International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 81 (2016) 86–95

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of
Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrmms

Examination of rockbolt stress corrosion cracking utilising full size

rockbolts in a controlled mine environment
D. Vandermaat a,n, S. Saydam a,nn, P.C. Hagan a, A.G. Crosky b
a
The School of Mining Engineering, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
b
The School of Material Science and Engineering, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Previous studies had identified that a testing protocol was required to examine stress corrosion cracking
Received 2 June 2015 (SCC) of full sized rockbolts under simulated in situ conditions. As a result, a load frame capable of
Received in revised form inducing both tensile and bending loads on a rockbolt specimen, erected within a controlled mine en-
21 September 2015
vironment (CME) laboratory was constructed. The newly designed and purpose built Bend and Tension
Accepted 21 November 2015
Loading Apparatus (BaTLA) was used to conduct both static and slow strain rate (SSR) tests on rockbolt
Available online 2 December 2015
specimens in an acidified sodium chloride solution containing hydrogen sulphide in the CME. It was
Keywords: found that SSR testing provided an appropriate analogue for examining rockbolt susceptibility to SCC and
Stress corrosion cracking was thus used to examine the effect of grit blasting, galvanising and varying steel grades on the SCC
Rockbolts
resilience of rockbolts. Of these, 300 grade steel and galvanising provided the most promising resistance
Stress corrosion
to SSC, while grit blasting provided a 40% improvement in resistance compared to untreated HSAC 840
Corrosion
Ground support grade rockbolts.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction University of New South Wales) that identified approximately nine

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a material failure mechanism
characterised by the growth of fine dendritic cracks through the
cross section of a material. SCC occurs when a susceptible material
is exposed to a corrosive environment while subject to a high
tensile stress. The resulting crack growth is orthogonal to the di-
rection of applied stress, and continues until it is of a sufficient
length to result in the catastrophic failure of the material by me-
chanical overload that is characterised by brittle fracture. SCC is
not necessarily accompanied by significant surficial corrosion and
is thus, easily overlooked in general inspection of engineering
structures. Its insidious nature means that its impact on the
mining, energy and construction industries, as well as the econ-
omy at large, is likely to be underestimated [1]. The typical fracture
surface of a rockbolt that failed due to SCC can be seen in Fig. 1.
SCC of rockbolts was first noted to occur in the 1990s after a
series of falls of ground in UK coal mines [2,3]. SCC was subse-
quently identified in an Australian underground coal mine during
the mid-to-late 1990s [4]. This resulted in a field based study
conducted through UNSW Australia (formerly known as The
n
Corresponding author.
nn
Principal corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: d.vandermaat@unsw.edu.au (D. Vandermaat),
s.saydam@unsw.edu.au (S. Saydam), p.hagan@unsw.edu.au (P.C. Hagan),
a.crosky@unsw.edu.au (A.G. Crosky).
mines as being potentially affected by rockbolt SCC [5,6].
This study showed that SCC was more prevalent in mines
having thick coal roofs, particularly if clay bands or strata shearing
in the bolting horizon were present. Furthermore, rockbolts were
more susceptible to SCC if made of high tensile, low toughness
steel. Finally, it was observed that the presence of some water in
the roof strata was necessary to cause SCC.
A more recent study conducted in China identified SCC as being
one of many issues affecting rockbolts in the underground Chinese
coal mining industry [7]. Furthermore, anecdotal evidence, which
is beginning to prompt serious research in the United States [8],
has indicated that rockbolt SCC is a globally pervasive phenom-
enon, affecting rockbolts in a wide range of mining conditions.
Notable laboratory based testing of SCC in rockbolts has been
carried out by Atrens et al. [9–15]. They focused on the use of a
Linearly Increasing Stress Test (LIST) at a rate of 0.019 MPa s
1
using highly acidic testing solutions (pH ¼2.1) and small scale
samples made from rockbolt steel. The synthetic testing solutions
were described as being “characteristic of chemistries that might be
found in underground water samples at mine sites” [13]. However
there was no basis or citation given to justify its use. They used
this testing arrangement to investigate a wide range of steel che-
mistries used in the manufacture of rockbolts.
Another study carried out aimed to assess the suitability of the
German standard DIN 50929 to predict corrosion of rockbolts in
underground mines [16]. Part of this study focused on SCC of

