THE CELL AND ITS BEGINNING

ROBERT HOOKE
 Devised one of the earliest microscopes
 Most commemorative work came from a thin slice of cork from
a bark of an oak tree
 cellulae
 His observations and drawings were collected in a manuscript
called Micrographia

REVIEWER IN ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK

 Devised more than 500 lenses with one of his lenses being
able to magnify 270 times

GENERAL  Animalcules
 He was the first to observe living cells

The Cell Theory

BIOLOGY I 1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.

2. Cells are the smallest and basic units of structure and function
in organisms.
3. Cells arise only from previously existing cells
(Midterm 2nd Semester) MATTHIAS JAKOB SCHLEIDEN
 Botanist
 Confirmed that cells are fundamental units of life; bodies of
living organisms are made up of cells

THEODOR SCHWANN
 Physiologist
 Confirmed that cells are fundamental units of life; bodies of
Roldan C. Nayanga living organisms are made up of cells

STEM 11-D RUDOLF CARL VIRCHOW

 Physician
 Proposed a third tenet in the cell theory

BASIC CELL TYPES

1. PLASMA/CELL MEMBRANE – regulates the passage of

materials into and out of the cell
 2. CYTOPLASM – a gel-like substance making up the cell’s  which makes the membrane less permeable to water-
internal environment soluble substances
3. NUCLEUS – houses the DNA that provides instructions to
make proteins, regulates activities, and enables cells to 2. CARBOHYDRATES
reproduce.  serve as identification tags

PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES Membrane Proteins

Bacteria Animals
Blue-green algae Plants 1. TRANSPORT PROTEINS
Archaeans Fungi  help materials cross the membrane
Protists
2. CHANNEL PROTEINS
THE CELL’S INTRICATE MACHINERY  form tunnels that help cells to import or export needed
materials and wastes
A. THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Functions as a selective barrier 3. CELL RECOGNITION PROTEINS
 Allows sufficient passage of nutrients  enable cells to distinguish own cells from that of other
and waste organisms
 Composed of double layer of phospholipids and proteins
 three basic parts: a charged phosphate group, 4. ENZYMATIC PROTEINS
glycerol, and two fatty acid chains  participate in metabolic reactions
 Heads contain glycerol & phosphate and are
hydrophilic (attract water) 5. CYTOSKELETON PROTEINS
 Tails are made of fatty acids and are hydrophobic  maintain cell shape and motility
(repel water)
 Make up a bilayer where tails point inward toward 6. JUNCTION PROTEINS
each other  assist cell-to-cell adhesion and communication between
 Can move laterally to allow small molecules (O2, cells
CO2, & H2O to enter)
 Proteins help move large molecules or aid in cell 7. RECEPTOR PROTEINS
recognition  facilitate exchange of signals with other cells
 Peripheral proteins are attached on the surface
(inner or outer) B. CELL WALL
 Integral proteins are embedded completely through  Supports and protects cell
Cell Wallthe membrane  Found outside of the cell membrane
 Nonliving layer
Molecules within the Phospholipid Layer  Found in plants, fungi, & bacteria
 Made of cellulose in plants
1. CHOLESTEROL MOLECULES  Made of peptidoglycan in bacteria
 help strengthen the cell membrane  Made of chitin in Fungi
C. CYTOPLASM  Modify, sort, & package molecules from ER for storage or
 Jelly-like substance enclosed by cell membrane transport out of cell
 Provides a medium for chemical reactions to take place
 Contains organelles to carry out specific jobs H. VACUOLES
 Found in ALL cells  Fluid filled sacks for storage
 Small or absent in animal cells
D. NUCLEUS  Plant cells have a large Central Vacuole
 Each cell has fixed number of chromosomes that carry  No vacuoles in bacterial cells
genes  In plants, they store Cell Sap
 Genes control cell characteristics  Includes storage of sugars, proteins, minerals, lipids,
wastes, salts, water, and enzymes
 NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
 Double membrane surrounding nucleus I. LYSOSOMES
 Also called nuclear membrane  Contain digestive enzymes
 Contains nuclear pores for materials to enter &  Break down food, bacteria, and worn out cell parts for cells
leave nucleus  Programmed for cell death (AUTOLYSIS)
 Connected to the rough ER  Lyse (break open) & release enzymes to break down &
recycle cell parts)
 The genetic material (DNA) is found  Cells take in food by phagocytosis
 DNA is condensed & wrapped around proteins forming as  Lysosomes digest the food & get rid of wastes
CHROMOSOMES in dividing cells
 DNA is the hereditary material of the cell J. MITOCHONDRIA
 “Powerhouse” of the cell
E. NUCLEOLUS  Generate cellular energy (ATP)
 Inside nucleus  More active cells like muscle cells have MORE
 Cell may have 1 to 3 nucleoli mitochondria
 Disappears when cell divides  Both plants & animal cells have mitochondria
 Makes ribosomes that make proteins  Site of CELLULAR RESPIRATION (burning glucose)
 Surrounded by a DOUBLE membrane
F. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM – ER  Folded inner membrane called CRISTAE (increases
 Network of hollow membrane tubules surface area for more chemical Reactions)
 Connects to nuclear envelope & cell membrane  Has its own DNA
 Functions in Synthesis of cell products & Transport
K. CHLOROPLASTS
G. GOLGI BODIES  Found only in producers (organisms containing chlorophyll)
 Stacks of flattened sacs  Use energy from sunlight to make own food (glucose)
 Have a shipping side (trans face) and receiving side (cis  Energy from sun stored in the Chemical Bonds of Sugars
face)  Surrounded by DOUBLE membrane
 Receive proteins made by ER  Outer membrane smooth
 Transport vesicles with modified proteins pinch off the ends  Inner membrane modified into sacs called Thylakoids
 Thylakoids in stacks called Grana & interconnected
  Stroma – gel like material surrounding thylakoids
 Contains its own DNA
 Contains enzymes & pigments for Photosynthesis
 Never in animal or bacterial cells
 Photosynthesis – food making process
L. CENTRIOLES
 Found only in animal cells
 Paired structures near nucleus
 Made of bundle of microtubules
 Appear during cell division forming mitotic spindle
 Help to pull chromosome pairs apart to opposite ends of
the cell
M. CILIA & FLAGELLA
 Made of protein tubes called microtubules
 Microtubules arranged (9 + 2 arrangement)
 Function in moving cells, in moving fluids, or in small
particles across the cell surface
 Cilia are shorter and more numerous on cells
 Flagella are longer and fewer (usually 1-3) on cells
N. CYTOSKELETON
 Helps cell maintain cell shape
 Also help move organelles around
 Made of proteins
 Microfilaments are threadlike & made of ACTIN
 Microtubules are tubelike & made of TUBULIN
ANIMAL TISSUE
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE OR EPITHELIA
 Commonly seen outside the body as coverings or as
linings of organs and cavities.
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
A. CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
 With diced-shape cells specialized for
secretion, makes up the epithelium of
kidney tubules and many glands,
including the thyroid gland and
salivary glands
B. SIMPLE COLUMNAR
 These large brick-shaped cells are
often found where secretion or
active transport is important. For
example, the linings of the intestine
where digestive juices are secreted
and nutrients are absorbed.
C. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
 The single of layer of plate-like cells
functions in exchange of material
