≥ N . Therefore, by

Script 15.17, an converges to S.

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 Now, let an be a bounded and decreasing sequence, and let  > 0. As such, the image of an is

non-empty and bounded, and, by Script 5.17, the image of an has an infinimum L. There must

also exist an aN ∈ {an |n ∈ N} such that L ≤ aN < L + . Since an is decreasing, then for any n

such that n ≥ N , an ≤ aN . Then, L ≤ aN < L + , and |an − L| <  for all n ≥ N . Therefore, by

Script 15.17, an converges to L.

To discuss the second partial converse, Theorem 15.20, we need another definition.

Definition 15.17. Let (an ) be a sequence. A subsequence of (an ) is a sequence b : N → R defined

by the composition b = a ◦ i, where i : N → N is a strictly increasing function. If (an ) has a

subsequence with limit p, we call p a subsequential limit of (an ).

We can write bk = a(i(k)) = ai(k) = aik , so that (bk ) is the sequence b1 , b2 , b3 , . . . , which is equal

to the sequence ai1 , ai2 , ai3 , . . . , where i1 < i2 < i3 < · · · .

Theorem 15.18. If (an ) converges to p, then so do all of its subsequences.

Proof. Since if (an ) converges to p, then it follows that for all region R 3 p, there exists n ∈ N,

such that if n ≥ N , then an ∈ R.

Then, for any strictly increasing function i : N → N, for all n ≥ N , i(n) ≥ N and thus

a(i(n)) ∈ R). Therefore, for all n ≥ N , it follows that bn = a(i(n)) ∈ R, and thus any subsequence

(bn ) of (an ) is convergent.

Exercise 15.19. Construct a sequence with two subsequential limits. Construct a sequence with

infinitely many subsequential limits.

Proof. Let the sequence that counts up to n ∈ N such that n > 1 one number at a time, such that

the a(N) looks like the following:

{1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, . . .}

This would have an infinite number of subsequential limits, as for every p ∈ N, we can find a

subsequence (bn ) where bn = p for all n ∈ N.

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 x(x+1)
To do this, note the following. Let f (x) = 2 , and define the set X(i) = {f (x) | x ∈

N, f (x) ≤ i}. Also, note that for all i ∈ N, X(i) 6= 0, as f (0) ≤ i for all i ∈ N. It then follows

that for any i ∈ N, that X(i) is finite, as 1 ≤ f (x) ≤ f (2i) for all f (x) ∈ Xi (note: this is because

f (2i) = i(2i + 1) > i). Thus, X(i) has a maximum fmax (i). Then, define each term of the sequence

ai to be ai = i − fmax (i) + 1. This creates the behavior we want, as a1 = 1, a2 = 2, a3 = 1, etc.

Thus, a sequence (an ) has been constructed that has infinitely many subsequential limits.

Theorem 15.20. Every bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence.

(Hint: Use Theorem 10.18.)

Proof. Let A = {an |n ∈ N} such that an is bounded. As such, by Script 15.14, A must also be

bounded. Furthermore, by Script 10.18, there must exist a p ∈ R such that p is the limit point

of A. Then, by 15.13, since p ∈ A, there must be a sequence (bm ) such that bm ∈ A for all bm and

that bm converges to p. Since A = {an |n ∈ N}, then for all bm there must exist an an such that

an = bm . Therefore, there must exist a function i : N → N such that i(n) = m. Therefore, bm may

be rearranged such that bm is a subsequence of an , completing the proof.

If A is finite, then A = {a1 , . . . , n} and it is bounded, and so by Script 15.16, it must converge.

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