IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO.
2, APRIL 2005
A Busbar Differential Protection Relay Suitable for
Use With Measurement Type Current Transformers
Yong-Cheol Kang, Member, IEEE, Ui-Jai Lim, Student Member, IEEE, Sang-Hee Kang, Member, IEEE, and
Peter A. Crossley, Member, IEEE
Abstract—The design, evaluation and implementation of a
busbar current differential protection relay suitable for use with
measurement type current transformers (CTs) is described in the
paper. The relay operates in conjunction with a saturation detec-
tion algorithm, which effectively detects the start and end of each
saturation period using a technique based on the third-difference
function applied to the current signal. A blocking signal is acti-
vated immediately after the onset of saturation and is maintained
active until the saturation period plus an additional delay of one
cycle has expired. For internal faults that result in CT saturation,
the relay issues a trip command before the blocking signal is
activated. For external faults, that result in CT saturation, the
blocking signal arrives first and the trip command remains inac-
tive. Test results indicate that the relay successfully discriminates
between internal and external faults, even when the remanent flux
in a CT is high and the fault capabilities of the measurement CTs
are severely limited. The paper concludes by describing how the
relay was implemented on a prototype relay based on a digital
signal processor. Compared to a conventional busbar differential
protection scheme, the new relay achieves greater stability on
external faults and enhanced sensitivity for internal faults.
Index Terms—Blocking signal and remanent flux, busbar pro-
tection, current transformer saturation, difference function, mea-
surement CT.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE effect of current transformer (CT) saturation on a
busbar differential protection scheme is of crucial im-
portance during a high-current external fault. The protection
must remain stable, but the settings and/or operating technique
needed to ensure this, must not delay or prevent operation on a
low-current internal fault. Busbar protection CTs are normally
sized for a high over-current factor, but cost and practical
limitations mean that saturation cannot be avoided on a se-
vere external fault. The double-slope operating characteristic
used in a differential scheme is designed to ensure stability
on high-current external faults. The operating threshold at
the particular “through” or “bias” current value must be set
Manuscript received November 20, 2003; revised February 6, 2004. This
work was supported by the Korea Ministry of Science and Technology and
Korea Science and Engineering Foundation through the ERC Program (Next-
Generation Power Technology Center, NPTC). Paper no. TPWRD-00585-2003.
Y.-C. Kang and U.-J. Lim are with the Division of Electronics and Infor-
mation Engineering, Chonbuk National University, Chonju 561-756, Korea
(e-mail: yckang@chonbuk.ac.kr; zodiac76@hanmail.net).
S.-H. Kang is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Myongji Uni-
versity, Yongin 449-728, Korea (e-mail: shkang@mju.ac.kr).
P. A. Crossley is with School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
The Queen’s University of Belfast, Belfast BT9 5AH, Ireland (e-mail:
p.crossley@qub.ac.uk).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2004.834325
0885-8977/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
1291
higher than the differential current value that results from CT
saturation and/or measurement/processing errors. However, if
the operating characteristic is too insensitive, the relay may
be unable to detect a low-current internal fault, particularly
when the through current is high. Thus, an alternative solution
is based on the detection of CT saturation and the resulting
blocking of relay operation [1]–[5].
Kennedy and Hayward [1] showed how harmonic-current-re-
strained relays could be used for busbar differential protection.
If the harmonics in the differential current are larger than a
threshold, operation of the relay is inhibited.
Royle and Hill [2] proposed a solid-state busbar protection
relay. The relay detects the onset of saturation by detecting when
the current collapses to a low value. It then shunts the current
away from the operating circuit by closing a switch adjacent to
the saturated CT. This reduces the differential current to a low
value.
Andow et al. [3] described a microprocessor-based busbar
protection relay that includes a countermeasure for CT satura-
tion. A waveform discriminating element (WDE) was used that
assumes for an external fault the differential current resulting
from CT saturation is nearly zero between subsequent saturation
periods. The WDE detects the onset of saturation by comparing
the change in the instantaneous differential current against the
instantaneous restraining current. This then inhibits the relay for
a predetermined time.
Kumar and Hansen [4] proposed a busbar differential relay
that operates with a countermeasure for CT saturation. Effec-
tively, a trip signal is only activated if, within 11–14 ms of an
initial trip decision (for a 50 Hz system), the trip criteria is sat-
isfied once again. The double measurement technique ensures
stability on external faults, but increases the operating time on
internal faults to 25 ms. To ensure a fast response on a high-cur-
rent internal fault, the double measurement technique is ignored
and the trip signal immediately activated if the initial trip deci-
sion occurs within a few ms of fault occurrence. Effectively, the
method assumes that for a worst-case internal fault, none of the
CTs will saturate during the first few ms.
Kasztenny et al. [5] described a busbar protection relay that
combines differential and directional operating principles. The
differential relay uses an operating characteristic divided into
low- and high-slope regions. In the former, a trip signal is is-
sued if both the differential and directional techniques operate.
In the latter, a higher slope is used to increase the security of
the relay. If saturation is not detected, a trip signal is activated
based only on differential. If saturation is detected, a trip signal
1292 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 2, APRIL 2005