by diffusion. This type of
epithelium, which is thin and leaky,
lines blood vessels and the air sacs of
the lungs where diffusion of
nutrients and gasses is critical.
D. STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
 It is multilayered and regenerates
rapidly. This is commonly found on
surfaces subject to abrasion such as
the outer skin and the linings of the
mouth, anus, and vagina.
E. PSEUDO-STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
 It is consist of a single layer of cells
varying in height and the position of
their nuclei. These cells form a
mucus membrane that lines
portions of the respiratory tract. The
beating cilia sweep the film of
mucus along the surface.
 holds many tissues and organs together in place.
 Within the matrix are numerous cells called fibroblasts,
which secrete fiber proteins, and macrophages, which
engulf protein particles and any cell debris by
phagocytosis.
 COLLAGENOUS FIBER – provide strength and flexibility
 RETICULAR FIBER – join connective tissue to adjacent
tissues
 ELASTIC FIBER – make tissues elastic
A. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 It is the most widespread connective
tissue in the vertebrate which binds
epithelia to underlying tissues gets
its name from the loo se weave of its
fibers, which includes all three types.
B. DENSE/FIBROUS CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
 It is found tendons, which attach
muscles to bones, and in ligaments,
which connect bones at joints.
C. BONE TISSUE
 It is a mineralized type of connective
tissue that contains collagen and
calcium phosphate, a mineral
crystal.
D. BLOOD
 It has a liquid extracellular matrix
called plasma, which consists of
water, salts, and dissolved proteins.
Suspended in plasma are
erythrocytes (red blood cells),
leukocytes (white blood cells), and
thrombocytes (platelets).
E. ADIPOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 It stores fat in adipose cells
distributed throughout its matrix.
Each adipose cell contains a large
fat droplet that swells when fat is
stored and shrinks when the body
uses that as fuel.
F. CARTILAGE
 It contains collagenous fibers
embedded in rubbery protein-
carbohydrate complex called
chondroitin sulfate. Cells called
chondrocytes secrete the collagen
and chondroitin sulfate which together make cartilage a
strong yet flexible support material.
3. MUSCLE TISSUE
 It is responsible for nearly all types of body movement.
A. SKELETAL MUSCLE
 It is responsible for voluntary
movements.
B. SMOOTH MUSCLE
 It is responsible for involuntary body
activities such as churning of the
stomach and constriction of the
arteries.
C. CARDIAC MUSCLE
 It forms the contractile wall of the
heart. It is striated like the skeletal
muscle and has similar contractile
properties.
4. NERVOUS TISSUE
 It contains neurons, or nerve cells, which transmit nerve
impulses, as well as support cells called glial cells.
A. NEURONS
 It transmits impulses to neurons,
muscles, or other cells via
extensions called axions, which are
often bundled together into nerves
 B. GLIA
 The various types of glia help
nourish, insulate, and replenish
neurons, and in some cases,
modulate neuron function.
CELL DIVISION
 Cell division allows an increase in cell number, or the
multiplication of a cell. Thus, cell division is also cell
multiplication!
 Cell division comes in two ways. One is through mitosis, and
the other is through meiosis. For the meantime, mitosis will be
the focus of this module. Cell division starts with interphase,
which has three sub phases: G1, S, and G2. Then mitosis
follows with the next four phases: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase.
1. INTERPHASE
a) G1 PHASE
 G stands for gap because it was initially believed
that there is nothing significant happening at this
stage. However, this is where several important
processes take place inside the cell in preparation
for mitosis. In G1, the cell synthesizes mRNA and
proteins, which are needed for chromosome
replication.
b) S PHASE
 In the S (synthesis) phase, chromosomes are
replicated. This means that there is twice the actual
DNA now present in the cell. Each chromosome
consists of two chromatids. A chromatid is one copy
of a newly copied chromosome. However, the
chromosomes will become visible only in prophase.
At this point, you will not be able to see the
chromosomes using an ordinary light microscope,
The S DNA damage checkpoint monitors the
replication process during this phase.
c) G2 PHASE
 At this point, the cell rapidly grows and protein
synthesis continues. The G2 DNA damage
checkpoint checks activities in G2 to ensure its
proper flow. The unreplicated DNA checkpoint
ensures that DNA synthesis is complete before
proceeding to mitosis.
2. MITOSIS
 Mitosis serves many purposes. First, mitosis ensures that
the number of the chromosomes of the parent cell is
identical to its two daughter cells.
 Mitosis also ensures the growth of the offspring.
 Mitosis also replaces the damaged cells in wounds.
a) PROPHASE
 In prophase, the chromosomes condense and are
now visible even with just using the ordinary light
microscope. ln the late part of prophase, the nuclear
envelope and the nucleolus disappear. The
kinetochore, a special protein complex, appears at
the centromere. The function of the kinetochore is to
link the spindle fibers to the centromere.
b) METAPHASE
 In this phase, there are three kinds of microtubules
in the spindle fibers: the astral, the polar, and the
kinetochore. In metaphase, the kinetochore
microtubule directs the chromosomes toward the
center of the cell in an area that is called the
metaphase plate or the equatorial plate.
c) ANAPHASE
 In anaphase A, the kinetochore microtubules of the
spindle fibers separate and move the sister
chromatids toward opposite poles. In anaphase B,
the polar microtubules begin to elongate, while the
astral microtubules pull them on the other side.
These result in the poles moving farther apart from
each other.

