Summaries on How to Plan and Perform a Qualitative Study Using Content

Analysis
By Md. Mahmudur Rahman

Introduction
Qualitative research is a valuable method for understanding the human condition in
various contexts and situations. However, there is no perfect design, and unexpected
events may arise. Researchers must create the best study design by identifying
available resources, such as external resources like economics and time, and internal
resources like knowledge and ability. Self-reflection is essential in qualitative research,
as it minimizes bias and helps identify misrepresentations. Various analysis methods
can be used in qualitative research, such as phenomenology, hermeneutics, grounded
theory, ethnography, and content analysis. Content analysis is not linked to any
particular science, reducing confusion in philosophical concepts and discussions.
Researchers must adhere to a qualitative perspective to achieve rigor and credibility,
ensuring the results are trustworthy. Various definitions and descriptions of content
analysis exist, with Berelson defining it as a research technique for objective,
systematic, and quantitative descriptions of the manifest content of communication.
However, this definition does not capture the qualitative and latent perspective of the
analysis. Content analysis is a research technique for making replicable and valid
inferences from texts to their contexts. It is more than just a counting process, linking
results to their context or environment. Content analysis provides a systematic and
objective means to describe and quantify specific phenomena.

The Planning
Research should be clear, descriptive, and exploratory, using inductive or deductive
reasoning. The study design should be established, and five main issues must be
considered: aim, sample, unit of analysis, data collection method, analysis method, and
practical implications. Repeated consideration of these issues is crucial to anticipate
unexpected events and ensure credibility. A chain of logic should be established
between decisions and study conduct. Researchers should write memos to recapitulate
and report the process.
The Aim
The planning discussion starts with establishing the aim, which determines the study
design and boundaries. It's crucial to identify interesting dilemmas and present them
concisely. A broad aim may hinder researchers from reaching the desired depth of the
phenomenon.

The sample and units of analysis

Qualitative studies typically use 1-30 informants, with the sample size determined based
on informational needs. Researchers must decide whether to analyze the entire sample
or divide it into smaller units, focusing on the study's aim. Content analysis lacks
established criteria for unit size, including informants, objects, and pages. The key issue
is determining the researcher's intended elucidation.

The choice of data collection method

Content analysis can be applied to all written texts, without specific rules. Data
collection methods, such as interviews, focus groups, and observations, affect the
analysis's depth. However, open-ended questions may not offer the same depth as
interviews, allowing researchers to delve deeper into the informant’s conversations.

The choice of analysis method

Content analysis is a unique method that combines quantitative and qualitative
methodologies, originating in media research and social research. It aims to organize
and elicit meaning from data collected, drawing realistic conclusions. Quantitative
content analysis summarizes facts in frequency, while qualitative content analysis
presents data in words and themes, allowing interpretation. The choice of analysis
method depends on the depth of reflection, the number of informants needed, and the
data collection method. The choice between manifest analysis or latent analysis
depends on the researcher's approach to the subject and the number of informants
needed.

Practical implications
Researchers must consider ethical aspects during planning discussions to protect
informants. Once design is established, a presentation is sent to the appropriate ethics
committee. Participants must be informed about the study, guaranteed confidentiality,
and informed of their voluntary participation.

Data collection
The interaction between informants and researchers significantly impacts the data
collected, affecting the study's results. Researchers must formulate and adapt questions
to the method's claims to understand the phenomena being studied. Content analysis
can utilize various types of questions related to the study's aim. However, the
researcher cannot guarantee data captures the real context of informants, as words
may not align with the researcher's interpretation. Data collected through interviews,
focus groups, or discussions is often recorded and translated into written form, which is
an interpretive process.

Data analyzing
The literature review discusses different opinions on content analysis concepts,
procedures, and interpretation. Researchers use four main stages: decontextualization,
contextualization, categorization, and compilation. Each stage must be performed
multiple times to maintain the quality and trustworthiness of the analysis. There is no
need to use different main stages for manifest and latent analysis, but a transparent
table is needed to ensure the quality of the analysis. Human mistakes, such as fatigue,
errors, and personal bias, can occur during the analyzing process. The researcher's
responsibility is to ensure validity and reliability throughout the study, ensuring rigorous
and trustworthy results. To increase validity, at least two investigators should perform
the analysis separately and discuss their results, using triangulations to confirm results.