is only issued if both the differential and directional techniques

operate.
All these techniques [1]–[5] provide stability on external
faults, but delay the operating time when saturation occurs on
an internal fault.
Sachdev et al. [6] proposed a busbar protection technique that
estimates the impedances of the positive and negative sequence
circuits for every feeder connected to the busbar. The idea is
similar to phase angle comparison, i.e. it compares the direction
of current flow in each feeder, and consequently is less depen-
dent on the effect of saturation than an algorithm based on the
magnitude of the differential current [7]. An internal fault is de-
tected if all the impedances seen on every feeder are located in
the third quadrant of the impedance plane.
Kang et al. [8] suggested a CT saturation detection algorithm
based on the detection of the start and end of each saturation
period using a third-difference function applied to the secondary
current signal. At the start and end of each saturation period, the
magnitude of the third-difference function is significantly larger
than the value seen when the signal is nonsaturated.
This paper describes the design, evaluation and implemen- Fig. 1. Flow chart for proposed relay.
tation of a busbar differential relay suitable for operation with
measurement CTs. This is achieved using a saturation detection current signal exceeds twice the rated current for two successive
algorithm that blocks the operation of the relay when a CT is samples.
saturated and for a period of one cycle after it ends. The logic
to discriminate between internal and external faults is achieved
B. Differential Relay Operating With a Saturation Detection
by comparing the sequence in which the protection operating
Algorithm
signal and the saturation blocking signal are activated. The pro-
posed scheme does not delay the operating time of a relay for an The relay uses a single-slope operating characteristic; where
internal fault even when a CT is saturated. The performance of each differential current sample, is the summation of the cor-
the relay was investigated using currents with a sampling rate of responding current samples from each CT in the protected zone,
64 samples/cycle (s/c) obtained from a simulated 154 kV double i.e.,
busbar substation with 12 feeders. Two types of CTs were used
in the studies, the first C800 protection CTs adequately rated for (1)
the application, the second C40 measurement CTs. The paper
concludes by describing a prototype relay based on a digital and each restraining current sample is the summation of the
signal processor and the results obtained when it was tested absolute values of the current samples from each CT, i.e.,
using data generated by an EMTP model of a busbar.
(2)
II. CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL RELAY OPERATING IN
CONJUNCTION WITH A SATURATION DETECTION ALGORITHM The magnitudes of the fundamental components of and
, and , are calculated at every sample by processing the
A. CT Saturation Detection Algorithm [8]
sequential and samples using the fundamental component
The CT saturation detection algorithm is briefly described in of a full cycle discrete Fourier transform (DFT).
this subsection. The algorithm detects the points of inflection in The operating characteristic of the relay is described by
the secondary current that correspond to the start or end of each
saturation period. This is achieved using a first-difference func- (3)
tion that senses the discontinuities and a third-difference func-
tion that converts these discontinuities into pulses. The detection where for the results described in this paper, is set to 2A
algorithm accurately detects the start and end of each saturation (40% of ) and is set to 20%.
period irrespective of the level of remanent flux. The algorithm Fig. 1 shows the flow chart of the proposed relay, which in-
has minimal computational burden and is ideal for use within a cludes the logic to discriminate between internal and external
busbar protection scheme. faults. If (3) is satisfied, the protection signal ‘87B’ is activated.
The current also contains a point of inflection at fault incep- A “Blocking” signal is activated at the start of each satura-
tion. This results in an initial peak in the third-difference func- tion period and is maintained until the saturation period plus an
tion, which may be incorrectly detected as the start of saturation. additional one cycle period has ended. The additional delay is
To prevent maloperation, the algorithm is only activated if the required because the DFT window maintains a large differential
KANG et al.: BUSBAR DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION RELAY 1293