d) TELOPHASE
 In telophase, the chromosomes uncoil, and both the
nucleolus and the nuclear envelope reappear.
Cytokinesis continues with the visible appearance of
the cleavage furrow, a groove on the cell membrane
between the poles usually observed in animal cells.
In animal cells, the cleavage furrow is produced
when the contractile ring, which is made up of
proteins, constricts the middle of the cell.
3. CYTOKINESIS
 Cytokinesis starts at anaphase and continues to the next
phase. Cytokinesis is the process of dividing the cytoplasm
into half.
MEIOSIS
- Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes of the diploid
cell into halves: one half for the sperm and the other half for
the egg, turning them into haploid cells
- The first division in meiosis (meiosis I) is called reductional
division, whereas the second division (meiosis II) is called
equational division. In reductional division, the diploid cell is
reduced to haploid. In equational division, sister chromatids
separate, which is a process similar to mitosis.
1. MEIOSIS I
a) PROPHASE I
 In the leptotene stage, chromatins condense and
chromosomes appear.
 In the zygotene stage, synapsis starts. Synapsis is
the close pairing of the homologous chromosomes.
 In the pachytene stage, synapsis is complete. At this
point, crossing-over can take place. In crossing-
over, non-sister chromatids in the homologous
chromosomes exchange their segments.
 In the diplotene stage, the synaptonemal complex
starts to dissolve, and the homologous
chromosomes start to separate in a process called
terminalization.
b) METAPHASE I
 Homologous chromosomes move to the metaphase
plate or equatorial plate. Some of the paternal
chromosomes are oriented toward one pole, while
others are oriented toward the other pole.
c) ANAPHASE I
 The homologous chromosomes separate in
anaphase I. Each chromosome still holds the sister
chromatids. Some of these chromatids now contain
segments of exchanged DNA from the crossing-
over.
d) TELOPHASE I
 At this stage, homologous chromosomes have
reached the poles. The resulting cells have only half
the number of chromosomes. Chromosomes still
have pairs of attached chromatids. The nuclear
membrane starts to reappear.
e) CYTOKINESIS I
 Cytokinesis completes the creation of the two
haploid daughter cells.
 There is a brief resting period between telophase I
and prophase II. This is called interkinesis. No
duplication of chromosomes happens in interkinesis.
2. MEIOSIS II
a) PROPHASE II
 In this process, the chromosomes begin to
condense again. The nuclear membrane and the
nucleolus disappear. Spindle fibbers begin to form.
b) METAPHASE II
 The chromosomes align at the equatorial plate. The
kinetochores are then attached to the centromere of
 each sister chromatid. These sister chromatids
prepare themselves to move at opposite poles.
c) ANAPHASE II
 The sister chromatids begin to separate. Each sister
chromatid moves to opposite poles.
d) TELOPHASE II
 In telophase II, the chromosomes uncoil. The
nuclear membrane and the nucleolus reappear.
e) CYTOKINESIS II
 Cytokinesis finally splits the cells, producing four
haploid cells Thus, keep in mind that the products of
meiosis are four haploid daughter cells, whereas the
products of mitosis are two diploid daughter cells.
produce one egg cell and another polar body. The first polar
body divides to form two polar bodies. Polar bodies cannot be
fertilized by a sperm. Thus, each cycle of oogenesis produces
one egg cell and three polar bodies, all from one oogonium.
 Usually, only one egg is produced in one complete
meiosis. When the sole egg meets the sperm, the resulting
pregnancy has one fetus formed inside the uterus of the
mother.
 Females who are not yet at puberty have all the oocytes
arrested at prophase I. At puberty, one of the oocytes
proceeds to metaphase I. In females, all egg cells to be
produced in their lifetime re already within their body at
birth.
 Meiosis yields four (4) daughter cells with half the number
of chromosomes of the parent cell.