Stage 1 The decontextualisation

The researcher must familiarize themselves with the data and read through the
transcribed text to understand the whole. They break down the text into smaller
meaning units, each labeled with a code, which helps identify concepts and patterns.
The "open coding process" is used to analyze the data, which can be generated
inductively or deductively depending on the study design. Codes can change as the
study progresses, and repeating the coding process can increase reliability. Computer
programs can help speed up the process by locating codes and grouping data together.
However, the researcher must still decide on themes and conclusions from the results,
as computer programs are soulless software and human creativity is crucial.
Stage 2 The recontextualisation
The researcher must identify meaning units and ensure all aspects of the content are
covered in relation to the aim. The original text is read alongside the final list of meaning
units, using colored pencils to distinguish each meaning unit. Unmarked text remains,
and the researcher must decide whether to include it or exclude it. Distancing is
necessary, allowing the researcher to let go of unimportant information that does not
align with the study's aim.

Stage 3 The categorization

To create categories, extended meaning units must be condensed, reducing the
number of words without losing content. The depth of meaning units determines the
analysis level. Data can be divided into domains, such as concept content areas, based
on the study's attentions. The categorization process identifies themes and categories,
but there is no consensus on which headings or concepts to use. Sub-categories,
smallest units based on meaning units, can be sorted into broader categories or
concept sub-themes. Themes and categories should be internally homogeneous and
externally heterogeneous, with no data falling between two or more than one group.
Theme is an overall concept of an underlying meaning on an interpretative latent level.
The researcher's categorization is based on the study's aim and is completed when a
reasonable explanation is reached.

Stage 4 The compilation

The analysis and writing up process in qualitative research involves examining how
informants make sense of experience and transform experiences into consciousness.
Researchers must consider data collected from a neutral perspective and consider
objectivity. They can choose between manifest and latent levels, with manifest analysis
using informants' words and latent analysis using meaning units as quotations. A
summary of themes, categories/sub-themes, and sub-categories/sub-headings can be
presented as a table, while quantitative analysis can count sub-categories and
categories. Combining quantitative and qualitative approaches allows for a clearer
understanding of individual phenomena, but variables cannot be ranked, as not all
informants have had the opportunity to discuss all the phenomena. The researcher must
evaluate the new findings' logicalness and consistency with literature to confirm the
study's validity. Respondent validation, or member check, involves returning to
informants to confirm results. However, this approach may pose risks, such as
unreliability of informants' memory or denying less attractive aspects of behavior. To
increase validity, researchers should obtain confirmation from informants during data
collection. Additionally, a colleague or inquiry auditor can read the original text and
determine if the results are reasonable. However, independent individuals may struggle
to familiarize themselves with another's coding.

A discussion about concepts of trustworthiness

Research should be open to criticism and evaluation, and the study process and results
should be discussed in relation to concepts linked to trustworthiness. There is no
consensus on which criteria and concepts should be used in content analysis, and there
are two groups of scientists: those who debate validity, reliability, and generalizability,
and those who believe a different set of criteria and concepts are needed. Credibility
refers to the study process, ensuring no relevant data has been excluded. Dependability
refers to stability, the extent to which data changes over time, and the degree to which
the results may be applicable to other settings or groups. Confirmability refers to the
objectivity or neutrality of the data. In qualitative studies, there is no definite "truth," and
researchers are more interested in depth understanding of a specific issue and showing
different perspectives. Researchers must handle self-reflection and be aware of the
context in content analysis to avoid affecting the process or outcome.

Conclusion
Qualitative data, such as interviews and pictures, requires other methods of analysis
beyond statistical analysis. Content analysis is one such method that can enhance
validity and reliability. Although it has advantages and disadvantages, it is an easily
understood process that can be emulated by those new to the field. This paper aims to
help others understand and maintain the quality of qualitative data analysis.