MATH 162, Winter 2019

SCRIPT 7: The Field Axioms

We will formalize the notions of addition and multiplication in structures called fields. A field
with a compatible order is called an ordered field. We will see that Q and R are both examples of
ordered fields.

Definition 7.1. A binary operation on a set X is a function

f : X × X −→ X.

We say that f is associative if

f (f (x, y), z) = f (x, f (y, z)) for all x, y, z ∈ X.

We say that f is commutative if

f (x, y) = f (y, x) for all x, y ∈ X.

An identity element of a binary operation f is an element e ∈ X such that

f (x, e) = f (e, x) = x for all x ∈ X.

Remark 7.2. Frequently, we denote a binary operation differently. If ∗ : X × X −→ X is the

binary operation, we often write a ∗ b in place of ∗(a, b). We sometimes indicate this same operation
by writing (a, b) 7→ a ∗ b.

Exercise 7.3. Rewrite Definition 7.1 using the notation of Remark 7.2.

Examples 7.4.

1. The function + : Z × Z −→ Z which sends a pair of integers (m, n) to +(m, n) = m + n is

a binary operation on the integers, called addition. Addition is associative, commutative and
has identity element 0.

2. The maximum of m and n, denoted max(m, n), is an associative and commutative binary
operation on Z. Is there an identity element for max?

3. Let ℘(Y ) be the power set of a set Y . Recall that the power set consists of all subsets of Y .
Then the intersection of sets, (A, B) 7→ A ∩ B, defines an associative and commutative binary
operation on ℘(Y ). Is there an identity element for ∩?

Exercise 7.5. Find a binary operation on a set that is not commutative. Find a binary operation
on a set that is not associative.

Exercise 7.6. Let X be a finite set, and let Y = {f : X −→ X | f is bijective}. Consider the binary
operation of composition of functions, denoted ◦ : Y × Y −→ Y and defined by (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)),
as seen in Definition 1.27. Decide whether or not composition is commutative and/or associative
and whether or not it has an identity.

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Theorem 7.7. Identity elements are unique. That is, suppose that f is a binary operation on a
set X that has two identity elements e and e0 . Then e = e0 .

Definition 7.8. A field is a set F with two binary operations on F called addition, denoted +,
and multiplication, denoted · , satisfying the following field axioms:

FA1 (Commutativity of Addition) For all x, y ∈ F , x + y = y + x.

FA2 (Associativity of Addition) For all x, y, z ∈ F , (x + y) + z = x + (y + z).

FA3 (Additive Identity) There exists an element 0 ∈ F such that x + 0 = 0 + x = x for all x ∈ F .

FA4 (Additive Inverses) For any x ∈ F , there exists y ∈ F such that x + y = y + x = 0, called an
additive inverse of x.

FA5 (Commutativity of Multiplication) For all x, y ∈ F , x · y = y · x.

FA6 (Associativity of Multiplication) For all x, y, z ∈ F , (x · y) · z = x · (y · z).

FA7 (Multiplicative Identity) There exists an element 1 ∈ F such that x · 1 = 1 · x = x for all
x ∈ F.

FA8 (Multiplicative Inverses) For any x ∈ F such that x 6= 0, there exists y ∈ F such that
x · y = y · x = 1, called a multiplicative inverse of x.

FA9 (Distributivity of Multiplication over Addition) For all x, y, z ∈ F , x · (y + z) = x · y + x · z.

FA10 (Distinct Additive and Multiplicative Identities) 1 6= 0.

Exercise 7.9. Consider the set F2 = {0, 1}, and define binary operations + and · on F2 by:

0+0=0 0+1=1 1+0=1 1+1=0

0·0=0 0·1=0 1·0=0 1·1=1
Show that F2 is a field.

Theorem 7.10. Suppose that F is a field. Then additive and multiplicative inverses are unique.
This means:

(a) Let x ∈ F . If y, y 0 ∈ F satisfy x + y = 0 and x + y 0 = 0, then y = y 0 .

(b) Let x ∈ F . If y, y 0 ∈ F satisfy x · y = 1 and x · y 0 = 1, then y = y 0 .

