Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A Project
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
by
Steve Ghadiri
Majid Hosseini
FALL
2013
© 2013
Steve Ghadiri
Majid Hosseini
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION METHODOLOGY
AND MATLAB PROGRAM
A Project
by
Steve Ghadiri
Majid Hosseini
Approved by:
_________________________
Date
iii
Student: Steve Ghadiri
Majid Hosseini
I certify that these students have met the requirements for format contained in the
University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library
_________________________
Date
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Turan Gonen, Professor of Electrical
patience, and care in recommending and evaluating this project in the area of Power
The authors are also appreciative of Dr. Salah Yousif, Professor of Electrical Engineering
at California State University, Sacramento, for his excellent instruction in the area of
of this project.
The author would also like to acknowledge Dr. Preetham Kumar, Graduate Coordinator,
and Professor of Electrical Engineering at California State University, Sacramento, for his
v
Abstract
of
by
Steve Ghadiri
Majid Hosseini
system that will provide customers with safe, reliable, and efficient means of power while
not subjecting them to over-designs with unjustifiable cost. In achieving that goal, the
utility company must rely on system designers to optimize several key parts of their
delivery system. The distribution system secondary, e.g., is one of these subsystems, and
therefore, it can pose optimization type challenge for the distribution system designers.
Arriving at optimal solutions, serves the best interests of the utility and the long-term
In this paper, the authors analyze many alternative intelligent choices when considering a
simplified distribution system selection and show, thru the formulation and Matlab
selection of the system components. Total Annual Cost (TAC) is the reviewed concept,
vi
and essentially, it reduces to a sum of initial capital investment, maintenance, and
operating costs including the costs of system losses. The optimization process is pivotal
in minimization of the TAC. Customer loadings are a key part of this selection and have
been considered in the program formulation, as well. Matlab program provides the ease
feasible answer among optimized choices. Voltage drop is the constraint in this
_________________________
Date
vii
DEDICATION
We dedicate this paper to our family for supporting and inspiring us in this journey.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgement ...............................................................................................................v
Dedication ....................................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................1
2. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DESCRIPTION .................................................................5
2.1 Distribution System Design Requirement ..............................................................5
2.2 Distribution System Planning Methodology ........................................................7
3. LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................10
3.1 Design Criteria .....................................................................................................10
3.2 Components of Secondary Distribution System .................................................15
3.3 Voltage and Load Criteria ...................................................................................16
3.4 Main Factors ........................................................................................................17
3.5 Changing Paradigm of the Power Distribution System .......................................19
4. OPTIMIZATION METHODOLOGY ..........................................................................24
5. ECONOMIC ESTIMATION AND ANALYSIS .........................................................43
6. NUMERICAL RESULTS ...........................................................................................49
7. CONCLUSIONS ..........................................................................................................64
Appendix A: Matlab Optimization Program for Secondary Distribution System ............68
Appendix B: Instruction for Matlab TAC Program in Distribution System ....................79
Appendix C: Secondary Distribution System Voltage Drop Program ............................83
Appendix D: Distribution System Component Information Background ........................91
Bibliography .....................................................................................................................96
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures Page
4.3 One Line Diagram of Multiple Primary System for JHC ...........................................32
4.4 Typical Residential Area Lot Layout and Service Arrangement ................................33
xi
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction
The power distribution systems, which carry electric energy to even far-flung
customers utilizing the most appropriate voltage level, are divided into primary and
secondary. The part of the electric utility system, which is between the distribution
the consumer energy consumption. They are single-phase when they serve residential
The most commonly used secondary power systems are the radial systems. The
general requirements from a secondary power distribution system are that it gives
customers as stable a voltage as possible, operate safely and effectively at the minimum
possible cost and is well balanced. One line diagram of a typical primary distribution
feeder is shown in Figure 1.1 below, as depicted from standard Handbook for electrical
Engineers [3].
2
low. A fault occurrence at any location on the radial primary feeder causes a power
outage for every consumer on the feeder unless the fault can be isolated from the source
Additionally, the operation and planning of electric power systems involve even a long
list of challenging activities, many of which are directly or indirectly related with the
The complex algorithms can be obtained from the cited references, which have
been developed in order to examine whether a radial secondary power distribution system
thermal short-circuit strength, power flow in each network segment less than the thermal
of the conductor used there, acceptable percent voltage drop from the distribution
transformer (source node) up to any one of the ends of the network, and adequate fault
current to operate the network protection are essential part of this criteria [4].
math functions in our Matlab program, and therefore, we recognize that we have no way
of implementing all of them in our Matlab program. Use of power flow programs can
Switching mechanisms and over current protections are usually associated with
the type of configurations and they do not necessarily follow exactly into an optimization
program. Additionally, the cost of the over-current protection does not always vary
linearly with the size of the system. For simplicity, they have been put aside here as an
[4] and [5]. In her program, each stage is analyzed for the constraints by examination. If
the result of the above examination is that any of the previously mentioned technical
constraints is not satisfied, the program which implements the algorithm suggests a
operation. This number depends on the load distribution and the conductor types and
sizes, which are available for the network construction. Finally, the program estimates
economically the alternative technically acceptable solutions and selects the most
algorithm used in her first reference and it is using more constraints, a load flow analysis
method to calculate the currents, voltages, economic data, and functions to estimate the
resulting technical solutions, which make final results more accurate and reliable.
portion of network.