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2015.11.007
1365-1609/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 D. Vandermaat et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 81 (2016) 86–95
Fig. 1. A rockbolt affected by SCC. The area of initial crack growth can be seen as
the dark brown section on the left hand edge of the failure surface. On this rockbolt,
several cracks have initiated simultaneously and have overlapped during their
growth. The remaining failure surface can be seen as speckled silver and grey, in-
dicating brittle fracture.
rockbolts and utilised 6 mm diameter re-bar, as well as several
strands of cable bolt wires as test specimens. They employed a
two-point bending arrangement as described in ASTM G39 and
exposed the specimens to a wide range of corrosive environments.
This study did not report any specimens failing by SCC, however
they did note that transverse cracking was observed on several of
the specimens [16].
More recently, Aziz et al. attempted to recreate in situ service
failures and investigated possible environmental and metallurgical
factors responsible for rockbolt SCC in the laboratory [17]. Here,
the rockbolts were loaded both axially, and with an applied torsion
stress. They were exposed to water collected from the Shoalhaven
River in New South Wales, Australia, that was allowed to drip on to
and flow freely over the surface. This test represents the most
realistic arrangement in investigating rockbolt SCC in the literature
to date, however after a duration of 3.5 years, no SCC failures were
reported in this testing program. It is unclear why failure was not
obtained in this testing protocol, however it may be linked to the
water samples used (river water as opposed to mineralised ground
water), the testing duration or the level of applied stress.
With the exception of Aziz et al. [17], all of the aforementioned
investigations have focused on the use of either reduced size or
smooth surface specimens made from rockbolt stock material. The
advantage of this is that small samples are easier to load and
manage, however several issues are raised by this approach. In
particular, the use of reduced size specimens for experimentation
usually results in a focus on the bare steel core within, meaning
that: the effects of mill scale and decarburisation associated with
the manufacturing process are not examined; the effects of large
surface geometries such as ribs, and smaller surface defects such
as laps and burrs, are neglected; and machining practises used in
sample preparation may result in unwanted residual stress or heat
treatment in and on the surface of the test specimen.
It is known that surface features such as mill scale can have an
effect of the corrosion performance of a material [18], and is likely
87
to impact on SCC initiation and propagation mechanisms. The use
of full-sized test specimens examines the full range of factors
otherwise excluded through the use of reduced-size specimens. As
a result, a novel laboratory based investigation into SCC of rock-
bolts through the use of full-sized specimens was developed and is
presented in this paper. The investigation required the design and
construction of new laboratory testing equipment in order to re-
create the service conditions experienced by rockbolts in situ.
This paper will be presented in three sections. Firstly, a de-
scription of the laboratory and testing equipment design. Secondly,
details and results of the bend testing protocol. Finally, details and
results of the tension testing protocol.
2. Laboratory and equipment design
In order to investigate the phenomenon of SCC in rockbolts in
underground coal mines, a testing laboratory capable of recreating
the service conditions experienced by rockbolts was required. As a
result, a Controlled Mine Environment (CME) laboratory was
constructed at UNSW Australia to maintain temperature and hu-
midity conditions throughout testing. Temperature was main-
tained between 20 and 23 °C, and humidity between 80 and 85%
RH.
In order to carry out SCC experimentation, an apparatus cap-
able of simulating the loading conditions experienced by rockbolts
in situ was required to induce a stress to the rockbolt test speci-
mens. This required the apparatus to be versatile and allow for
multiple loading arrangements. It was identified that the load
placed on rockbolts would result in a combination of tensile- and
shear-stresses when installed underground. As a result, a loading
frame capable of reproducing these two loading scenarios was
considered. However, due to the technical difficulties associated
with designing and manufacturing an apparatus capable of gen-
erating ‘true shear’ loading conditions, it was decided to examine
axial and bend loading instead.
The bend test was chosen in an attempt to simulate the tight
