Content Analysis:

A Qualitative Analytical Research Process

By
Dr. Radia Guerza
Master 1 Language and Culture
Data Analysis

“If there were only one truth, you couldn’t paint a hundred canvases on the same theme.”

Pablo Picasso (1966)

“Propagandists reveal themselves through their use of tricks such as "name-calling", employing
"glittering generalities", "plain folks" identifications, "card stacking", "bandwagon" devices,
and so on. Such devices could be identified easily in many religious and political speeches, even
in academic lectures, and this approach to propaganda analysis led to a kind of witch-hunt for
propagandists.” Klaus Krippendorff

Introduction:

Content analysis is a widely used qualitative research technique. Rather than being a single method,
current applications of content analysis show three distinct approaches: conventional, directed, or
summative. The major differences among the approaches are coding schemes, origins of codes, and
threats to trustworthiness. In conventional content analysis, coding categories are derived directly from
the text data. With a directed approach, analysis starts with a theory or relevant research findings as
guidance for initial codes. A summative content analysis involves counting and comparisons, usually
of keywords or content, followed by the interpretation of the underlying context. Content analysis is a
method that may be used with either qualitative or quantitative data and in an inductive or deductive
way. In non-participant observation, where the researcher observes but does not participate one can
use the content analysis approach.

Conceptualized Definition:

“A research method for the subjective interpretation of the content of text data through the
systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns”- Hsieh &
Shannon (2005; p.1278).

Content analysis is a method of analyzing written, verbal or visual communication messages

(Cole, 1988). It was first used as a method for analyzing hymns, newspaper and magazine
articles, advertisements and political speeches in the 19th century (Harwood and Garry 2003).
Today, content analysis has a long history of use in communication, journalism, sociology,
psychology and business, and during the last few decades its use has shown steady growth
(Neundorf, 2002). Content analysis as a research method is a systematic and objective means
of describing and quantifying phenomena (Krippendorff, 1980, Downe-Wambolt, 1992). It is
also known as a method of analyzing documents. Content analysis unlike statistical analysis
does not measure or quantify patterns. It is based on interpreting opinions and perspectives of

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various subjects. Content analysis takes into consideration the following elements when
analyzing issues:

Major Elements of Content Analysis (Source: Kohlbacher, 2005)

Inductive vs. Deductive:

In the inductive approach, the categories are derived from the data. Deductive content analysis
is used when the structure of analysis is operationalized on the previous knowledge and the
purpose of the study is theory testing. An approach based on inductive data moves from the
specific to the general, so that particular instances are observed and then combined into a
larger whole a general statement. A deductive approach is based on an earlier theory or model
and therefore it moves from the general to the specific.
Hsieh and Shannon (2005) discussed three approaches to qualitative content analysis, based
on the degree of involvement of inductive reasoning. The first is conventional qualitative
content analysis, in which coding categories are derived directly and inductively from the raw
data. The second approach is directed content analysis, in which initial coding starts with a
theory or relevant research findings. Then, during data analysis, the researchers immerse
themselves in the data and allow themes to emerge from the data. The purpose of this
approach usually is to validate or extend a conceptual framework or theory. The third
approach is summative content analysis, which starts with the counting of words or manifest
content, then extends the analysis to include latent meanings and themes. This approach
seems quantitative in the early stages, but its goal is to explore the usage of the
words/indicators in an inductive manner.

Steps of Content Analysis:

Content analysis in qualitative research is carried out by recording the communication

between the researcher and its subjects. One can use different modes such as transcripts of
interviews/discourses, protocols of observation, video tapes and written documents for
communication. Its strength lies in its stringent methodological control and step-by-step
analysis of material. In other words every element in the data collected is categorized into
themes which are identified through secondary literature. The method of the analysis
comprises the following eight steps:

1. Preparation of data: As discussed previously, there are several ways by which one
can collect the data for qualitative content analysis. However one needs to transform
the data before the analysis can start. From the data set which the researcher has
collected, choice of “content” need to be clearly defined and justified. Before initiation
of data preparation, the researcher needs to know the answers to the following
questions:
o Are all the data collected be transcribed or not?
o Should verbalizations be transcribed literally?
o Should observations be transcribed as well?

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 o Who is telling?
o Where is this happening?
o When did it happen?
o What is happening?
o Why?

Answers to these questions are dependent on the objectives of the study. However,
everything should be transcribed at the start to save time during analysis.

