Reproduction and heredity unit study guide

Chapters 12 – 15, 30, 38, 46

Quick survey of reproduction in species
Vocabulary for this survey around the book (more vocabulary by chapter below):
Ch. 13 – DNA vs. gene vs. chromosome, homologous chromosomes, autosomes vs. sex
chromosomes, sexual vs. asexual reproduction, somatic cell, gamete vs. spore, mitosis vs.
meiosis vs. binary fission, diploid vs. haploid, fertilization, zygote
Ch. 46 – fission, budding, fragmentation, parthenogenesis, external vs. internal fertilization,
hermaphroditism
Ch. 38 – vegetative reproduction, cuttings
Ch. 30 – flower, fruit, pollen

Concepts:
13.1 – Passing genetic material to offspring in reproduction
--when organisms reproduce, they pass large genetic units called chromosomes
onto cells of their offspring … these might contain hundreds to thousands of genes that code for specific
proteins (and traits) (#)

--asexual reproduction –1 parent(s) involved, and there (is / is not) genetic variety
(unless mutation occurs in the DNA copying process)
(#)
--sexual reproduction –2 parent(s) involved, and there (is / is not) genetic variety
--go to p. 827 and 1014 – read only the “evolution” sections highlighting advantages of
both types of reproduction for many species of plant and animal who can do both
most fungi and protists --advantages to reproducing asexually
can also reproduce both -in environments where plants are far away from each other and cannot pollinate, then it is
ways, but bacteria can
efficiant to have asexual reproduction-ensures that offspring will be produced
ONLY reproduce
-Reproduces
asexually as we’ll see more rapidly, in stable environment
below
--advantages to reproducing sexually
-In unstable environment, it can pick out the favorable traits because It is from 2 parents.
-Some plants can self-pollinate to ensure offspring.
-Faster adaptations.

--asexual reproduction involves what cell division? Mitosis or binary fission

eukaryotes (p. 253) prokaryotes (p. 240)
--sexual reproduction is the result of meiosis and fertilization
cell division (13.2 title) event (13.2 title)
13.2 – Sexual life cycles and crucial genetics vocabulary
--somatic cells are (circle one) (diploid / haploid), also abbreviated as (2n / n)
humans specifically have 46 total chromosomes in somatic cells, or 23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes (other species = different #s)

--note at bottom of fig.13.3 – homologous chromosomes are NEVER tied in an X …

the Xs are sister chromatids instead – or EXACT copies
homologous chromosomes have same genes, but perhaps different alleles because
you got one from mom one from dad to make the homologous pair
 --still in humans, males have X and Y sex chromosomes in every cell, while females
have X and X… all other chromosome pairs are called autosomes

--gametes in humans have 23 total chromosomes inside (NO homologous

chromosomes) – these cells are also called (diploid / haploid), also called (2n / n)

--now let’s survey different strategies for asexual and sexual reproduction in animal species
--read just first section of 46.2 – being terrestrial animals, humans use
Internal fertilization to unite sperm and egg gametes (inside the female reproductive system)

--note an alternative method for animals that live in watery environments (frogs, fish, etc)
-external fertilization, the sperm travel to the eggs.
--read all of 46.1 (p. 1014 – 1016) to read about reproduction in other animal species

--note the slight differences in how clone offspring are produced in fission vs.
budding vs. fragmentation
fission-splits the parent in 2 fragmentation-breaking the body down into several pieces. Budding-
individuals arise from the outgrowth of old ones.

--parthenogenesis is considered asexual reproduction because sperm

is not involved even though meiotic cell division is involved

--explain how hermaphroditism is adaptive for certain animal species

-it is adaptive because sometimes it doesn’t require a partner, can produce sperm in absence of a male-and can
scare away predators(which males are usually responsible to do), can allow for more production because the
females produce more when they are bigger, so male produces sperm, releases, then switches to female, and
then produces more.

--back to 13.2 – review the human (animal) sexual life cycle before studying others’ (p. 256)
 (similar to fig 13.5)

--no need to memorize the sexual life cycles of other types of organisms, but let’s review below
--what is the difference between a gamete and a spore (both produced by fungi / plants)?
-a haploid spore does not fuse with another gamete, but instead divides through mitosis to form a gametophyte,
which then divides mitotically to form a gamete.