radius of deformation generated in a bolt during shear loading.
Although the radius produced by the bend test is not as sharp as
what is experienced during a true shear-loading event, the prin-
ciple of generating an interior and exterior radii is achieved. Thus,
the final loading assembly was named the Bending and Tension
Loading Apparatus (BaTLA). A total of six BaTLA frames were
constructed and used in this study.
The BaTLA is composed of two parallel, upright C-Section steel
supports, and held together at the top and bottom by 4 cm thick
steel end-plates. These end-plates were drilled to facilitate inser-
tion and removal of rockbolts from the apparatus. Within the
apparatus is housed the bend loading assembly, comprised a lat-
eral loading screw, lateral loading arm and two rolling contacts.
The apparatus also contains two rotating support pins at the top
and bottom that provide the reaction force for both the tension
and bend test arrangements. Schematics of the BaTLA can be seen
in Figs. 2 and 3. Details of the BaTLA's design components are
described by Vandermaat et al. [19,20].
Preliminary and long duration testing were conducted on
rockbolts exposed to mine water. Later, an acidified sodium
chloride solution containing hydrogen sulphide was used. This was
an acidic solution and its composition is described in Table 1. This
solution is known to cause SCC in carbon steel and has been used
in the past to examine SCC in rockbolts [2] and was thus used in
order to validate the testing design. It had earlier been identified in
a study that solution quality tends to degrade over time, and
chemical species within the solution will migrate towards steady
state conditions [8]. To ensure uniform solution quality over the
long testing duration used in the test program, a batching system
88 D. Vandermaat et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 81 (2016) 86–95
Fig. 2. Schematic showing front, side and isometric views of the BaTLA.
Fig. 3. The Bending and Tension Loading Apparatus (BaTLA).
Table 1
Chemical composition of the synthetic test solution.
Solute Molarity (Mol)
NaCl 0.62
Acetic acid 0.51
NaS 0.019
pH 2.8
was used, in which the solution was changed twice weekly. Spe-
cimens were exposed to approximately 1 l of solution per batch as
prescribed in the risk assessment as a measure to reduce the
amount of H2S gas generated during testing. Once the 1 l of so-
lution was introduced to the chemical cell, it was left to still until
the solution was changed 2–3 days later.
Prior to the application of load, the rockbolt specimens were
fitted with a chemical cell to facilitate the exposure of the corro-
sive medium. It was composed of a clear polyvinyl tubing sealed at
each end of with hose clamps and silicone. Two hoses were then
coupled to the chemical cell to facilitate the flow of testing solu-
tion through the chemical cell. The construction chemical cell can
be seen in Fig. 4.
A preliminary pilot study was carried out to understand the
performance of the BaTLA. From this pilot study, a number of
testing parameters and factors were identified for the full scale
testing program. This range of factors was explored in various
Fig. 4. Construction of the chemical cell showing the orientation of the rockbolt
specimen and the sealing method.
combinations in both the bending and tension testing programs.
These factors included comparisons between static and SSR load-
Mass (g/l) ing; the effect of steel grades, with emphasis on High Silicon and
Carbon (HSAC) 840 grade, 1355 grade, 300 grade and SAS
35
Threadbar; rockbolt surface treatments such as grit blasting and
30
1.5 galvanising; geometric effects such as notching and rib pattern;
and, environment composition with both mine water and an acidic
solution being examined.
It was identified in the literature that SSR is an accepted
method of accelerating SCC testing (ASTM G129; [9]). As a result,
the BaTLA was designed to allow for both static and Slow Strain
Rate (SSR) loading conditions in both the bending and tension
arrangements.
Notching was also used as a means of accelerating SCC in this
testing program [21]. To ensure consistency the notched speci-
mens were manufactured with the use of a Computer Numerical
Controlled (CNC) lathe. This allowed for control over the notch
geometry and ensured uniformity between specimens. Each notch
was small, only being 1 mm wide and 1 mm deep with square-
base. This geometry was selected for reasons of practicality in
machining.
Steel grade is an important factor affecting SCC in rockbolts –
HSAC 840, 300 and 1355 grade are widely used for manufacturing
rockbolts in the Australian underground coal industry. This study
focused primarily on HSAC 840 steel, as access to 1355 and 300
grade steel rockbolts was limited.
 D. Vandermaat et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 81 (2016) 86–95 89

