GLASS

INTRODUCTION
• Glass has been used as an engineering material since ancient times.
• The first glass objects made by man were of natural glass such as
obsidian glass and rock crystals.
• The manufactured glass dates from prehistoric times in the far east,
India and Egypt.
• With the help of techniques developed in the glass industry , glass of
any type and quality can be produced to suit the requirements of
different industries.
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
• Glass is a mixture of a number of metallic silicates, one of which is usually that of
an alkali metal
• It is amorphous, transparent or translucent.
• Glass maybe grouped into three categories:
• 1)soda-lime glass
• 2)potash-lime glass
• 3)potash-lead glass
• The chemical formula for three groups of glass as classified above, are as follows:
• Soda-lime glass : Na2O, CaO, 6SiO2
• Potash-lime glass : K2O, CaO, 6SiO2
• Potash-lead glass: K2O, PbO, 6SiO2
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• It absorbs, refracts or transmits light.
• It can take up a high polish.
• It has no definite crystalline structure.
• It has no sharp melting point.
• It is affected by alkalis.
• It is extremely brittle.
• It is not usually affected by air or water.
• It is not easily attacked by ordinary chemical reagents.
 MANUFACTURE OF GLASS

The procedure adopted in the manufacture of glass may broadly be

divided into the following five stages:
1)Collection of raw materials
2)Preparation of batch
3)Melting in furnace
4)Fabrication
5)Annealing.
1) COLLECTION OF RAW MATERIALS :
• Depending upon the type of glass to be manufactured, suitable raw materials are collected.
• Raw materials like Chalk, Soda ash, clean sand, pure sand, salt cake, coke, ordinary sand
are used.
• In addition to raw materials, cullet and decolouriser are also added for each type of glass.
• Cullet indicates waste glass or pieces of broken glass. They increase the fusibility of glass
which is produced and they also reduce the cost.
• The raw materials generally contain traces of iron compounds.
2) PREPARATION OF BATCH :
• The raw materials, cullet and decolouriser are finely powdered in grinding machines
• These materials are accurately weighed in correct proportions before they are mixed
together.
• The mixing of these materials is carried out in mixing machines until a uniform mixture is
obtained.
• Such a uniform mixture is known as batch or frit and it is taken for further process of
melting in a furnace.
3) MELTING IN FURNACE :
The batch is melted either in a pot furnace or in a tank furnace. The heating is
continued until the evolution of carbon dioxide, oxygen, sulphur dioxide and other gases
stops.
POT FURNACE :
• In this furnace, pots are adopted as units. A pot is a vessel made of fire-clay.
• These pots are placed in specially prepared holes in the furnace. The charging and
collecting doors are kept projecting outside so that raw materials may be added and molten
glass may be taken out conveniently.
• The pots are filled with raw materials. The furnace is heated by
means of producer gas.
• When the mass has melted down, it is removed from the pot and
it is taken for the next operation of fabrication.
• The melting of glass by pot furnace is an intermittent process.
It is used to melt small quantities of glass at a time or to prepare
special types of glass.
TANK FURNACE :
• This furnace resembles reverberatory furnace adopted for puddling of wrought iron. It is
constructed with reinforced masonry.

• The tank is filled with raw materials. The furnace is heated by allowing producer gas
through ports. The charging of raw materials and taking out of molten mass are
simultaneous. This is a continuous process and it is adopted to melt large quantities of
glass at a time.
4) FABRICATION :
• The molten glass is given a suitable shape or form in this stage.
• It can be either done by hand or machine. Hand fabrication is adopted for small scale
production and machine fabrication is adopted for large scale production.
• Following are the different ways of fabrication :
1) Blowing
2) Casting
3) Drawing
4) Pressing
5) Rolling
6) Spinning
5) ANNEALING :
• Glass articles, after being manufactured, are to be cooled down slowly and gradually. This
process of slow and homogeneous cooling of glass articles is known as annealing of glass.
• Two methods of annealing :
1) Flue treatment
2) Oven treatment
 TREATMENT OF GLASS
Glass may be given the following treatments:
1. Bending
2. Cutting
3. Opaque making
4. Silvering
1. BENDING: Glass may be bent into desired shape by placing it in ovens in which temperature can be regulated . Glass in
the form of rods ,sheets , or tubes is placed in such ovens and heated .