5
Chapter 2
constant source of power. The best distribution system is one that will supply adequate
power to present and future loads safely and cost effectively. Distribution design
engineers choose the best distribution system, when they have considered all the design
parts, installation, and the cost. Design needs to be safe, effective, and reliable. Then, at
the same time, it needs to be not necessarily cheap, but cost effective.
In order to design the best distribution system, the system design engineer must
have information concerning the loads and knowledge of the various types of distribution
systems that are applicable. The various categories of buildings have many specific
design challenges, but certain basic principles are common to all. Such principles, if
Understanding of the entire component in the power distribution system and their
functions are essential for implementing a proper design. The components in such a
system are power distribution transformers, primary and secondary conductors, and
power poles. For choosing the right component in this system, the most important
6
information is how consumer uses this power. Most important piece of information is the
amount of load that consumer will use considering present load and future load given the
load value will constantly change both within a day and over time. The future load
increase also needs to be considered because the system will not be cost effective if the
distribution system design that supply an area block with 24 loads. A reasonable load
demand could be input for each consumer. The demand assumption relies on average
monthly electrical usage for the area with some extra spare capacity (20 percent) for
safety before reaching the threshold and of course some extra room for future usage. The
program calculates the total annualized cost for the design and then this cost is optimized
with transformers, primary system enhancements, service laterals, and service drop
optimized cost and number of pertaining constraints. After the entire initial components’
range and if it is not, the design needs to be changed. Conductors can be overhead or
underground. In case of overhead conductor, the cost of poles and other component will
add to the overall layout cost, and for underground distribution, the cost of trenching,
conduits, and pull boxes will have to be added which usually are substantially more.
7
The costs and reliability of power distribution systems are beginning to receive as
much attention as those of power generation and transmission systems. Modern planning
provides needs for substantial expansion of power distribution systems, the long-term
The goal of modern power distribution system planning is to satisfy the growing
and changing system load demand during the planning period and within operational
following: voltage levels of the distribution network; locations, sizes, servicing areas,
loads and building or expanding schedules of the substations; routes, conductor types,
loads and building schedules of the sub-transmission lines and feeders; other important
issues such as the types and locations of switching devices, load voltage levels, network
configuration, and load reliability levels, etc. The optimization problem is usually very
complicated, considering the scale of the system and the existence of many interrelated
factors.
8
The new approach for the systemized optimization of power distribution systems
is presented in Yifan Tang’s paper [12]. In Yifan’s paper the distribution system
reliability is modeled in the optimization objective function via outage costs and costs of
switching devices, along with the nonlinear costs of investment, maintenance and energy
losses of both the substations and the feeders. The optimization model establishes a
substations and the feeders are fixed costs (zero-order), while their operational costs are
variable costs squarely depending on their loads (second-order) [16], making the
The need to seriously consider reliability in terms of capital costs in distribution system
distribution reliability modeling and applications [17]. Unfortunately, few papers had
extensively tackled this problem [18] and [19]. Most of methodology by Yifan Tang is
based on the original Dr. Gonen’s work on Optimal Multi-Stage Planning of Power
System [21], and Pseudo-Dynamic Planning of Dr. Ramirez-Rosado and Gonen [22].
9
In this paper, of course for simplicity reasons we do not model reliability in our
considering the primary distribution design or a large portion of a city, one needs to
account for it. Usually selection of the switching configurations and degrees of
redundancy provide a certain level of reliability. Reliability inherently reflects into the
overall objective function via outage costs and costs of switching devices, along with the
present value of the costs of investment, maintenance and energy losses for both the
Chapter 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
value in a multi- variable equation. There are various yet interrelated factors affecting the
There are many methods to design the distribution system and we will not concern
ourselves to discuss the other methods in detail here. However, we chose a radial type
primary feeder with uniform loading for the simplicity and ease of developing established
methodology into a Matlab optimization program. The simplest and the lowest cost, and
11
hence, the most common form of the primary feeder is the radial-type primary feeder as
The main primary feeder branches into various primary laterals, which in turn
separate into several sub-laterals to serve all the distribution transformers. Generally, the
main feeder and sub feeders are three-phase three-or four-wire circuits and laterals are
three or single-phase. The current magnitude is the greatest in the circuit conductors that
leave the substation. The current magnitude continually lessens out toward the end of the
feeder as laterals and sub-laterals are branched off the feeder, tapering down. Usually, as
the expected current value reduces in the service lateral, the size of feeder conductors
reduces in the design. However, the permissible voltage regulation may restrict any
feeder size reduction, since the thermal capacity of the feeder is also a consideration.
The reasons for making a secondary power distribution system radial are the low
investment cost, the simplicity of the protection circuits, and the easy control of the
power method convenient for radial networks. In this project, we analyzed and
secondary electrical conductors. Focus of this paper will be cost effectiveness of the
design and optimizing this cost. Cost, reliability, and life of the component will be
discussed and these components will be analyzed and chosen mainly based on load
demands and voltage drops. Electrical companies are facing very challenging situation,
not only the energy price for the consumer need to be reasonably affordable and
comparative in value, but the electric supply system also need to be reliable and
13
available constantly. In addition, the electric utility needs to be adapting to the change in
In the older neighborhood, the secondary distribution system is aging and need to
be replaced. The cost of components, installation and labor, and maintenance compared
to fifty years ago is significantly more, and with all the new technology that consumers
use, the demand tends to be significantly higher, also. The design should be efficient and
cost effective otherwise it will cost the utility company a lot of money and that extra cost
will pass on to the consumer, and consequently, the price of electricity will go up.