The experimental program examined galvanising and grit Table 2

blasting surface treatment strategies to understand their impact Testing duration (days) of samples subjected to static bend loading. Averages are
displayed in bold.
on SCC susceptibility. Galvanising was explored for its ability to
retard and prevent general corrosion in engineering structures. In Specimen type Static bending
terms of grit blasting, it was noted that during loading, the mill
scale present on the surface of rockbolts would crack and break 20 (mm) 40 (mm) 60 (mm)

apart. It is known that mill scale will act cathodically to the bare a
840 Grade Notch 13, 4, 18 12 13, 6, 40 10 21 21
steel underneath when it is exposed to solution [22]. As a result, 840 Grade Un-notched 52a, 20a, 36 53a, 47a, 20a 40 54a, 142a 98
grit blasting was explored on the hypothesis that removing the 1355 Grade Notch 8, 4 6 3 3 3, 4 4
mill scale would reduce the likelihood and affect localised corro- 1355 Grade Un-Notched – 47a 47 16 16

sion around sites of mill scale breakdown which may encourage a

Test concluded before failure of the specimen.
SCC initiation sites [23]. Both of these factors were explored as
they represent possible industry production methods that could
be quickly scaled up to a production level.

3. Bend testing in the BaTLA

The bend testing arrangement utilises a 4-point loading me-

chanism, as described in ASTM G39 . The two inner contact points
are spaced at 400 mm centres, and the two outer contact points were
spaced at 800 mm centres. The dimension of the four point loading
tests, as well as the position of the chemical cell can be seen in Fig. 5.
In the bend testing protocol, static testing refers to tests in
which the rockbolt specimen is loaded to a set level of lateral
deflection and left undisturbed for the duration of the test. SSR
testing refers to a test in which the load on the rockbolt is gra-
dually increased at a rate of 5 mm/day via a lateral force.
Fig. 6. Results of the static bend testing protocol. Hatched columns represent tests
that were concluded prior to failure of the specimen.

3.1. Static bend testing program

The results, measured in time to failure, obtained through a

Fig. 5. Design of the 4-point loading arrangement showing spacing of the contact
points and location of the chemical cell.
testing protocol carried out on statically loaded bend test speci-
mens are recorded in Table 2 and Fig. 6. Scanning Electron Mi-
croscopy (SEM) examination of the failure surface provides evi-
dence of the cracks being generated by SCC. This examination is
provided in Section 6 of this paper.
From Table 2 and Fig. 6, it was observed that none of the un-
notched specimens failed by means of SCC when exposed to static
loading conditions, with the exception of a single 1355 grade
rockbolt at the highest deformation. 100% of 840 grade un-notched
rockbolts loaded under SSR test condition failed by SCC. This is in
stark contrast with the 0% of failures experienced by these speci-
mens under static loading conditions. With the limited number of
1355 grade specimen tests conducted, it was observed that 1355
grade samples have a shorter time to failure than 840 grade spe-
cimens. No specimen was observed to fail beyond a total testing
duration of 23 days; there is very little observed correlation be-
tween loading levels and time to failure and, in fact, there is a
great degree of scatter among results of similar specimens.
Magnetic particle analysis was carried out on all un-failed
specimens, however, no sub-critical cracks were observed. The
lack of any sub-critical cracks suggests that crack genesis and
propagation had not yet begun. It has been noted in the past that
high-strength steel can endure significant exposure time before
crack propagation will begin [21]. The use notched specimens in
this testing protocol meant that this lengthy initiation period could
be circumvented, as the notch itself acts as the initiation site. This
would explain the higher failure rate for the given testing period.
From the limited number of 1355 grade specimens that were
examined in this testing program, it was observed that it is less
resilient to SCC than HSAC 840 grade steel; this is likely due to the
difference in fracture toughness. It was noted that the use of
90 D. Vandermaat et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 81 (2016) 86–95

higher toughness steels in underground coal mines had been

shown to reduce incidents of SCC [24]. In the aggressive acidic
testing solution, the higher toughness HSAC 840 grade rockbolts
have supported this observation and appear to have a lower sus-
ceptibility to SCC.
If this observation is considered with respect to Eq. (1) [24], it
can be seen that a doubling of the fracture toughness would allow
for a four-fold increase in the allowable crack length before failure
at a given stress level:
Kic
σ=
Y πa (1)

where s is the stress level; Kic is the fracture toughness; a is the

defect depth; and, Y is a shape factor which defines the severity of
the stress concentration produced by the defect.
Given that 1355 grade steel has a Charpy impact value, which
can be directly related to fracture toughness, of between 4 and 6 Fig. 7. Time to failure for rockbolts examined under SSR bending loading condi-
tions in the BaTLA. Hatched columns represent tests that were concluded after at
[24] and HSAC 840 grade steel has a Charpy impact value of be-
least 30 days and prior to failure of the specimen.
tween 20 and 22 (shown in Table 4), this would account for the
improved performance of the HSAC 840 grade steel at a given
crack velocity. It is also expected that the differing steel chemis-
tries would impact on the crack growth velocity and, hence, time
to failure.