current value until one cycle after the end of saturation; conse-
quently the locus of the relay continues to remain in the oper-
ating zone. “Blocking” is also activated for an internal fault if
a CT saturates, but a “Trip” signal is now issued, because the
logic, described in the following paragraph, can reliably dis-
criminate between internal and external faults.
The CT saturation detection algorithm is unable to discrim-
inate between internal and external faults. Thus, for internal
faults affected by saturation, operation of the relay would be
blocked and the trip decision delayed. To overcome this, addi-
tional logic to discriminate between internal and external faults
is required. The logic compares “87B” and “Blocking” using the
following rule.
— For internal faults, the locus of the relay moves up-
wards immediately after fault occurrence and enters
the operating zone; after the relay operates, saturation
starts. Thus, “87B” is active before “Blocking” is is-
sued.
— For external faults, the locus of the relay moves to the
right immediately after fault inception because the dif-
ferential current remains small until one of the CTs en-
ters saturation. The differential current then becomes
significant, the locus turns upwards and enters the op-
erating zone. Thus, “Blocking” is issued before “87B”
operates. Fig. 2. Single-line diagram of simulated system.
Therefore, if “87B” operates before “Blocking,” a “Trip” is
activated. If “Blocking” arrives first, the “Trip” remains inactive.
A. Case 1: Fault at Feeder 2 With 80% Remanent Flux in
The relay is only inhibited for external faults, operation is not
CT2
delayed on an internal fault.
A phase A-to-ground external fault was located 2 km from the
busbar on feeder 2. Prior to the fault CT2 has a remanent flux of
III. CASE STUDIES
80% ( 2.4 Vs for C800 and 0.12 Vs for C40). In this case,
Fig. 2 shows a single line diagram of a typical Korean 154 relays 87B1 and 87B2 should remain inactive.
kV double busbar system with 12 feeders. Feeders 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, Fig. 3 shows the currents from CT1, CT1T, CT2 and CT2T
and 11 are connected to Bus 1 and feeders 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 and the saturation detector outputs for all the CTs; the fault oc-
to Bus 2. The two busbars are connected with a bus coupler. For curs at 22.9 ms and the thick solid line is the ideal (unsaturated)
the case studies, two kinds of CTs were chosen: secondary current. The currents from the other CTs, not shown
rated protection CTs (used on all Korean 154 kV busbars) and in Fig. 3, have similar waveforms to that of CT1. For C800:-
measurement CTs. The CTs were modeled CT1T, CT2T and CT2 are saturated; for C40:- all the CTs are
based on the method described in [9] using EMTP, this simulates saturated. The 80% remanent flux forces CT2 into saturation
the remanent flux in the core at the instant of energization. at 26.0 ms for C800 (3.1 ms after fault inception) and at 23.9 ms
Each CT was connected to a resistive burden of 3.42 and for C40 (1.0 ms after fault inception). The detection algorithm
the saturation points for each CT was selected as 5.12 A at 2.9 detects each saturation period for all the saturated CTs.
s for C800 and 2.05 A at 0.15 Vs for C40. This was then used Fig. 4 describes the results obtained with 87B1. Fig. 4(a)
by HYSDAT, an auxiliary program in EMTP, to generate the shows the signals caused by the saturated CTs. For the C800
hysteresis data. CTs, only CT1T is saturated:- is generally very small and only
The current signals were passed through anti-aliasing 1st becomes significant during the saturation periods, i.e. 30–38 ms,
order RC low-pass filters with a cut-off frequency of 1920 Hz 46–54 ms and 65–70 ms. For the C40 CTs, all the CTs are satu-