The operational objectives of a power grid are to provide continuous quality service at an
acceptable voltage and frequency with adequate security, reliability, and an acceptable
minimum cost. In Figure 3.2, the direction of arrows indicates the priority in which the
entails minimum cost is the main objective in power grid operations. However, during the
emergency conditions, the system may be operated without regard for the economy and
environmental restriction such as the use of high polluting energy source, instead
concentrating on the security and reliability of the service for energy users, while
The term continuous service means “secure and reliable service.” The term
secure, as it is used here, means that upon occurrence of a contingency, the power grid
could recover to its original state and supply the same quality electric power energy as
before. Later definitions have been added to signify the innovative technologies in the
voltage drop, and voltage fluctuation should be considered and examined for sizing the
underground cables will be discussed in brief in this paper since most likely the
underground installation requires the trenching and conduit, and therefore, it will be
substantially more expensive than the overhead’s cost of the poles and reinforcements.
16
The present and future electrical needs of the consumers must be anticipated by
utility companies and system should be planned accordingly. An electric load defines the
rate at which the supply system is required to do work [24]. The unit of power
measurement is Watt and electric power is the rate at which electric circuit performs
work. The electric load power consumption is measured by kilowatt-hour, which the
amount of work (1000watt) is done over the period of an hour. The amount of energy per
unit time, which should be supplied by the utility, is load. (This is the total energy
consumers are using or need in worst-case scenario to run all their electrical equipment
such as lights, appliances, motors, etc. This load can be changed depending on time of the
day or year. Planning an efficient design requires that a good forecast of load
characteristics to be developed. It is very important that the utility can meet this
maximum load demand. This maximum load demand is usually determined after review
of a residential neighborhood over a year. The total power consumption (household load)
for each residential unit is determined, or at least estimated. Then, the total power for that
area is calculated. The utility can develop their plan for the size of components when they
Not only the load demand fluctuates hourly, daily, monthly and yearly, but it also
can increase and grow over time due to technology changes. Also of importance is
estimating how the load may grow over time and at what rate [25]. Usually the new
technology brings newer energy efficient devices that should decrease the load demand.
17
However, since we are using more devices the load demand is still higher. In particular,
we can refer to the air conditioning loading, the most variable and disproportionally
dominant component of bus load, which has brought to older neighborhoods that were
not designed or built with it in the designer’s mind [26]. Another example, is super screen
televisions that consume increasingly more watts than their older smaller predecessors. It
frequently to make sure the size of existing component are adequate for the increased
loads. Furthermore, one can step in future and explore the frustration felt by homeowners
when they may encounter difficulty in charging their electric vehicles all simultaneously,
Utility companies consider two factors for load demands when designing a
secondary distribution system. These two factors are Diversity factor and Coincident
factor. The diversity factor is ratio of sum of the individual demands of the individual
loads to maximum demand of the entire system [25]. Maximum individual demand for
each customer does not occur at the same time and if all maximum individual demands
are added, the result will be much higher than the maximum load of the system. If there
was no diversity of the maximum load timing for each customer, then there would be a
need for very large system capacity. Hence, the diversity factor is an important economic
consideration for electric utilities when designing distribution system [24]. Diversity
The coincident factor, the reciprocal of diversity factor, is often preferred because
it is a way to describe load characteristics using a value that is usually less than unity
to service them. “Hot Spot Area”, or the highest temperature in the winding Area, is the
most important factor relating to the loading capacity and aging of an oil-paper-installed
distribution transformer. Hot spot temperature and data for life span of transformers are
unknown and because of this lack of information transformers are often overrated.
techniques, it is still possible that hot-spot temperatures can rise to undesirable levels
[27].
In order to maintain transformer ageing within desirable limits, the goal is to keep
the maximum hot –spot and top oil temperatures and the current load under allowed
limits [28]. The following limits are given in [29]. Hot-spot temperature can range
between 120C and 160C and top oil temperature can be between 105C and 115C.
Transformers current rating can exceed its typical rating for a short duration by 30 to 100
percent. Distribution Transformers are usually designed for peak efficiency at or near
19
average power level. However, their actual efficiency is dependent upon their loading
schedule [30].