3.2. Slow strain rate bend testing program

It was observed that SSR bend testing provided a more reliable

and repeatable testing analogue for investigating SCC suscept-
ibility than static bend testing. As a result, SSR bend testing was
chosen as a means of investigating the susceptibility and possible
resistance of a number of rockbolt grades and finishing treatments
to SCC.
HSAC 840 and 300 grade rockbolt steels as well as SAS
Threadbar were also examined as part of this study. 300 grade
rockbolt steel is marketed in Australia for ‘low-stress-low-
strength’ applications where high strength rockbolts are not re-
Fig. 8. Average time to failure for all rockbolts examined under SSR bending load
quired. The SAS Threadbar is manufactured in Germany for use in
conditions in the BaTLA. Hatched columns represent tests that were concluded
the UK and is made to comply with the British rockbolting stan- prior to failure of the specimen.
dard BS 7861-2007 for ‘SCC resistance’.
A total of 15 rockbolts were examined through SSR testing in
the BaTLA at a rate of 5 mm of increased deflection per day. The Charpy impact value for rockbolt steel, as prescribed by BS
samples were exposed to the acidified sodium chloride solution 7861:2007 [2,3]. A comparison of the differing rib profiles be-
described in Table 1. The solution was refreshed twice weekly and tween the HSAC 840 grade rockbolts and the SAS Threadbar shows
the time to failure was recorded – the results of this experiment the ribs on the latter to be more prominent. This differing rib
are summarised in Table 3, and Figs. 7 and 8. profile may result in an elevated stress concentration, which may
From Table 3, and Figs. 7 and 8, it can be seen that the SAS effect SCC initiation times. However, the observation that these
Threadbar had the least resistance to SCC, while the 300 grade and rockbolts provided the least resistance to SCC in this testing pro-
galvanised HSAC 840 grade rockbolts had the greatest resistance gram is not fully understood, and the differing steel chemistries
under these test conditions. The grit blasted HSAC 840 grade may be an important contributing factor. Further research is re-
specimens performed (on average) 39% better than the untreated quired to confirm this finding.
HSAC 840 grade rockbolts. At the conclusion of the experiments, a number of the rockbolt
specimens were Charpy V-notch impact tested to determine if
The performance of the SAS Threadbar is of particular interest.
their fracture toughness was affected by the testing procedure. The
Investigations into SCC in UK coal mines resulted in a minimum
specimens examined included the HSAC 840 grade, the grit blasted
HSAC 840 grade and the SAS Threadbar. The Charpy specimens
Table 3
Time to failure for rockbolts examined under SSR bend loading conditions in the were machined from two points on the rockbolts, one at the
BaTLA. fracture surface, and one from the ‘free’ end of the rockbolt. The
sampling locations can be seen in Fig. 9. The result of the Charpy
Specimen type Time to failure (days) Average (days)
impact toughness testing can be seen in Table 4.
Untreated (HSAC 840 grade) 14 13 16 23 17 16.6 From the Charpy impact test results presented in Table 4, it can
Grit Blasted (HSAC 840 grade) 18 19 29 26 23 be seen that there was no significant difference between the two
Galvanised (HAAC 840 grade) 30a 30a 30a HSAC 840 grade specimens, and any change is likely attributed to
SAS Threadbar (650/800 11 9 10 the testing procedures limit of reporting. The SAS Threadbar,
grade)
Untreated (300 grade) 41a 34a 37.5a
however, experienced a significant increase in impact toughness
within the immersed section of the specimen. It can also be seen
a
Test concluded before failure of the specimen. that the SAS Threadbar had a significantly higher impact
 D. Vandermaat et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 81 (2016) 86–95 91

Fig. 9. Charpy test specimen sampling locations. One specimen was sampled from
outside the immersed section, and one specimen was sampled close to the point of
failure.

Table 4
Charpy impact toughness results. Fig. 11. Stress–strain plot of HSAC 840 grade steel showing the location of 90%,
100% and 110% of the rockbolts yield strength.
Specimen type ‘Free’ end (J) Immersed end (J)
an axial load to the specimens. The chemical cell was used to
HSAC 840 Grade 18 17
Grit Blasted HSAC 840 24 22
immerse a section of the rockbolt in the test solution. The hy-
SAS Threadbar 31 43 draulic system can be seen in Fig. 10.
A similar testing protocol to that which was conducted in the
bending test arrangement described in Section 3.1 was carried out
toughness than the HSAC 840 grade specimens. With the SAS
in the tension testing arrangement – this provided a point of
Threadbar's apparent susceptibility to SCC considered, it would
comparison between the two testing methods. For this tension
appear that this may be unrelated to the impact toughness of the
testing program, only HSAC 840 grade steel rockbolts were
material, and may be more influenced by the steel chemistries and
surface geometry. examined.
The rockbolts were loaded under SSR conditions at 5 mm of
axial deformation per day, or statically at 90%, 100% and 110% of
4. Tension testing in the BaTLA yield strength. These static loading points correspond to applied
stress levels of 600 MPa, 670 MPa, and 740 MPa respectively. These
The BaTLA was also designed to allow for tension testing to be points can be seen plotted on a stress–strain curve for HSAC 840
carried out. The tension testing arrangement utilised a hollow steel in Fig. 11. A total of ten tests were conducted, the details and
hydraulic cylinder and mechanical nut retainment system to apply results of which can be seen in Table 5.