GAMETOGENESIS MEIOSIS MITOSIS

- In humans, gametogenesis is the process of producing
gametes, or sex cells. There are two types, depending on the Requires two nuclear divisions Requires one nuclear division
sex cells involved. Spermatogenesis is the process of Chromosomes synapse and Chromosomes do not synapse
producing sperm cells in males, whereas oogenesis is the cross over nor cross over
process of producing egg cells in females. Spermatogenesis Centromeres survive Centromeres dissolve in mitotic
and oogenesis both involve meiosis. Anaphase I anaphase
Halves chromosome number Preserves chromosome number
SPERMATOGENESIS
- In spermatogenesis, the spermatogonium (plural: Produces four daughter nuclei Produces two daughter nuclei
spermatogonia) forms into the primary spermatocyte. The Produces daughter cells Produces daughter cells
primary spermatocyte enters meiosis I to produce two genetically different from parent genetically identical to parent
secondary spermatocytes. The secondary spermatocytes and each other and to each other
enter meiosis II to produce four haploid spermatids. Used only for sexual Used for asexual reproduction
Spermatids undergo spermiogenesis, wherein spermatids reproduction and growth
mature into motile spermatozoa, which are the sperm cells.
Thus, each cycle of spermatogenesis produces four sperm
cells from one spermatogonium.

OOGENESIS
- Oogenesis starts with the oogonium (plural: oogonia). The
oogonium becomes the primary oocyte which will enter
meiosis l. The result is one secondary oocyte and one polar
body. The secondary oocyte will then enter meiosis II to
MOVEMENT ACROSS MEMBRANES
 There are two ways in which substances can enter or leave a
cell:
1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT
 In passive transport, heat energy of the cellular
environment provides all of the energy, hence, this is not
energy-costly to the cell.
a) SIMPLE DIFFUSION
 Diffusion is the net passive movement of particles
(atoms, ions or molecules) from a region in which they
are in higher concentration to regions of lower
concentration. It continues until the concentration of
substances is uniform throughout.
b) FACILITATED DIFFUSION
 This is the movement of specific molecules down a
concentration gradient, passing through the membrane
via a specific carrier protein. Thus, rather like enzymes,
each carrier has its own shape and only allows one
molecule (or one group of closely related molecules) to
pass through. Selection is by size; shape; charge.
Common molecules entering/leaving cells this way
include glucose and amino-acids.
c) OSMOSIS (WATER ONLY)
 Osmosis is a special example of diffusion. It is the
diffusion of water through a partially permeable
membrane from a more dilute solution to a more
concentrated solution – down the water potential
gradient)
2. ACTIVE
 Active transport is the energy-demanding transfer of a
substance across a cell membrane against its
concentration gradient, i.e., from lower concentration to
higher concentration. Special proteins within the cell
membrane act as specific protein ‘carriers’. The energy for
active transport comes from ATP generated by respiration
(in mitochondria).
a) MOLECULES
b) PARTICLES
 A solution with a higher concentration of solutes is said to be
HYPERTONIC while a solution with a lower concentration of
solutes is HYPOTONIC. Water crosses the membrane until
the solute concentrations are equal on both sides. Solutions of
equal solution concentration are said to be ISOTONIC. This
only occurs when the solute concentration are the same on
both sides of the membrane.
 Large molecules enter the cell by generalized non-selective
process known as ENDOCYTOSIS. PHAGOCYTOSIS is
endocytosis of a particulate material while PINOCYTOSIS is
endocytosis of liquid material. In this process, the plasma
membrane engulfs the particle or fluid droplet and pinches off
a membranous sac or vesicle with a particular fluid inside into
the cytoplasm.
 EXOCYTOSIS is the reverse process where a membrane-
bound vesicle filled with bulky materials moves to the plasma
membrane and fuses with it. In this process, the vehicle’s
contents are released out of the cell.
 RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS is a complicated
mechanism involving the transport of materials through coated
vesicles. Cells take up molecules more efficiently in this
process due to the receptor proteins on their surfaces. Each
receptor protein bears a binding site for a particular molecule.
If the right molecule contacts a receptor protein, it attaches to
the binding site, forming a pocket and eventually pinching off
into the cytoplasm.