Over the last twenty years, renewable energy sources have been attracting great
attention due to the cost increase, limited reserves, and adverse environmental impact of
governmental incentives have made some renewable energy sources more competitive in
the market. Among them, wind energy is one of the fastest growing renewable energy
sources. [11]
Solar technology is also developing fast and has much to offer despite the
generation, a major technology and cost reduction is required. Thin film PV has the
thin film nano-crystalline hybrid cells and the hetero junction cells based on copper
indium di-selenide and cadmium telluride. Both of the latter provide reasonably stable
efficiencies and are expected to benefit from improved manufacturing techniques. There
manufacturing on to glass, and metal and polymer foils. Industry experts confidently
expect that the new mass production technologies will deliver cells capable of generating
20
electricity competitively with conventional forms and nuclear perhaps within the next 10
years. [2]
integration of renewable energies in the transmission and distribution grid. Due to rapid
development of renewable energies and their integration into the grid, the grid codes in
many countries have been updated to address the issues related to renewable energy
power generation. Differences in various grid codes also stem from regional and
geographical conditions, usually based on the experience of operating the power system,
acquired by the utility. However, their ultimate goal is to ensure safe, reliable, and
economic operation of power system. The main elements in the grid codes include fault
ride through requirements, active / reactive power control, frequency / voltage regulation,
Power systems have developed over the years to supply a varying demand from a
centralized generation sourced from fossil and nuclear fuels, There seems to be a
universal agreement that by the end of this century the majority of our electrical energy
will be supplied from Renewable Energy (RE) sources. Unfortunately, due to the small
sizes of these generators, they cannot connect to the transmission system because of the
high cost of high voltage transformers and switchgears. In addition, the transmission
system is often a long way away as the geographical location of the generator is
In traditional power systems power invariably flows from the large centralized
power stations, which connect to the EHV network down through the HV and LV
generation, power may travel from point to point within the distribution system. This
unusual flow pattern has some serious implications in the effective operation and
It may be concluded that present power systems will gradually have to evolve and
adapt so that, in the far future, a managed demand will be supplied from distributed,
mostly variable, RE generation. This transformation will be aided by the liberal use of
Additionally, other changing technology changes are affecting the utility planning
process. Today, e.g., we have more than 3,300 plug-in vehicles on San Diego roads, and
the numbers could grow quickly. However, the challenge for operating utility is not
necessarily the number, as much as it is when the vehicles charge. The utility’s goal is to
make sure the vehicles are grid integrated, which means that the majority of charging will
happen at times of day when the grid has an abundance of energy, and not at times when
22
energy is scarce. With this kind of integration, charging costs and emissions will be lower
due to more efficient use of the grid and our generation resources, which will help the
utility customers to realize the many benefits of these environmentally friendly vehicles.
This concept of effective integration is vital because of the charging capability of each
vehicle. Right now most of these vehicles can charge at a rate of about 3 to 7 kilowatts,
and some models just entering the market are capable of charging at up to 20 kilowatts or
more [14].
Another technique the utility company has in their tool box of solutions is the
Conservation Voltage Reduction (CVR) [15]. CVR is a proven technology for reducing
energy and peak demand. By more fully utilizing existing distribution automation
equipment, smart grid technologies, and communicating with meters and switchable
devices, capital purchases can be avoided or delayed. In addition, CVR has the potential
meeting EE goals. Today, technologies exist to change the CVR operating paradigm.
Pilot projects based on smart grid technologies and real-time operating systems show
energy savings and demand reductions of 3% are possible. In fact, the Pacific Northwest
National Laboratory (PNNL) estimated total CVR energy savings in the US alone to be
6,500 MWs or 56,940,000 MWh—or the equivalent of Grand Coulee Dam operating at
nameplate capacity for a year [15]. Pilot projects, funded in part with stimulus dollars, are
uncovering promising results: Voltage regulation has been a critical part of power system
operation since Thomas Edison first lit electric lights over Menlo Park on New Year's
23
Eve in 1880. For many years, electric utility companies initiated load reductions during
critical peak load periods by reducing voltages delivered to air conditioners, home
communication packages.
The challenge quickly becomes defining specific control schemes, monitoring points,
maintaining voltages close to lower thresholds without going below them. If the priority
is to regulate end-user voltages, energy consumption is reduced, saving dollars for the
end-user. If losses are to be minimized, feeder volts and VARs are regulated, reducing
energy, releasing line capacity and saving dollars for the utility company.
24
Chapter 4
OPTIMIZATION METHODOLOGY
There are number of decision stages in the dynamic programming at each stage
and there are several alternate courses of action with each stage. The decision generated
by stage one, acts as conditions of the problem for stage two and so on. In other words, at
each of the several stages there is a choice of decisions and the decisions, initially taken
affect the choice of subsequent decisions. The various rules of decision making can be
established after considering the effects of each decision (separately) and the optimum
policy for further decisions. The basis of dynamic programming is to select the best
amongst the final possible alternative decisions. This process is then repeated, ignoring
all those alternatives which do not lead to selected best (optimum). The best sequence of
decisions can thus be defined, by repeating the above process. Safigianni’s paper [4] has
shown remarkably that the full optimization process depends on optimization of a full
multi-objective function. Please refer to the flow chart of the optimization process as
shown below.
25
specific. For example based on the pioneering earlier works cited by Dr. Gonen, a
Nigerian team took it one step further by the use of integer programming technique.
26
(Alternatively, and more comprehensively, one may look at the distribution system sizing
to include the reliability of the distribution system as well [13]. Depending on the choice,
these many other considerations may do enter into the algorithm formulation. Ultimately,
power distribution system using a comprehensive application. The cost of energy losses,
substation cost, feeder cost, and outage cost can be developed using dynamic
programming technique and a three stage iterative solution with the aim to optimize the
outage costs. For example, the three stages of optimization could be carried out to
determine, the number of substation sites and exact location, the feeder routes and the
load flow in the network, and the outage cost to cover system node reliability evaluation.