and then sampled at 64 s/c (3840 Hz at 60 Hz). rated:- is now only small when none of the CTs are saturated
Differential relays 87B1 and 87B2 were used to protect Bus 1 or all the CTs are saturated. For example, during the period of
and Bus 2, respectively. 87B1 acquired its currents from feeders 29–36 ms, is very small because all the CTs are saturated. It
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and CT1T; whilst 87B2 acquired from feeders only becomes significant when some of the CTs are saturated
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and CT2T. and some are nonsaturated.
The performance of the proposed relay was validated for a Fig. 4(b) shows the magnitude of the 60 Hz component of the
fault on feeder 2 with a high level of remanent flux and faults differential current , derived using a one cycle DFT. For the
on Bus 1 without or with a high level of remanent flux. C800 CTs:- increases in value at the start of the first saturation
In all the figures in Section III, the solid and dotted lines are period (30 ms) and remains high to the end of this period (38
the results for C800 and C40, respectively. ms). As discussed in Section II, this value is then held until the
1294
Fig. 3. Currents and saturation detector outputs for Case 1. (a) Currents of
CT1, and CT1T; (b) saturation detector outputs; (c) currents of CT2, and CT2T;
and (d) saturation detector outputs.
start of the next saturation period, a new value is then calculated
that corresponds to the 6 z magnitude of the second differential
current pulse. During the period when is significant and none
of the CTs are saturated (for example, 38–46 ms) the relay must
be blocked. Therefore, the blocking signal is maintained for one
cycle after the end of each saturation period. For the C40 CTs:-
increases in value at 25 ms, continues high until 29 ms and
is then held until 36 ms. A new value for is calculated when
the next high-differential current period starts.
Fig. 4(c) shows the locus of the differential current versus the
restraint current, vs . The symbols ‘ ’ and ‘ ’ correspond
to the results for the C800 and C40 CTs, respectively. Imme-
diately after fault occurrence, the locus moves to the right and
continues right until the CT enters saturation, i.e. increases
steadily but remains small. When saturation starts, the locus
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 2, APRIL 2005
Fig. 4. Results with 87B1 for Case 1. (a) Instantaneous differential current,
i ; (b) differential current, I ; (c) locus of I and I ; and (d) 87B1, detector,
blocking and trip signals.
turns upwards; 7.0 ms after fault occurrence for C800 CTs and
2.3 ms for C40 CTs. The locus then enters the operating zone;
at 10.2 ms for C800 and 2.9 ms for C40.
Fig. 4(d) shows the “87B1,” “Detector,” “Blocking,” and
“Trip” output signals: “Detector” is the OR combination of the
detector output from each CT, “Blocking” is triggered during
saturation and is maintained active for one cycle after the end
of each saturation period. The results show that for C800 CTs
“Blocking” is triggered 3.2 ms faster than the outputs of 87B1
and for C40 CTs 0.6 ms faster. Consequently, trip signals are
not activated.
The results obtained with 87B2 are shown in Fig. 5: “87B2”
is activated at 28.1 ms with C800 CTs and at 25.0 ms with C40
CTs. The saturation detector recognizes that CT2 starts to satu-
rate and issues a blocking signal at 26.0 ms with C800 CTs and
at 23.9 ms with C40 CTs. As seen with 87B1, the trip signal re-
mains inactive because the blocking signal is triggered 2.1 ms
(C800) and 1.1 ms (C40) faster than the output of 87B2.
KANG et al.: BUSBAR DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION RELAY 1295