Fig. 10. Tension testing system showing position and orientation of the hollow hydraulic cylinder within the BaTLA assembly: (a) Hollow hydraulic cylinder and (b) or-
ientation of hollow hydraulic cylinder with the BaTLA assembly.
92 D. Vandermaat et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 81 (2016) 86–95

Table 5
Time to failure for statically loaded HSAC 840 Grade rockbolt specimens.

Specimen 90% Yield 100% Yield 110% Yield SSR (5 mm/

type (470 MPa) (670 MPa) (670 MPa) day)

Notched – – 13, 21 5, 8
Un-notched 104a 4, 50a 24a 20, 17

a
Test concluded before failure of the specimen.

Similar trends were observed in the tension testing program as

in the bend testing program. Table 5 shows that notched speci-
mens failed within 10–20 days of testing – a similar time frame
experienced by the bend testing specimens seen in Table 2.
Furthermore, it was also observed that SSR testing carried out
in the tension arrangement would result in failure of the un-not-
ched specimens whereas static loading would not. It was also
observed that SSR testing on notched specimens would decrease
the time to failure for these samples by 62% compared with sta-
tically loaded notched specimens.
From a comparison of the notched and un-notched SSR test
results in Table 5, it can be seen that the notched specimens had a
65% reduction in the time to failure. The reduction in diameter
caused by the 1 mm deep circumferential notch is 10%. It is known
Fig. 12. Schematic of the mine water reticualtion system.
that the SCC crack velocity in a material is not a function of stress,
but rather of the interactions between chemical species in the
environment and the material under load [21,25]. This means that Table 6
Analysis of Mine A ground water before and after long duration exposure to
the 10% reduction in diameter could not completely account for
rockbolts.
the 65% reduction in time to failure between notched and un-
notched specimens under steady state crack growth conditions. Specimen type Pre-exposure Post-exposure
This shows that the reduction in time to failure is more related to
pH 7.76 8.86
the differences in a steel's fracture toughness and reduced crack
TDS (mg/l) 398 446
length required to cause failure, as described by Eq. (1). BOD (mg/l) 1.1 9.0
SCC occurs in three distinct stages: crack genesis and initiation, Conductivity 820 748
steady state crack growth; and, final rupture [26]. Since final Iron (mg/l) 1.39 0.08
rupture occurs instantaneously, and crack growth rates in a ma- Sodium (mg/l) 183.3 199.0
Chloride (mg/l) 7.1 41.0
terial is constant, the 65% reduction in time to failure for notched
Sulphate (mg/l) 80.5 91.0
specimens is likely to be due to a reduction in the time to crack
genesis. TDS, Total Dissolved Solids; BOD, Biochemical Oxygen Demand; DO, Dissolved
Oxygen.

5. Long duration testing in mine water
Three rockbolts were left loaded and immersed in mine water
collected from a mine site which is known to experience rockbolt
SCC. These specimens included: 1 notched specimen statically
loaded under bending at 60 mm of applied deflection; 1 un-not-
ched tension specimen loaded under SSR conditions at 2.5 mm/
day. Progressive loading was stopped once a load of 25t was
reached; and, 1 notched tension specimen statically loaded to 25t.
For these long durations tests, 1000 l of ground water was col-
lected from a mine site known to have occurrences of SCC. This water
was stored in large tanks within the CME, and reticulated using a
gravity feed system through the chemical cells attached to the
rockbolts. Once the water has flowed over the rockbolts, it was col-
lected in a holding tank before being pumped back to the top of the
reticulation circuit, as depicted in Fig. 12. Table 6 presents the com-
position of the water before and after the long duration testing.
At the time of writing this paper, these specimens had been
immersed for times ranging from 6 months to 1 year. None of
these specimens have shown any signs of failure, and will continue
to be left undisturbed. It is suspected that lack of specimen failure
is likely due to either insufficient testing time for crack nucleation
and propagation, or the testing arrangement has not adequately
controlled the environmental factors and, hence, the electro-
chemical conditions required for SCC have not been met. Extended
duration testing, coupled with a detailed inspection of the speci-
mens utilising magnetic particles and microscopy will provide
insight into these alternate hypotheses.
From Table 6, it can be seen that there has been an increase in
pH, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and chloride levels after
testing. There was also slight changes to Dissolved Oxygen (DO),
alkalinity, iron and sulphate levels. While changes to these para-
meters are expected as a result of the corrosion process, the sig-
nificant increases in Chlorides and BOD is of particular interest.
The use of the acidified sodium chloride solution within the
CME laboratory (within which the mine water was housed), cou-
pled with the laboratory's close proximity to the ocean, would
result in elevated levels of chloride (Cl
) ions in the atmosphere.
These ions would then be able to diffuse into solution contained
within the bulk holding tanks and thereby account for the eleva-
tion in chloride ion levels over the testing duration.
Since micro-organisms require oxygen to carry out metabolic
processes, BOD is a measure of the level of activity of organisms in
a body of water, and an increase in BOD is a signal that the level of
organic activity has increased. The levels measured in this sample,
however, are still low when compared to fresh water sources such
as rivers and dams, and would be considered ‘potable’ under
Australian health regulations [27].
The changes observed in this testing solutions, however, are
small when compared to the solution changes observed in
 D. Vandermaat et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 81 (2016) 86–95 93