In our paper, we implemented a method for minimizing Total Annual Cost (TAC)
system in a residential area, as has been elaborated in Dr. Gonen’s Distribution Book.
This can be applied to underground or overhead distribution. Similarly, one can apply
the optimization techniques to sectors of the power system, ignoring the reliability
aspects for the moment (since integer programming is beyond our current solution to the
problem). We have formulated and written a MATLAB program for the calculation and
we obtained the near optimized results, by using computer math power for speed and
The numerical tabulated example run results in chapter 6 are the testimony to this
endeavor. A few of these MATLAB computer calculations have been compared with
hand formulated calculation, for verification purpose. Results match very well for all
practical purposes.
The constraint in the program is the degree of voltage drop that system
encounters.
The distribution system design engineer must of course take the optimum design size
calculated and assure the utility with confidence that load is not going to affect the
system voltage severely. Sometimes, the design requires upsizing the secondary
conductors and occasionally in the existing systems, re-conductoring with bigger size
wires will be needed. The aim of the re-conductoring process is the satisfaction of the
voltage drop criterion or the protective devices condition, or both of them. Every
solution to the problem. Theoretically, there are many solutions for a given network but
only a few of them are technically acceptable. Our implementation of the Matlab
1. A conductor of a bigger size but of the same type must always replace one span
conductor. (There are three conductor types: overhead bare lines, underground
2. New type conductors must replace old type conductors, which are no longer in
3. Because of the big replacement cost, the underground cables are the last solution
in the reconductoring process and they are replaced if nothing else can be done.
Obviously, our approach has to contain simplicity to be programmed with the help of
computer program. (Dr. Gonen has added the costs of a uniform residential distribution
system in his Distribution book.) It entails dividing the costs into installation costs and
operating costs of the distribution system, annualized over the asset life. (It is important
to use asset life annualized since different modifications may have different life and it
provides a uniform basis for our comparison). We then take a partial differential
derivative with respect to each variable, size of the transformer, cross section area of
service lateral, and cross area of the Service Drop. Equating each of these equations to
zero will yield us the computationally optimal value. However, this value does not
necessarily yield to a standard size of transformer or wire, per se. Therefore, we have
created a logic ladder where the program ascertains the sizes against the input given
values and automatically progresses to the next size. When the transformer is chosen,
then the next wire SL will be selected, and then finally SD size will be determined by the
program. We have provided the voltage drop as a major constraint where the value
obtained will be tested with a logic statement for being over five (5) percent of the value
29
in Appendix A.
itself where students can input different distribution problem input data and verify the
Of course the extent of introducing a multi objective function with the introduction
of reliability parameters, maintenance, protection systems, etc. into our study is beyond
the concept of this master’s project, given the wealth of information topics that were
collected for these authors,. What we had to reduce, however, was the essential parts of a
secondary system that we could grapple with and could introduce it with our simple
Matlab programming. The following page flow chart Figure 4.1 shows the concept of
our work from the adapted flow chart as shown by Safigianni’s paper [4].
30
No
Is the Voltage
Regulation too high?
Yes
No
Comments ?
Print the Optimal
Requested
Combinations that met the
Criteria
We recognize, of course, that the primary and secondary systems can be simple
or complex as well. Figure 4.3 below shows an extensive primary system. Typically, in
the residential developments, one block of residential area consists of two pole mounted
distribution transformers, which feed twelve houses. This design determines the optimal
size for transformers, primary conductors, and secondary conductors. The optimization
process requires meeting a certain condition and perhaps holding some assumptions as
well to do it properly.
In this project, we constructed and analyzed the Total Annual Cost (TAC) of
initial procurement, installation, and operating cost of secondary distribution system and
provided a Matlab computer program to solve for optimum commercially available size
of transformer and wires. We also elaborated on the calculation method to minimize TAC
and approximately optimize the system the way that will be most efficient. Furthermore,
we illustrated thru the program that this minimized design satisfies the voltage drop
constraint, and therefore, the voltage dip will not exceed the tolerance criteria.
32
Figure 4.3 One Line Diagram of Multiple Primary System for John Hancock Center
Source: (From Fink, D.G., and H. W. Beaty, Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers,
11th edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978. With permission.)
The Following Figure 4.4 shows one section of secondary distribution system
which has two transformers, and each is feeding 12 customers (loads). This system is in a
straight line design and is expected to have width ‘d’ which makes each section of
secondary line (SL) length ‘2d’. If a secondary line is not used every four customer will
Figure 4.4 Typical Residential Area Lot Layout and Service Arrangement
Source: Electric Power Distribution System Engineering, by Dr. Gonen
In this system over head cable or underground cable can be used. If over head
cable is used, then the transformers are pole mounted and if the underground cable is
used, the transformers are grade-mounted on a concrete slab. The SL and the SD can be
SD SD
SD SD SD SD
SD SD SD SD SD SD
The following assumptions are made to make the calculation easier and possible:
3. The system is energized at all the time 8760 hours per year
The total cost depends on number of transformer, type and size of conductors,
distance and other parameters, which for simplicity and calculation purposes we will
make some assumption in our calculation. For calculation of the TAC we need to
line)(OCSL)
Drop)(OCSD)
TAC formula has three main variables: Transformer Capacity, Conductor Area of
SL (ASL), and Conductor Area of SD (ASD). For minimizing the ATC, we will take
However, this optimized number is not necessarily a practical one by any means.