Fig. 5. Results with 87B2 for Case 1. (a) Locus of I and I and (b) 87B2,
detector, blocking, and trip signals.

The results indicate that the differential protection remains

stable on a heavy-current external fault with a high level of re-
manent flux.

B. Case 2: A Fault at Bus 1 Without Remanent Flux at 22.9 ms

An ‘A’ phase-to-ground fault occurs at 22.9 ms on Bus 1,
i.e., within the protected zone for 87B1 and external to the zone
for 87B2. Fig. 6 shows the currents from CT1, CT1T, CT2, and
CT2T and the output of the saturation detector for all the CTs.
The currents from the other CTs have similar waveforms to that
of CT1. For the C800 CTs, CT1T, and CT2T are saturated; for
the C40 CTs, all the CTs are saturated because of their small
size. The detection algorithm successfully detects each satura-
tion period.
Fig. 7 shows the results obtained with 87B1. As expected for
an internal fault, both and increase immediately after fault
occurrence and the locus of and moves upward and en-
ters the operating zone at 24.5 ms, i.e. 87B1 operates 1.6 ms
after fault inception. The loci are effectively identical for both
the C800 and C40 CTs. In CT1T, saturation was detected 7.0
ms after fault inception with a C800 CT and 2.3 ms with a C40
CT. This corresponds to the activation of ‘Blocking’ 5.4 ms after
87B1 with C800 CTs and 0.7 ms after 87B1 with C40 CTs. Con-
sequently, the ‘Trip’ decision was activated 1.6 ms after fault
inception for both C800 and C40 CTs, i.e. the relay correctly
detects an internal fault and the trip decision is not delayed by
the effect of CT saturation.
Fig. 8 shows the results obtained with 87B2. remains small
until CT2T saturates. This occurs 7.0 ms (C800) and 2.3 ms
(C40) after fault inception. As shown in Fig. 8(a), the locus first
moves to the right and then, as increases, the locus moves
vertically and enters the operating zone at 10.2 ms (C800) and
2.9 ms (C40). However, the “Blocking” signal was activated 3.2
Fig. 6. Currents and saturation detector outputs for Case 2. (a) Currents of
CT1, and CT1T; (b) saturation detector outputs; (c) currents of CT2, and CT2T;
and (d) saturation detector outputs.
ms before 87B2 with C800 CTs and 0.6 ms before 87B2 with
C40 CTs. Consequently the trip remains inactive. The results
indicate that the relay can successfully block an incorrect trip
decision even when a CT is severely saturated.
C. Case 3: A Fault at Bus 1 With 80% Remanent Flux in
CT1T and CT2T at 22.9 ms
Case 3 is identical to Case 2 except CT1T and CT2T have a
remanent flux level, prior to the fault, of 80% ( 2.4 Vs for the
C800 CTs and 0.12 Vs with the C40 CTs).
The current signals and the output from each saturation de-
tector are shown in Fig. 9. As in Case 2, for the C800 CTs, CT1T,
and CT2T are saturated; and for the C40 CTs, all the CTs are
saturated. The currents in CT1T and CT2T are different to those
in Case 2 because of the effect of remanent flux. The other cur-
rents are nearly the same as those in Case 2.
1296
Fig. 7. Results with 87B1 for Case 2. (a) Locus of I and I ; (b) 87B1,
detector, blocking and trip signals.
Fig. 8. Results with 87B2 for Case 2. (a) Locus of I and I and (b) 87B2,
detector, blocking, and trip signals.
Fig. 10 shows the results obtained with 87B1. The 80% re-
manent flux causes CT1T to saturate 3.6 ms after fault occur-
rence with the C800 CTs and 1.8 ms after fault occurrence with
the C40 CTs. This is 3.4 ms (C800) and 0.5 ms (C40) faster than
in Case 2 [Fig. 7(b)]. The blocking signal was triggered 2.1 ms
(C800) and 0.3 ms (C40) slower than 87B1 [see Fig. 10(b)],
hence the trip signal was activated.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 2, APRIL 2005
Fig. 9. Currents and saturation detector outputs for Case 3. (a) Currents of
CT1, and CT1T; (b) saturation detector outputs; (c) currents of CT2, and CT2T;
and (d) saturation detector outputs.
Fig. 11 shows the results obtained with 87B2. The 80%
remanent flux slows the onset of saturation, as compared with
Case 2. This is because the remanent flux is in the opposite di-
rection to the flux change in CT2T caused by the fault. However,
since the blocking signal operates 16.2 ms (C800) and 0.5 ms
(C40) faster than 87B2, the relay behaves correctly and does not
issue a trip command.
IV. HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION
The protection techniques described in this paper were imple-
mented on a prototype relay based on a TMS320C6701 digital
signal processor. The relay was then tested in real-time using
data generated by EMTP and replayed using “digital–analogue”
converters. Fig. 12 shows the configuration of the prototype
relay system. The fourteen current signals are passed via 1st
KANG et al.: BUSBAR DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION RELAY 1297

Fig. 10. Results with 87B1 for Case 3 (a) Locus of I and I and (b) 87B1,
detector, blocking, and trip signals.

Fig. 12. Configuration of hardware implementation.