--go to p. 638 – 639 and read about how the most common group of plants (flowering
plants, or angiosperms) reproduce sexually

--what is the purpose of developing colorful, fragrant flower organs? (do NOT
worry about floral anatomy vocabulary mentioned)

-it attracts pollinators to allow the sperm to be carried to the egg to be fertilized

--after successful pollination, the petals usually fall off, and part of the flower
turns into a fruit that surrounds the seed(s)

--note many different ways that these structures help seeds get far away
from the parent plant (see figures 30.10, 30.11)

-thoruhg water, stick to other animals, have propellors, or fruit that other animals eat and then poop out so it can
grow again.

--go back to p. 829 and make sure you see that plants can reproduce asexually as
well – define vegetative reproduction

when a plant grows from a fragment of another plant asexualy.

--finally, briefly skim p. 240 and figure 12.12 – bacteria can only reproduce asexually through a
a cell division called binary fission- why do we give this a separate name from eukaryotic cell division
(caption in figure 12.12)?
because it has a single circular chromosome, rather than many condensed one.

Chapter 12: Cell cycle (mitosis)

Vocabulary: chromosome vs. chromatin vs. sister chromatids, centromere, interphase vs. mitosis vs.
cytokinesis, spindle fibers, kinetochore, mitosis vs. binary fission, checkpoint, cyclin, cancer, metastasis

Concepts:
--cell division serves 3 basic purposes (figure 12.2) … humans only use it for 2 of these below
1) growth and development 2) tissue renewal 3) reproduction(not human)?
*remind yourself why multicellular organisms grow by increasing the number of cells, not the size of cells (fig. 6.7)
Smaller cells are more efficient
12.1 Overview
--our goal in cell division is to make sure the two cells have the same DNA at the end
 --to make sure that this is done correctly, the cell takes the long, thin form called chromatin/DNA
and packs it up into condensed chromosomes (this can be split up more easily)

--when we first see these in a microscope, they look like an X – this is actually two
Sister chromatids that are combined together at the centromere region

--read the last part carefully, we will see it summarized in a diagram again in ch. 13

12.2 Specifics of cell cycle (eukaryotic cells ONLY)

--broadly, the cell cycle consists of three broad phases (outer “ring” of pie chart fig. 12.6:
1) Interphase 2) Mitotic Phase(M-Phase) 3) G-0 Phase
--which of these phases is by far the longest (pie chart)? Interphase

--interphase has 3 subphases –but what is going on in the cell?

-the cell is growing(G1 and 2) and the DNA is duplicating(s)
--mitosis has many subphases … do not worry about the names – focus on what happens overall
--early in mitosis (preparing for dividing up the DNA equally)
a) packing up the DNA code – before in interphase, it was in
chromatin form, but now it is packing up into the “X” shape which is sister chromatid
form.

--identical copies are tied together due to interactions between their central
regions of DNA called chromosomes/centromeres

b) if the DNA is to be split up and moved to separate parts of the cell, then the
nuclear envelope must be temporarily taken apart (and then rebuilt at the end once the
DNA is split)

c) the spindle fibers network is constructed to pull the DNA apart … they will
attach to a specific protein within the centromere region called kinetochore

(see green circle at bottom figure 12.9)

--middle of mitosis
--draw me a quick picture of what the DNA looks like lined up in mitosis (note
the difference between this and the lineup of meiosis I below)

--they are lined up so that the sister chromatids

are split apart in mitotic cell division … note that the homologous
chromosomes are NOT paired together in the lineup (like meiosis I below)
 kinetochore microtubules within the kinetochore complex spend ATP to walk DNA apart along
spindle fibers that attached earlier
(note that they are walked apart from the center, NOT pulled from the poles)

--late in mitosis
--now that the DNA has been separated equally, the nuclear envelope
begins to re-form around it

--after interphase and mitosis, cytokinesis occurs - what happens here?

-the cell divides into two, the cytoplasm is divided. In animals, a cleavage furrow is formed

--now that we have discussed the cell cycle in detail, give me the big picture summary – what is
the goal of mitosis generally?
-the goal of mitosis in general is to identically divide a cell in 2 with the same DNA, for growth.

12.3 Regulation of cell cycle

--some cells in the human body do not divide at all – for example, nerve and muscle (p. 242) --these cells
seem to be locked in interphase, never leaving (fig. 12.17a at left)
--explain the general concept of a checkpoint in the cell cycle

--what controls moving past checkpoints? signaling pathways that often activate
MPF proteins (bottom right p. 243) that move the cell past the checkpoint

--the production or activation of these proteins might be connected to outside environmental

signals … briefly read about the concepts of density-dependent inhibition and anchorage dependence
and summarize what is going on
-cells stop dividing after a certain density and will enter G0 phase, anchorage-it needs to be attached to
something else-sometimes another cell of its type to grow. They sometimes send signals through the plasma
membrane protiens and cytoskeleton-to the cell membrane control system.