Since the sizes of materials are usually given in discrete values, we must choose the
next size Up or Down, depending on the choice. Here is where our logic selection
ladder automatically chooses the next commercial available size, subject to the
voltage constraint.
MATLAB programs are written for the calculation and getting the result faster
and more accurately. Towards the end of this assignment, we will have some
examples to test our MATLAB program and compare the result in MATLAB with
hand calculation.
36
1. ICT which is the annual installed cost of distribution transformer and associated
following formula:
ASL is conductor Area in kcmil. This cost is for 1000 ft of cable, which is 3000
ft conductor.
following formula
The ICSD and ICSL are alike since in this example the same kind of conductor
Iexc is the average value of the transformer exciting current base on ST = 0.015
pu
ICsys is the average investment cost of power system upstream toward the
PSLCu is the power loss in unit of SL at the time of annual peak load due to
copper losses kW
pL/ASL
PSLCu is the power loss in unit of SD at the time of annual peak load due to
copper losses kW
pL/ASD
To find the equation for TAC, the above nine formulas need to be added together.
When these formulas are added together (and with some assumption), TAC equation will
It has to be noted that many parameter, such as the fixed charge rate i, transformer core
and copper losses, installed cost of poles and lines are contained in constant coefficients
A to H in TAC function.
TABLE 4.1
Load Data for Book Example 6.1,
Source: Electric Power Distribution System Engineering Book, by Dr. Gonen
40
Basically, if above loads and the dimensions of SL and SD cable and the size of
transformer are known, TAC for secondary distribution system can be calculated.
For example if 39 kVA transformer with ASL of 205 kcmil and ASD of 85.4 kcmil are
And if 50 kVA transformer with ASL of211.6 kcmil and ASD of 105.5 kcmil are used
And if 50 kVA transformer with ASL of250 kcmil and ASD of 133.1 kcmil are used
Minimizing TAC
For minimizing TAC, since TAC is a function of three variable, using TAC
equation and taking three partial derivatives will set each derivative equal to zero and it
follows;
d(TAC) / d(ST) = 0
d(TAC) / d(ASL) = 0
d(TAC) / d(ASD) = 0
The result of above equations that are used henceforth merely serve as indicators
of the region that contains the minimum TAC achievable with standard commercial
equipment size. The problem is further continued by computing TAC for the standard
There are additional criteria which must be met in the total design of the
encountered which will violate one or more of the commonly used criteria:
entrance may have been set by law, public utility commission order, or
company policy.
designer.
Matlab Programs
There are two Matlab program written for TAC. An extra third Matlab program is
by asking for loads as inputs. It then calculates the optimized sizes for ST, ASL and
ASD, and it finally determines the optimized TAC. In this program not only the
42
optimized sizes of equipment and TAC are calculated, but also, the standard size and
The second one (Appendix B) calculates the TAC by asking the three loads and
sizes of ST (in kVA), ASL (in kcmil) and ASD (in kcmil), as inputs. It is called TAC-
matlab programs so the future students can calculate or analyze a typical secondary
system voltage drop. This program is called OnlyVoltageDrop and it queries for the size
of transformer, SL, and SD and it then calculates the voltage drop total and by element.
independently as a calculator.
Copies of each program and program instructions are also attached for your
review (in Appendices). Furthermore, the computer program flow diagram was also
provided in Chapter 3.
43
Chapter 5
We began our master’s project, of course, with the understanding that we will be
solving the Secondary Distribution System Optimization problem with the help of
example. In doing so, we had to gather a more current set of data, which we also verified
by a utility company recent purchases for a close approximation and validity of material
and labor costs. Similarly, we obtained in place unit cost of these material and equipment
with National Construction Estimator (NCE) tabulated book index to arrive at the Total
Consequently, several other factors, such as the cost of electricity, capacitors, and
transformers had to be revised upward from the figures initially shown in Dr. Gonen’s
Distribution System book about three decades earlier. We wanted to compare the
technological advances have been made in this area. We then provided several linear
regressions of Matlab algorithms to be able to categorize choices and result in the final
Cost analyzes have been discussed in this paper. The Two Matlab programs that
have been provided work out the TAC cost if the input data file is provide in the Matlab
44
folder. The OptimizeTAC program will figure out the best combination of elements when
optimized for their size and subject to the voltage constraints and its TAC cost, as shown
in Appendix A. This optimization program provides the near optimized cost for the
components. It will further reflect the annualized cost for the given design parameters of
We have surveyed the L.E Means and National Construction Estimator books to
obtain more recent cost data. The cost figures reported are for the mineral insulated
aluminum conductors with the steel cores. We had to provide the linear regression
function for the obtained data to make sure it would be in that window of 4 to 8 times
cost escalation that we had arrived at before. The data is shown in the input Excel sheet
obtained their more recent purchases. We have performed linear regression functions on
these data as well, to arrive at the best-fit cost for the given size. Across the board, we
example, page 299. (Refer to Transformer cost in Figure 5.1 and 5.2, shown below
retrospectively.)