We usually write −x for the additive inverse of x and x−1 or 1

x for the multiplicative inverse of
x.

Corollary 7.11. If x ∈ F , then −(−x) = x.

Corollary 7.12. If x ∈ F and x 6= 0, then (x−1 )−1 = x.

Theorem 7.13. Let F be a field, and let a, b, c ∈ F . If a + b = a + c, then b = c.

Theorem 7.14. Let F be a field, and let a, b, c ∈ F . If a · b = a · c and a 6= 0, then b = c.

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Theorem 7.15. Let F be a field. If a ∈ F , then a · 0 = 0.

Theorem 7.16. Let F be a field, and let a, b ∈ F . If a · b = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0.

Lemma 7.17. If a, b ∈ F , then a · (−b) = −(a · b) = (−a) · b.

Lemma 7.18. If a, b ∈ F , then a · b = (−a) · (−b).

Next, we discuss the notion of an ordered field.

Definition 7.19. An ordered field is a field F equipped with an ordering < (satisfying Definition
2.1) such that also:

• Addition respects the ordering: if x < y, then x + z < y + z for all z ∈ F .

• Multiplication respects the ordering: if 0 < x and 0 < y, then 0 < x · y.

Definition 7.20. Suppose F is an ordered field and x ∈ F . If 0 < x, we say that x is positive. If
x < 0, we say that x is negative.

For the remaining theorems, let F be an ordered field.

Lemma 7.21. If 0 < x, then −x < 0. Similarly, if x < 0, then 0 < −x.

Lemma 7.22. Let x, y, z ∈ F .

1. If x > 0 and y < z, then x · y < x · z.

2. If x < 0 and y < z, then x · z < x · y.

Lemma 7.23. If x ∈ F , then 0 ≤ x2 . Moreover, if x 6= 0, then 0 < x2 .

Corollary 7.24. 0 < 1.

Theorem 7.25. If F is an ordered field, then F has no first or last point.

Theorem 7.26. The rational numbers Q form an ordered field.

There is an important sense in which every ordered field contains a “copy” of the rational
numbers. Let F be an ordered field with additive identity 0F and multiplicative identity 1F . To
prevent ambiguity, denote the additive identity in the rational numbers by 0Q and the multiplicative
identity in the rational numbers by 1Q .

Theorem 7.27. Any ordered field F contains a copy of the rational numbers Q in the following
sense. There exists an injective map i : Q −→ F that respects all of the axioms for an ordered field.
In particular:

• i(0Q ) = 0F .

• i(1Q ) = 1F .

• If a, b ∈ Q, then i(a + b) = i(a) + i(b).

• If a, b ∈ Q, then i(a · b) = i(a) · i(b).

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 • If a, b ∈ Q and a < b, then i(a) < i(b).
Since we know that Q is an ordered field, this result says that Q is the “minimal” ordered field.

Appendix: The Real Numbers are an Ordered Field

This appendix is concerned with proving that the continuum R is an ordered field. Addition and
multiplication on R are defined in terms of addition and multiplication on Q, so we will use ⊕ and
⊗ for addition and multiplication of real numbers, to make sure that there is no confusion with +
and · on Q.
Definition 7.28. We define ⊕ on R as follows. Let A, B ∈ R be Dedekind cuts. Define
A ⊕ B = {a + b | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.
Exercise 7.29. (a) Prove that A ⊕ B is a Dedekind cut.
(b) Prove that ⊕ is commutative and associative.
(c) Prove that if A ∈ R then A = 0 ⊕ A.
Lemma 7.30. If A ∈ R, r ∈ Q, and r > 0, then there exists s ∈ A such that s + r 6∈ A.
Lemma 7.31. Let A ∈ R. Let
B = {r ∈ Q | −r ∈
/ A but −r is not a first point of Q \ A}.
Then,
(a) B ∈ R.
(b) A ⊕ B = 0.
Theorem 7.32. Every A ∈ R has an additive inverse −A such that A ⊕ (−A) = 0.
Exercise 7.33. Show that A < 0 ⇐⇒ 0 < −A.
Exercise 7.34. Show that if p ∈ Q and A = {x ∈ Q | x < p}, then −A = {x ∈ Q | x < −p}.
Exercise 7.35. Show that < satisfies additivity; i.e., if A, B, C ∈ R with A < B then A⊕C < B⊕C.
Definition 7.36. For A, B ∈ R, 0 < A, 0 < B, we define
A ⊗ B = {r ∈ Q | r ≤ 0} ∪ {ab | a ∈ A, b ∈ B, a > 0, b > 0}.
If A = 0 or B = 0 we define A ⊗ B = 0. If A < 0 but 0 < B we replace A with −A and use the
definition of multiplication of positive elements. Hence, in this case,
A ⊗ B = −[(−A) ⊗ B].
Similarly, if 0 < A but B < 0, then
A ⊗ B = −[A ⊗ (−B)],
and if A < 0, B < 0 then
A ⊗ B = (−A) ⊗ (−B).