2. Defining the unit or theme of analysis: Unit or theme of analysis means classifying
the content into themes which can be a word, phrase or a sentence. When deciding the
unit of analysis, one theme should present an “idea”. This means the data related to
the theme has to be added under that unit. Furthermore, unit or themes should be based
on the objectives of the study.
3. Developing categories and coding scheme: Next step is to develop sub-categories
and coding scheme for the analysis. This is derived from three sources, the primary
data, theories on similar topic and empirical studies. Since the qualitative content
analysis can be based on both inductive and deductive approach, the categories and
codes needs to be developed based on the approach adopted. In case of deductive
approach, it is important to link the interpretations with the existing theories in order
to draw inferences. However, in case of inductive approach the objective is to develop
new theories. So, it is important to evaluate secondary sources in order to stimulate
original ideas. In order to ensure consistency in the codes, the categories as per their
properties with examples has to be defined.
4. Pre-testing the coding scheme on sample: Like quantitative data, pre-testing
qualitative data is also important. In order to ensure consistency, members of the
research team need to code the sample of existing data. If the level of consistency is
low across researchers then re-coding has to be done again.
5. Coding all the text: After the coding consistency in the previous stage, it is important
to apply the coding process to the data.
6. Assessing the consistency of coding employed: After coding the whole data set
validity and reliability should be checked.
7. Drawing inferences on the basis of coding or themes: In this step, one has to draw
inferences on the basis of codes and categories generated. It is important to explore the
properties, dimensions and identify the relationship and uncover patterns in order to
present the analysis.
8. Presentation of results: To present the results under each theme with conclusions the
results should be supported by secondary data and quotes from the developed code.
Further, based on the analysis, the researcher can also present the results in the form of
graphs, matrices, or conceptual frameworks. The results should be presented in such a
way that the reader is able to understand the basis of interpretations.

Computer-Assisted Qualitative Content Analysis

In conclusion, qualitative data, like quantitative data can be huge. In such cases assistance
from computer programs is required in order to reduce the complexity of analysis. Among
various tools the most common are NVIVO or ATLAS. These tools have several features,
which helps in coding and development of the nodes. This also enables visual presentation of
interpretations drawn from the content.

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Conclusion:

Content Analysis allows the researcher to test theoretical issues to enhance understanding of the data.
Through content analysis, it is possible to distil words into fewer content-related categories. It is
assumed that when classified into the same categories, words phrases and the like share the same
meaning (Cavanagh, 1997). Content analysis is a research method for making replicable and valid
inferences from data to their context, with the purpose of providing knowledge, new insights, a
representation of facts and a practical guide to action (Krippendorff, 1980). The aim is to attain a
condensed and broad description of the phenomenon, and the outcome of the analysis is concepts or
categories describing the phenomenon. Usually the purpose of those concepts or categories is to build
up a model, conceptual system, conceptual map or categories. If the purpose is to develop a theory, it
is recommended that the term “concept” to be used. “Category” is the mostly used term in the
literature.

“The goal is turn data into in information and information into insight” Carly Fiorina

Checklist for Researchers:

Phase of the content analysis study Questions to check

Data collection method
Preparation phase How do I collect the most suitable data for my
content analysis?
Is this method the best available to answer the
target research question?
Should I use either descriptive or semi-
structured questions?
Self-awareness: what are my skills as a
researcher?
How do I pre-test my data collection method?
Sampling strategy
What is the best sampling method for my
study?
Who are the best informants for my study?
What criteria should be used to select the
participants?
Is my sample appropriate?
Is my data well saturated?
Selecting the unit of analysis
What is the unit of analysis?
Is the unit of analysis too narrow or too broad?
Categorization and abstraction
Organization phase How should the concepts or categories be
created?
Is there still too many concepts?
Is there any overlap between categories?
Interpretation
What is the degree of interpretation in the
analysis?
How do I ensure that the data accurately
represent the information that the participants
provided?
Representativeness
How to I check the trustworthiness of the

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 analysis process?
How do I check the representativeness of the
data as a whole?
Reporting results
Reporting phase Are the results reported systematically and
logically?
How are connections between the data and
results reported?
Is the content and structure of concepts
presented in a clear and understandable way?
Can the reader evaluate the transferability of
the results (are the data, sampling method, and
participants described in a detailed manner)?
Are quotations used systematically?
How well do the categories cover the data?
Are there similarities within and differences
between categories?
Is scientific language used to convey the
results?
Reporting analysis process
Is there a full description of the analysis
process?
Is the trustworthiness of the content analysis
discussed based on some criteria?

References:

• Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology (2004) By Klaus Krippendorff

• Qualitative Content Analysis: Theroretical Foundation, Basic Procedures and Software
solution (2014) By Philipp Mayring
• Berg, B.L. (2001). Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
• Bradley, J. (1993). Methodological issues and practices in qualitative research. Library
Quarterly, 63(4), 431-449.
• Glaser, B.G., & Strauss, A.L. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies
for Qualitative Research. New York: Aldine.
• Hsieh, H.-F., & Shannon, S.E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content
analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277-1288. Available on
: http://qhr.sagepub.com/content/15/9/1277.short?rss=1&ssource=mfc
• Miles, M., & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications.
• Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
• Shruti Datt (2016) 8-step procedure to conduct qualitative content analysis in a
research. Available on https://www.projectguru.in/publications/qualitative-content-
analysis-research/
• Weber, R.P. (1990). Basic Content Analysis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.