45
12000
10000
Cost ($)
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
10 15 25 37.5 50 75 100 167
Transformer in kVA
1600
1400
1200
1000
Cost ($)
800
600
400
200
0
10 15 25 37.5 50 75 100 167
Transformer in kVA
relatively lower cost despite the inflation. SMUD purchases reflect cost to be about three
to four times the original indicated values. Similarly, the utilities markup for on-peak and
off-peak energy generation has been relatively contained due to the competition in a
heavily regulated electric market. We suspect that markup to be between three to four
Given the approximation that cost of material and labor have at least risen four to
six percent a year, Every 12 to 14 years it will be twice the cost. Carrying that
methodology forward 36 years, one can reasonably expect the material and prices to have
increased by a factor of 6 to 8 times more than original reported in the Distribution Book
Since these data were originally taken from the late seventies references, it translate into
4 to 8 times the original estimates. In fact, current cost of transformers and wires support
this assertion, and furthermore, the two graphs we have provided above and below
12000
10000
8000
Cost ($)
6000
4000
2000
0
41.74 52.74 66.36 83.69 105.6 133.1 167.8 211.6 250
kcmil
1400
1200
1000
Cost ($)
800
600
400
200
0
41.74 52.74 66.36 83.69 105.6 133.1 167.8 211.6 250
kcmil
Chapter 6
NUMERICAL RESULTS
Many low voltage distribution networks in the United States are typically a 12 kV
primary 120/ 240 secondary system, and in the residential areas they are usually served
We performed linear regression data fit into a third order polynomial function based on
the transformer cost data we had obtained from the utility company (SMUD in this case)
and also the typical construction cost reporting (Means). The data from transformers cost
was fit perfectly into a third order polynomial, per earlier book citation [1]. The total
variations never exceeded more than about 2 to 4 percent from the data, and that is
practically the error margin in the survey in the first place. The conductor data were also
consecutively fit into the second order polynomial, as well. Matlab command Polyfit was
extremely powerful to help fit data into other polynomial orders. The results are shown in
The data provided below along with the Figures are the testimony for this data
match:
50
No Total
10 48.1 28.5 176 148 1.900 1100 455 325 1880 240 9.480 0.109
15 72.1 31.9 265 233 1.900 1500 605 445 2550 240 6.325 0.073
25 120.2 53.6 344 290 2.200 2050 730 545 3325 240 4.393 0.051
37.5 180.3 71 462 391 1.800 2650 910 715 4275 240 2.396 0.028
50 240.4 90.1 566 476 1.800 3150 1050 800 5000 240 1.797 0.021
75 360.6 130.5 694 564 2.300 4175 1125 950 6250 240 1.531 0.018
100 480.8 185 864 679 2.000 5747 995 1011 7753 240 0.998 0.012
167 802.9 500 2100 1600 2.100 9000 1125 1513 11638 240 0.628 0.007
51
11567
Unit Cost ($)
7391
6297
11638
5031
4249
7431
3322 6250
2453 4275 5000
1970 3325
1880 2550
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Transformer Sizes
#6 DC AC 26.24
#4 1 140 0.4 0.52 0.3323 2130 1660 1000 4790 41.74
#3 2 155 0.32 0.41 0.2563 2310 1740 1080 5130 52.74
#2 3 185 0.25 0.32 0.1997 2520 1820 1150 5490 66.36
#1 4 210 0.2 0.27 0.1814 2890 1820 1150 5860 83.69
#1/0 5 240 0.16 0.21 0.136 3200 1920 1230 6350 105.6
#2/0 6 275 0.12 0.17 0.1204 4000 2020 1380 7400 133.1
#3/0 7 315 0.1 0.14 0.098 4600 2150 1520 8270 167.8
#4/0 8 360 0.08 0.12 0.0894 5200 2280 1670 9150 211.6
#250 9 450 0.06 0.08 0.0529 6450 2430 1870 10750 250
52
300
Axis Title
200
Series1
100
Series2
0
1 2 3 4 Series1
5 6 7 8
Cable Sizes
10000
8000
Cost $
6000
4000
2000
0
#4 #3 #2 #1 #1/0 #2/0 #3/0 #4/0 #250
Cable Size
Optimized
ST-kVA 80.94 80.94 38.71 38.71 13.217 13.217
ASL-kcmil 267.19 267.19 133.59 133.59 33.4 33.4
ASD-kcmil 141.7 141.29 78.72 78.72 19.68 19.68
TAC-$ 8127 10447 4750 6005 2254 2626
Standard
ST-kVA 100 100 50 50 15 15
ASL-kcmil 300 300 167.8 167.8 41.74 41.74
ASD-kcmil 167.8 167.8 83.69 83.69 41.74 41.74
TAC-$ 8230 10573 4827 6099 2349 2766
Voltage Drop
Total -percentage (%) 5.6 7.2 6.405 7.854 5.643 6.45
VDT-Transformer 2.4 2.4 1.9 1.9 1.824 1.824
VDSL-Service Lateral 2.479 3.718 3.732 4.795 3.448 4.07
VDSD-Service Drop 0.721 1.0826 0.7721 1.158 0.3705 0.555
58
Optimized
ST-kVA 80.48 80.48 38.5 38.5 13.15 13.15
ASL-kcmil 262.4 262.4 131.2 131.2 32.8 32.8
ASD-kcmil 139.14 139.14 77.31 77.31 19.33 19.33
TAC-$ 11968 15387 7016 8866 3350 3901
Standard
ST-kVA 100 100 50 50 15 15
ASL-kcmil 300 300 133.1 133.1 41.74 41.74
ASD-kcmil 167.8 167.8 83.69 83.69 41.74 41.74
TAC-$ 12142 15603 7086 8939 3498 4120
Voltage Drop
Total -percentage (%) 5.6 7.2 7.206 7.854 5.643 6.45
VDT-Transformer 2.4 2.4 1.9 1.9 1.824 1.824
VDSL-Service Lateral 2.478 3.718 4.53 4.795 3.448 4.07
VDSD-Service Drop 0.721 1.0826 0.772 1.158 0.3705 0.555
59
Standard
ST-kVA 100 100 50 50 15 15
ASL-kcmil 350 300 205 300 66.36 66.36
ASD-kcmil 167.8 Out 83.69 83.69 41.74 41.74
TAC-$ 12142 Of 7086 8939 3498 4120
Voltage Drop Bound
Total -percentage (%) 5.37 4.70 4.94 4.27 4.40
VDT-Transformer 2.40 1.90 1.90 1.82 1.82
VDSL-Service Lateral 2.28 2.06 1.92 2.08 2.03
VDSD-Service Drop 0.68 0.74 1.11 0.36 0.54
We made sure we run the program for at least several cases. We also subjected the
runs to the constraints of at least five (5) percent voltage drop for service lateral, and 10
percent overall.
