Research Methods in

Psychology-II
Semesters: BS 6th /M.Sc 2nd
Credit Hours: 3(2-1)
Prepared by: Dr. Riffat Sadiq
Methods of Qualitative Data Analysis

• Qualitative Data Analysis

 Analyzing qualitative data requires understanding
how to make sense of text and images so that a
researcher can form answers to his/her research
questions.
 Qualitative analysis initially consists of developing
a general sense of the data, and then coding
description and themes about the central
phenomenon
 Qualitative Data Analysis

 It is inductive in form, going from the particular or the

detailed data (e.g., transcriptions or typed notes from
interviews) to the general codes and themes.
 It involves a simultaneous process of analyzing while
you are also collecting data.
 The phases are also iterative, meaning you cycle back
and forth between data collection and analysis.
 Qualitative researchers analyze their data by reading it
several times and conducting an analysis each time .
 Qualitative Data Analysis

 There is no single, accepted approach to analyzing

qualitative data, although several guidelines exist for
this process.
 Qualitative research is “interpretive” research, in
which you make a personal assessment as to a
description that fits the situation or themes that
capture the major categories of information.
 Qualitative Data Analysis

Following methods are used to analyze qualitative

research data:
 Content analysis
 Coding
 Recursive abstraction
 Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis[IPA]
 Use of Statistical Test
 Content analysis

• Content Analysis is described as the scientific study of

content of communication.
• It is the study of the content with reference to the
meanings, contexts and intentions contained in messages.
• Content denotes what is contained and content analysis is
the analysis of what is contained in a message.
• Broadly content analysis may be seen as a method where
the content of the message forms the basis for drawing
inferences and conclusions about the content
 Content analysis

• Content analysis falls in the interface of observation

and document analysis.
• According to Berelson (1952) content analysis is a
research technique for the objective, systematic, and
quantitative description of the manifest content of
communication.
• Thus, content analysis is all about making valid,
Content Analysis. A method of Social Science
Research.CSS 3 replicable and objective inferences
about the message on the basis of explicit rules.
 Content analysis

• Content analysis conforms to three basic principles of

scientific method including:
1. Objectivity: Which means that the analysis is pursued on the
basis of explicit rules, which enable different researchers to
obtain the same results from the same documents or
messages.
2. Systematic: The inclusion or exclusion of content is done
according to some consistently applied rules where by the
possibility of including only materials which support the
researcher’s ideas – is eliminated.
3. Generalizability: The results obtained by the researcher
can be applied to other similar situations.
 Coding
• Coding is the process of segmenting and labeling text
to form descriptions and broad themes in the data.
• The object of the coding process is to make sense out
of text data, divide it into text or image segments,
label the segments with codes, examine codes for
overlap and redundancy, and collapse these codes
into broad themes.
• Codes are tags or labels for assigning units of
meaning to the descriptive or inferential information.
 Coding
• Coding data has a different meaning in qualitative
research.
• In qualitative research, a researcher organizes the raw
data into conceptual categories and create themes or
concepts.
• Codes usually are attached to “chunks” of varying size---
words, phrases, sentences or whole paragraphs,
connected or unconnected to a specific setting.
• Coding is the most difficult operation for inexperience
researchers to understand and to master
 Coding
• There are three types of qualitative data coding
 Open coding
 The first coding of qualitative data that examines the
data to condense them into preliminary analytic
categories or codes.
Researcher bring themes to the surface from deep
inside the data while using open coding
Open coding helps to see the emerging themes at a
glance.
It stimulates us to find themes in further open coding
 Coding
 Open coding extends to analytic notes or memos that a
researcher writes while collecting data.
For examples;
Assign codes to chunks of data
Possible open code: Scoping
Open Code
Scoping Explanation Problem Statement Suggested Solution
Possible Categories
presentation Discussion
 Coding
 Axial Coding
 A second stage of coding of qualitative data during which
the researcher organizes the codes, links them and
discovers key analytics categories.
 Researcher begins axial coding with an organized set of
initial codes or preliminary concepts.
 While axial coding, research ask about the causes and
consequences, conditions and interactions, strategies and
processes.
 Coding
 In axial coding, overlapping categories indicate the need for
refinement.

Presentation Discussion

Communication Techniques
 Coding

 Selective Coding
The last stage in coding qualitative data that
examine previous codes to identify and selected
data that will support the conceptual coding
categories that were developed.
It involves scanning all data and previous codes,
looking selectively for cases that illustrate themes,
and making comparisons after most or all data
collection has been completed.
 Coding
Focus on most important categories. For examples

Communication technique Tasks at the working place

How do people recognize problems in a company?

 Recursive Abstraction
 Recursive Abstraction is a qualitative data analysis
technique that is very useful when analyzing
interview data
 In this technique, datasets are summarized.
 Summarized data is further summarized
 Conclusion is made on the basis of final summary
 It results in removal of final conclusions several
times.
 Interpretative Phenomenological
Analysis [IPA]
 The aim of interpretative phenomenological
analysis (IPA) is to explore in detail how
participants are making sense of their personal and
social world,.
 An IPA study is the meanings particular
experiences, events, states hold for participants.
 It involves ideographic approach
 It focuses on how an individual think or shows
attitude in a particular situation
 Interpretative Phenomenological
Analysis [IPA]
 It involves the close examination of the activities of an
individual
 IPA also emphasizes that the research exercise is a dynamic
process with an active role for the researcher in that process.
 A detailed IPA analysis can also involve asking critical
questions of the texts from participants.
 IPA has a theoretical commitment to the person as a
cognitive, linguistic, affective and physical being and assumes
a chain of connection between people’s talk and their
thinking and emotional state.
 Use of Statistical Tests
• Qualitative research data usually does not
quantitative analysis but somewhere considering
research question and objectives, a research can
use statistical test to analyze data.
• Thus, application of statistical tests depends on the
type of specific questions and purposes.
• Selection of statistical test will also depend on the
purpose/research question/hypothesis
 Activity

Using recursive abstraction technique to analyze the

qualitative research data
 References
Content Analysis: A Method in Social Science Research.
Available at
http://www.css.ac.in/download/content%20analysis.%20a%20
method%20of%20social%20science%20research.pdf
Open Coding. Available at
http://pages.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/~saul/wiki/uploads/CPSC681/op
en-coding.pdf
A Six Step Guide to Using Recursive Abstraction Applied to
the Qualitative Analysis of Interview Data. Available at
http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/21367/1/ISBN%20978-1-8589
9-296-9.pdf
 References
Books
1. Creswell, J. (2008). Educational Research:
Planning, Conducting and Evaluating Quantitative
and Qualitative Research. Merrill Prentice Hall.
2. Smith, J. A. (2003). Qualitative Psychology: A
Practical Guide to Research Methods. Sage
Publications.