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Exercise 7.37. (a) Show that if A, B ∈ R, then A ⊗ B ∈ R.

(b) Show that ⊗ is commutative and associative.

(c) Show that if A, B ∈ R, 0 < A, and 0 < B, then 0 < A ⊗ B.

(d) Let 1 = {x ∈ Q | x < 1}. Show that if A ∈ R, then 1 ⊗ A = A.

Lemma 7.38. If A ∈ R, A > 0, r ∈ Q, and r > 1, then there exist s ∈ A such that rs 6∈ A.
(Hint: Prove that {rn | n ∈ N} is unbounded in Q.)

Lemma 7.39. Let A ∈ R with 0 < A. Let

  
 1 1
B = {r ∈ Q | r ≤ 0} ∪ r ∈ Q  r > 0 and ∈/ A, but is not a first point of Q \ A .
r r

Then,

(a) B ∈ R.

(b) A ⊗ B = 1.

Lemma 7.40. Every A ∈ R with 0 < A has a multiplicative inverse A−1 such that A ⊗ A−1 = 1.

Lemma 7.41. Let A ∈ R with A < 0. Then, (−A)−1 has already been defined, and A ⊗
(−(−A)−1 ) = 1.

Theorem 7.42. Every A ∈ R with A 6= 0 has a multiplicative inverse A−1 such that A ⊗ A−1 = 1.

Exercise 7.43. Show that if p ∈ Q with p 6= 0 and A = {x ∈ Q | x < p}, then A−1 = {x ∈ Q |
x < p1 }.

Theorem 7.44. R is an ordered field.

Now that we have constructed R and proved the fundamental facts about it, we will leave behind
Dedekind cuts and think of elements of R as numbers. From now on we will use lower-case letters
like x for real numbers and will write + and · for ⊕ and ⊗.

Additional Exercises

1. a) Let q ∈ Q. Prove that i(q) ⊕ i(−q) = 0

b) Show that for q1 , q2 ∈ Q,
i(q1 ) ⊗ i(q2 ) = i(q1 q2 ).
√ 2
√
2. a) Define 2 =√ {x ∈ Q | x < 0} ∪ {x ∈ Q | x < 2}. We saw in class√ that 2 ∈ R.
Show that 2 is not rational, i.e. there is no p ∈ Q such that 2 = {x ∈ Q | x < p}.
√
b) Show that 2 ⊗ i(x) ∈ R \ Q, for x ∈ Q, x > 0. (Note that in fact this holds for all x 6= 0,
but you need only show it for x > 0.)
c) Show that the irrationals are dense in the reals (i.e between any 2 reals you can find an
irrational).

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 √ √
d) (Challenge) Show that 2⊗ 2 = {x ∈ Q | x < 2}.

3. Let A ⊂ R and assume that sup A exists. Define −A := {x ∈ R : −x ∈ A}. Is it true that
− sup A = sup −A?

4. (a) Let A, B be bounded subsets of R.

Define A + B = {c ∈ R : c = a + b for some a ∈ A, b ∈ B}. Is it true that sup A + sup B =
sup(A + B)?
(b) Let f, g : R → R be functions. Is it true that sup f (R) + sup g(R) = sup(f + g)(R)?
(Note: here we define f + g : R → R to be the function (f + g)(c) = f (c) + g(c) for all
c ∈ R.)