previous testing studies [8]. This shows that the continuous cy-
cling system used in this testing protocol is able to retain the fi-
delity of the testing solution for a longer period of time, greatly
improving the validity of the testing method.

6. Material failure analysis

To confirm that the failures experienced by the rockbolts in the

BaTLA were in fact SCC, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was
undertaken to inspect the fracture surfaces. To perform this SEM,
samples were cleaned with Ajax inhibited hydrochloric acid in an
ultrasonic bath for 10 s [28] to remove corrosion product before
the specimen was mounted in the SEM machine uncoated for
imaging. A photograph of a rockbolt that failed in the BaTLA can be
seen in Fig. 13 and SEM images can be seen in Figs. 14 and 15.
The fracture surface shown in Fig. 15 shows features that are
characteristic of tearing topography surface (TTS), which is ob-
served in steels which have undergone stress corrosion cracking Fig. 14. Overview SEM image of the rockbolt failure surface at 18  magnification.
[29]. Fig. 14 shows the presence of small ‘voids’ or pits. These pits The area of initial crack growth is highlighted in red. (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure caption, the reader is referred to the web version
are only present on the surface of the SCC region, and not over the
of this paper.)
entire specimen fracture surface, suggesting that they are not
caused by the cleaning and etching process. Instead, these are due
to the aggressive nature of the solution attacking the walls of the
crack laterally as the crack progresses forward. Fig. 15 clearly
shows the transition in topography from rough fracture (crack
surface) to smooth fracture (overload surface) at the boundary of
the crack tip.