2. CUTTING: Glass is cut in required sizes with the help of diamond or rough glasses or small wheels of hardened steel.

3. OPAQUE MAKING: Glass can also be made opaque or impervious to light. It is done by grinding glass surface with
emery. It can also be achieved by chemically by the application of hydrofluoric acid.

4. SILVERING: This process consists in applying a very thin coat of tin on the surface of glass. Silver is deposited on this
layer of tin . A suitable paint is then applied to give protection against atmospheric effects .

COLOURED GLASS:
To make coloured glass , colouring pigment is added to the raw materials while preparing the batch for
its manufacture. The whole mass is heated till it becomes homogenous.
 TYPES OF GLASS

•1) Soda-lime glass

•2) Potash-lime glass
•3) Potash-lead glass
•4) Common glass
SODA-LIME GLASS
• This is also known as soda-glass or soft-glass.
• It is mainly a mixture of sodium silicate and calcium silicate.
PROPERTIES
• It is available in clean and clear state.
• It is cheap.
• It is easily fusible at comparatively low temperatures.
USES
• It is used in the manufacture of glass tubes and other laboratory
apparatus, plate glass, window glass, etc.
POTASH-LIME GLASS
• This is also known as Bohemian-glass or hard-glass. It is mainly a mixture of
potassium silicate and calcium silicate.
PROPERTIES
• It fuses at high temperature .
• It is not easily affected by water and other solvents.
• It does not melt so easily .
USES
This glass is used in manufacture of glass articles which have to withstand
high temperatures such as combustion tubes,etc.
POTASH - LEAD GLASS
• This is also known as flint glass. It is mainly a mixture of potassium silicate
and lead silicate .
PROPERTIES
• It fuses very easily.
• It is easily attacked by aqueous solution.
• It possesses bright lustre and great refractive power.
• Its specific gravity Is about 3 to 3.30 .
• It turns black and opaque, if it comes into contact with reducing gases of
the furnace during heating .
USES
It is use in the manufacture of artificial gems , electric bulbs, lenses, prisms,
etc.
COMMON GLASS
• This is also known as bottle glass. It is prepared from cheap raw
materials. It is mainly a mixture of sodium silicate, calcium silicate and
iron silicate.
Properties
• It fuses with difficulty.
• It is brown, green, or yellow in colour.
• It is easily attacked by acids.
USES
It is mainly used in the manufacture of medicine bottles.
 Special Varieties of Glass
• Bullet-proof glass : This glass is made of several layers of plate glass
and alternate layers consist of vinyl-resin plastic.
• Fibre Glass : Fibre glass is composed of minute glass rods.
• Foam Glass : The glass is prepared in the form of rectangular blocks.
• Heat-excluding glass : This glass allows light to pass but eliminates
heat.
• Perforated Glass : Perforations are made in sheet glass with the help
of rollers.
• Safety Glass : This is formed by placing celluloid between two sheets
of plate glass and then applying glue to make a single unit.
 TRANSPORTATION OF GLASS
The packaging system for general cargo carriers :
With Glass-wrap significantly more volume per transport.
• The transport of flat glass is a main concern. The packaging and transport costs are almost
always disproportionately high.
• In various researched cases, companies were found to pay more for it then the actual cost
of the product itself.
• In addition, when viewed globally, glass damage during transport varies from 0.5 up to
40%.
1. Any general cargo carrier can transport flat glass with Glass-wrap.
2. Glass-wrap reduces additional costs.
3. Glass-wrap minimizes damage and breakage.
4. Glass-wrap shortens loading times.
5. Anyone can use Glass-wrap.
 USE OF GLASS IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
1) CURTAIN WALLING :