--out of control cell division is the general definition of cancer.

--why does chemotherapy often have debilitating side effects (nausea, fatigue)? (p. 247 right)
-because it stops healthy cells from dividing too.
Chapter 13: Meiosis and sexual / asexual reproduction
Vocabulary: locus, karyotype, tetrad, crossover
Concepts:
13.3 Steps of meiotic cell division (#)
--if one diploid germ-line cell undergoes meiosis, we end up with 4 (diploid / haploid)
gametes (or in other species, spores … see pg. 2 of study guide above) (fig 13.7)

--there are two aspects of meiosis that I want you to explain thoroughly:
1) how does meiosis reduce the chromosome number in gametes? (section 13.3)
2) how does meiosis generate genetic variety? (section 13.4)

answering question 1 above:

--there is only 1 replication of the DNA, followed by 2 rounds of cell division
(#) (#)
--a more specific answer
--meiosis I – division that separates homologous chromosomes
fig. 13.7 or
titles of fig. 13.8
 --meiosis II – division that separates sister chromatids

Meiosis 2 above is just like mitosis?-No and yes, the separation method is the same-with chiasma
p., 262 right Meiosis 2 consists of genetic variation because of crossing over. Additionally only one of the
however,
two(mothor of father homologs) is there.

Meiosis 1- above is the reductive division (diploid  haploid)?

Characteristic Mitosis Meiosis

# cells produced 2 4
note the answer here is
Haploid / diploid cells produced diploid haploid not gametes – germ-line
# of cell divisions in process 1 2 cells are specialized
Cross over? (yes / no) no yes somatic cells at the
beginning of meiosis
Occurs in what type of human cell? Non-reproductive germ-line cells
perhaps:
13.4 How is genetic variety generated? (answering question 2 above:)
a) independent assortment , which occurs during meiosis 1 (I or II) A = round seed allele
--I drew a diploid cell (2n = 6) below that shows one line up – draw another line a = wrinkled seed allele
up to the right that may occur in another germ-line cell through ind assortment B = yellow seed allele
b = green seed allele
--this can only occur when the homologous pairs are lined up side by side
(show yourself that this CANNOT happen in mitosis) F = purple flower allele
f = white flower allele

--summarize in your own words how independent assortment generates variety: D = tall plant allele
d = short plant allele
-Independent assortment generates variety because the chromosomes are lined up randomly at the metaphase
plate. Meaning the maternal and paternal chromosome that go into each daughter cell are independent of– each
Note this example
assumes that this parent
other. This leads to variability because there are thus more options of difference in each daughter cell.
is heterozygous for all 4
genes, other plants may
not be

b) crossing over, which occurs during meiosis 1

--re-draw the given tetrad, showing how the A / a alleles might cross over

-- explain why the A / a alleles are more likely to cross over than the B / b alleles
(based on where I drew them)
=because they branch out more, thus the chromatids have to be attached in less sureface area to cross
over.

--once again, this mixing up requires that the homologous pairs be lined up side
by side (so again, NOT occurring in mitosis)
 c) (beyond just meiosis), sexual reproduction generates variety because offspring
get their DNA from 2 different parents who have different DNA

d) recall that sexual reproduction not only requires meiosis producing gametes, but also
random fertilization … read p. 264 to see that this also generates
variety (parents cannot choose which sperm unites with which egg)

15.4 (briefly, we’ll study the rest of ch. 15 later below) – Chromosomal disorders
--errors in meiosis can generate offspring with abnormal numbers of chromosomes
--failure to separate chromosomes correctly is called nondisjunction
(note, this is NOT the same as a DNA mutation which we will study later)
be careful to distinguish
--sometimes, ALL the chromosomes fail to separate, resulting in polyploidy – this more between nondisjunction
errors (chromosomal
commonly results in viable offspring in the plant kingdom separation error) and
broad group of organisms
mutation errors (a change
in the sequence of DNA
bases which we will
--other times, just one chromosome pair fails to separate, leading eventually to a zygote study later)
with too many of a chromosome set (trisomy), or one too few (monosomy)

--this imbalance of DNA is usually much more disruptive and causes global
changes in organisms – discuss changes in the following human nondisjunction disorders
(p. 306 - 7)

--Down syndrome (or trisomy 21)

-extra chromosome 21-during meiosis 2 a chromatid fails to seperate
--Turner syndrome (or monosomy in sex chromosomes)
-have X0 (only one X chromosome and exhibit normal traits-but sex organs do not mature.