7. Discussion

Initial planning for this testing program intended to utilise

ground water collected from mine sites, however preliminary and
long duration testing was unable to generate SCC failure of a
rockbolt specimen within the testing time frame. Generating SCC
in rockbolts under observed prevailing in situ mining conditions
(based on water collection from mine sites) is something that has
yet to be accomplished in the laboratory. This may be as a result of
inadequate loading regimes i.e. prolonged SSR or LIST loading may
be required; failure to correctly replicate the environment re-
sponsible for SCC i.e. localised corrosive environments caused by
microbiological action or intersecting clay bands may be more
important than prevailing groundwater conditions; or, inadequate
testing durations.
The acidified sodium chloride solution was initially employed
to validate and accelerate the test procedure. Use of this solution
Fig. 13. Failure surface of the notched specimen exposed to the acidic solution at
60 mm of applied deflection. The area of initial crack growth is highlighted in red.
(For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure caption, the reader is
referred to the web version of this paper.)
Fig. 15. SEM image showing the transition between crack surface and overload
topography at 600  magnification. The transition line is highlighted in red. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure caption, the reader is re-
ferred to the web version of this paper.)
was found to produce repeatable and reliable results within a
short testing duration and so was incorporated into the testing
analogue. The solution used does not represent prevailing
groundwater conditions experienced in coal mines, and thus, the
results obtained must be treated with caution.
It is known that pre-cracking or notching can reduce the in-
itiation period for SCC in a material under given loading conditions
[30]. The results of the notched specimen testing reflect this and
therefore validate the testing design and protocol used. It is re-
commended that further tension testing be conducted for com-
parison with the results obtained from bend testing protocol.
Further, it is recommended that critical stress threshold testing be
carried out at very low levels of stress ( <50% of yield strength).
While notched specimens did provide an adequate method of
creating and accelerating SCC in the BaTLA, it did so by bypassing
the outer layer of the rockbolt. The intention of testing with full-
sized specimens was to include the effects of mill scale and
manufacturing defects in the testing program. The use of notched
specimen effectively ‘ignores’ these external factors by exposing
the bare metal underneath.
94 D. Vandermaat et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 81 (2016) 86–95
During the SSR testing conducted in the tension testing ar-
rangement, it was observed that the notched specimens had a 75%
reduction in time to failure compared to un-notched specimens. It
is known that SCC crack velocities will propagate at a given rate
independent of the applied stress [21,25]. This implies that this
reduced time to the failure in the notched specimens is likely due
to a reduction in crack initiation time – for this reason, notched
testing should be used in future to investigate and measure crack
velocity in rockbolts. This test should be conducted by measuring
the time to failure, and then measuring the crack-depth, which is
best done with microscopy.
The finding that grit blasted specimens have a greater re-
sistance to SCC echoes a previous study conducted by the Cana-
dian National Energy Board into SCC of pipeline steel [23]. It found
that the presence of mill scale on the surface of pipeline steel may
have a deleterious impact on the SCC performance of the steel.
Laboratory and field testing was carried out on grit blasted spe-
cimens and found that they were more resistant to SCC initiation.
This provides very strong evidence to recommend the use of grit
blasting to improve the performance SCC of rockbolts in situ.
Both grit blasting and galvanising showed promise in improv-
ing the SCC resilience of HSAC 840 grade rockbolts. It is assumed
that the advantage of these surface treatments would also extend
to other steel grades. To compare the cost of these finishing
treatments, a standard rockbolt, without ancillaries or installation,
costs approximately $11 and $18–$20 (AUD) once installed. The
galvanising process for a 1.8 m long rockbolt costs approximately
$4.50, and the grit blasting process cost approximately $2.50 –
however, this could probably be reduced in an industrial scale
manufacture scenario. This represents a 43% and 24% respective
increase on the rockbolt cost, and a 23% and 12.5% respective in-
crease on the installed price of a rockbolt. However, these costs
should be offset by improving the reliability, and probability of
rockbolts reaching their expected service life. A cost–benefit ana-
lysis of these treatments should be considered by mine operators.
8. Conclusions
This project aimed to develop a new testing facility for in-
vestigating SCC in rockbolts. The BaTLA load frame, and its asso-
ciated Controlled Mine Environment Laboratory has been de-
scribed in this paper. Preliminary testing was carried out using the
BaTLA, which prompted further test work focusing on loading
rates, specimen geometry (notching), steel grades and surface
finishing treatments.
Over the course of this experimental program, more than
1700 days (approximately 40,000 h) of experimentation was car-
ried out between six BaTLA testing rigs. From the static load
testing, it was observed that notched specimens were far more
likely to fail than un-notched specimens. Of the 29 statically loa-
ded specimens examined in this test protocol, 93% of the notched
specimens failed, compared to only 15% of the un-notched
specimens.
From the SSR load testing, it was observed that un-notched SSR
specimens were far more likely to fail than statically loaded un-
notched specimens. Of the 24 un-notched specimens examined in
this testing program, 86% of the SSR loaded specimens experi-
enced failure, while only 15% of the statically loaded specimens
experienced failure within the testing time frames. These results
are in stark contrast to the results obtained from static load
testing.
The SSR bend testing program carried out on a range of rock-
bolt steel grades showed that 300 steel grade provided the
greatest resistance to SCC, while the SAS Threadbar provided the
least resistance. The 300 grade rockbolt is of lower strength than
the HSAC 840 and SAS Threadbar, and is considerably more ductile
with higher elongation to failure. SAS Threadbar is manufactured
to British standard BS 7861-2007 to be SCC resistant. It is unclear
why these specimens had the least resistance to SCC in these test
conditions.
A comparison between surface treatments was also conducted
and found that the galvanised and grit blasted specimens were
both observed to improve the rockbolts' resistance to SCC. Grit-
blasting provided a 40% improvement over untreated specimens,
while the galvanised rockbolts were not observed to fail within the
testing duration.
The findings of this study indicate that finishing treatments
applied to rockbolts can significantly improve its resistance to SCC.
It is therefore recommended that further testing into the re-
sistance provided by surface treatments, as well as rockbolt steel
grades be conducted, and it is suggested that this should be done
through the use of SSR loading.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the input provided by Peter
Craig, Elias Elias, Hong Chen, Bruce Hebblewhite and Kanchana
Gamage. This paper represents a subset of research conducted
under funding provided by the Australian Research Council (ARC)
Linkage Project 100200238 supported by Anglo American, BHP
Billiton Illawarra Coal, Centennial Coal, Glencore Coal, Jennmar
Australia and Whitehaven Coal. Their support of this project is
appreciated.
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