• The traditional curtain wall is a frame of aluminium with

mullions and transoms quite similar to large framed
glazing except that the walls form an independent
envelope around the main structure and are generally
not resting on the concrete structure but only connected
to it.
• Planimetry of the whole glass wall as a single unit and
special sealing elements, materials and techniques make
it a highly specialized job.
• The glass is kept in place by placing it in the sash and
fixing with a pressure plate and screws.
2) STRUCTURAL GLAZING :
• Structural glazing is a system of bonding glass to an
aluminium window frame utilizing a high-strength, high-
performance silicone sealant.
• It uses the adhesive qualities of silicone sealants to
retain the glass in the frame by adhesion without the
necessity of any mechanical retention such as beads,
clips or bolt fixings.
• Structural glazing with sealants allows perfectly uniform
large glazed surfaces, not interrupted by traditional
frames or any other supporting or fitting system
projecting out of the frame.
• The glazing is prepared in a factory by mounting a
structural seal support frame onto the glass, complete
with appropriate setting blocks, location blocks and
distance pieces. On site, the support frame is attached
to the building structure by mechanical means and the
gaps between the glazings are sealed.
3) BOLTED GLAZING :
• The bolted structural system is the less obtrusive, alternative to
structural glazing, which holds the glass by means of visible metal parts
and covers a small part of the glass surface.
• In some cases, the fixing holes can be drilled and countersunk, so that
the bolts are embedded in the thickness of the glass itself.
• For small or medium glazing not exceeding 7m in height and 50 m in
length, rigid bolted system can be used. This system is often used for
shop front at street level.
• Modern bolted systems use knockled bolts for fixing of the glass,
instead of the common fixed bolt. Knockled bolt allow the glass,
submitted to wind pressure, to be flexible and make a continuous curve
instead of a double curvature.
• Bolted glass systems are often used on main entrance elevations of the
big buildings, so that one can have unhindered view into the building.
• This technique even enables architects to make curved facades with flat
planes, because the rotating bolts can be faceted up to 7 degrees.
4) TRADITIONAL GLAZING :
• The traditional framed glazing using wood can be done with
any type of glass based on the requirements placed upon
such glazing but large frames should ensure a deflection of
less than 1/175 of its span or less than 20mm at any point.
• The rebates must be dimensioned according to the glazing
type, sizes and tolerances and to accommodate the glazing
materials.
• The sill member must have adequate weep holes. Except
open rebates, all types of rebates, channels or structural
gaskets must have weep holes in order to prevent the
accumulation of moisture in the rebate for prolonged periods.
• There should be at least two weep holes of 6mm dia. with
additional hole for every 500mm over 1m.
• Setting blocks should be used to rest the glass in a frame at
its correct horizontal and vertical position. In case of wooden
frames, foam tapes should be used for sealing.
Thickness available : 4mm,5mmm, 6mm, 8mm, 10mm, 12mm
Prices :
4mm- 35 Rs/sqft.
5mm- 55 Rs/sqft.
6mm- 65 Rs/sqft.
8mm- 85 Rs/sqft.
10mm- 120 Rs/sqft.
12mm- 130 Rs/sqft.

Figure glass-
4 mm - 35 Rs/sqft.
3.5 mm – 35 Rs/sqft.
Tinted glass-
6mm – 300 Rs/sqft.
12mm – 400 Rs/sqft.
Colored glass-
5mm , 6mm , 4mm – 380 Rs/sqft
8mm, 10mm, 12mm – 450 Rs/sqft

Crystal polish – 12Rs

Champher polish – 50 Rs
 ADVANTAGES OF GLASS
• Glass has a smooth glossy surface so it is dust proof and can be easily
cleaned.
• The glass that absorb, refracts or transmits light. It can be made
transparent or translucent so it adds extraordinary beauty to the
building.
• Glass transmits up to 80% of available natural day light in both
directions without any yellowing, clouding or weathering.
• The glass is fully weather resistance so it can withstand the effects of
the wind, rain, or the sun and can retain its appearance and integrity.
• It is an excellent insulator against electricity.
 DISADVANTAGES OF GLASS
• The glass is less impact resistant so the capability of the glass withstand a
suddenly applied load is very poor.
• Manufacturing of glass is high energy consuming process due to high
temperature required for processing the raw materials, and it is expensive
material and ultimately increases the cost of building .
• The glass is affected by external hydrofluoric acid hence sometime etching
appears on glass surface.
• Glare is a major problem in glass façade building
• The glass is poor in terms of heat preservation leading to higher costs in
operation of airconditioners.
TINTED GLASS
OPAQUE