Fig. 11. Results with 87B2 for Case 3. (a) Locus of I and I and (b) 87B2,
detector, blocking, and trip signals.
order RC filters with a cutoff frequency of 1920 Hz to 14-bit
A/D converters operating at a sampling rate of 64 s/c.
Figs. 13 and 14 show the results obtained for Case 2 when
the current signals are measured using C40 CTs. The solid and
dotted lines refer to the relay simulator and the “dsp” based
hardware implementation. In Fig. 14(a), “ ” and “ ” refer to
Fig. 13. Saturation detector outputs. (a) For the currents with 87B1 and (b) for
the currents with 87B2.
the results from the simulation program and the hardware imple-
mentation. The results are nearly identical to those in Figs. 6–8.
All the saturation periods are successfully detected, 87B1 issues
the trip signal, and 87B2 remains stable.
1298
Fig. 14. Hardware implementation results for Case 2. (a) Locus of I and I
with 87B1; (b) 87B1, detector, blocking and trip signals; and (c) 87B2, detector,
blocking and trip signals.
V. CONCLUSION
This paper described the design, evaluation and implementa-
tion of a busbar differential protection relay immune to the ef-
fects of CT saturation in a measurement CT. The relay operates
in conjunction with a CT saturation detection algorithm that uses
a third-difference function to detect the start and end of each sat-
uration period. During saturation a blocking signal is activated,
it then remains active until one cycle after the end of saturation.
In the relay, a logic system is included to discriminate between
internal and external faults. This is done by comparing the pro-
tection operating signal with the saturation detector blocking sig-
nals. During an external fault, the relay remains stable because a
blocking signal is received before the protection operates. During
an internal fault, a trip command is issued because the protection
relay operates before saturation is detected. The proposed scheme
doesnotdelaytheoperatingtimeofarelayonaninternalfaulteven
when a CT is severely saturated.
The performance of the proposed relay was validated under
various conditions with C800 (rated) and C40 (measurement)
CTs. The saturation detection algorithm successfully detects
each saturation period even when a CT is severely saturated due
to its small size. Test results indicate that the relay, even when
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 2, APRIL 2005
configured with a highly sensitive operating characteristic, re-
mains stable during external faults even when a CT is severely
saturated. It also detects internal faults, without any additional
operating time delay, even when a CT is severely saturated. A
prototype relay, based on the described scheme, successfully
discriminated between internal and external faults under various
operating scenarios involving CT saturation. The relay operated
at a sampling rate of 64 s/c.
The proposed relay has a number of significant advantages:
— high stability on external faults with enhanced sensi-
tivity;
— fast operation on internal faults with CT saturation;
— makes use with measurement type CTs possible;
— minimal computational burden ideal for busbar protec-
tion.
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Yong-Cheol Kang (S’93–M’98) received the B.S., M.S., and Ph.D degrees from
Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea, in 1991, 1993, and 1997, respectively.
He is now an Assistant Professor at Chonbuk National University, Chonju,
Korea. His research interest is development of new protection systems for power
systems using digital signal processing techniques.
Ui-Jai Lim (S’02) received the B.S. degree from Chonbuk National University,
Chonju, Korea, in 2002. He is now pursuing the M.S. degree at Chonbuk Na-
tional University, Chongju, Korea.
His research interest is power system protection.
Sang-Hee Kang (S’90–M’93) received the B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees from
Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea, in 1985, 1987, and 1993, respectively.
He is a Professor at Myongji University, Yongin, Korea. He is also with
NPTC, Korea. He was a Visiting Scholar and a Visiting Fellow at the Univer-
sity of Bath, Bath, U.K., in 1991 and 1999. His research interest is developing
digital protection systems for power systems.
Peter A. Crossley (M’95) received the B.Sc. degree from UMIST, Manchester,
U.K., in 1977 and the Ph.D. degree from the University of Cambridge, Cam-
bridge, U.K., in 1983.
He is a Professor and Head of the Power and Energy Group, Queen’s Uni-
versity of Belfast, Belfast, Ireland. From 1977 to 1990, he was with ALSTOM
working on the design and application of digital protection relays. From 1990
to 2002, he was a Lecturer, Senior Lecturer, and Reader at UMIST.
Dr. Crossley is a Chartered Engineer and a Member of the IEE.