61
We first ran the Matlab program (OptimizeTAC) for class 3 residence customer,
as specified in the Table 4.1 (reflecting Table 6.4 of the Dr. Gonen’s Distribution book
[1], and as provided earlier here in this paper. The program (OptimizeTAC) reached a
solution and gave a 15-kVA transformer with a No. 4 conductor, as the answer. Service
Lateral (SL) and Service Drop (SD) were both optimized at a No. 4 conductor (ASL = 41
kcmil).
We then ran the program similarly for the Class 2 residences (Table 4.1) and
obtained the answer as a 50-kVA transformer, with a No. 2/O conductor (ASL = 133.1
kcmil) for SL and a No. 1 conductor (ASL = 83.69 kcmil) for the SD. In both program
runs for Class 1, 2 and 3, the voltage drops were within the specified tolerance limits of 5
When we entered the Class 1 data in the program, TAC equation derivative
answer is a complex value for the transformer (ST). The imaginary part is probably due
to the large maximum load. Long blocks, which will have longer wire lengths, can cause
the voltage drop constraint in the program to be violated earlier. That effect is more
profound when we lower the tolerance level of the voltage constraint to much below 10
percent. Class 1 data in the program run yielded the answer of a 100-kVA transformer, a
No. 300 MCM service lateral (ASL = 300 kcmil), and a No. 3/O conductor (ASL = 167.8
In fact, we ran each of the normal Runs with a 50 percent longer length to see
this effect. We did not notice any constraint violations until we increased the lengths to
about twice long and Class 1 with high loading showed constraint violations earlier.
Alternately, one can reduce the tolerance of the voltage drop in the program to see similar
We also wanted to test the sensitivity of the program to the higher electricity
mark-up cost. We have provided 12 runs under high electric mark-up case (twice the
We have also provided an alternate similar run of each case with lower
capitalization value to see the results. We replaced the capitalization rate (utility rate of
return) to lower (10%) and higher (15%) values to discover program sensitivity to the
solution based on the assumed capitalization rate (ὶ ), as tabulated in the above tables, to
obtain the utility valuation based upon a conservative long-term policy towards higher
capital investment.
Finally, we first executed the program with the original runs at power factor of 90
percent and then we lowered the power factor to 70 percent to compare the results. The
results do not show that lower power factor exacerbates the voltage drop constraint,
constant energy loads under lower power factor condition will demand higher current,
63
which ultimately result in higher kVA and cause program to choose higher conductor
sizes, consequently. However, we have no way of reflecting that in our simple program
as we input the Table 4.1 column values. We have to increase the loads proportionately to
capture that lowered power factor effect. Higher conductor sizes will undoubtedly affect
We also wanted to show the effect of lowering the Voltage Drop constraint. By
setting the constraint to 2.5 percent in SL and SD, and 5 percent overall voltage drop, we
force the Matlab program to choose larger size conductors, as it is shown in the Runs 37
to 48. The TAC equation yields complex solution and it results in out-of-bound answers
for the longer lengths in Class 1 column data. High loading is the main cause of not
reaching solution and ultimately, the designed distribution calls for a revision.
64
Chapter 7
CONCLUSIONS
understanding and familiarity of the primary and secondary system to identify the
uniqueness (if any) of the system. Based on this layout, demographical expectations and
growth anticipated, the system designer can then derive the cost figure for this Primary
dynamic programming techniques are employed, as they are more appropriate solutions.
However, our assignment was confined with use of simple Matlab programming to
devise a method to optimize the system secondary, and still account for a constraint,
which in this case was the overall voltage drop for the secondary system. We were
destined to prove the point using only Matlab programming technique and capability.
In our program, the dimension of the blocks, and therefore the lots, are parameters
that can be safely changed for sensitivity analysis. The program constraint limit of
voltage drop can also be altered for ease of analysis. We have justified our cost structure
in chapter 6 (Economic Estimation and Analysis), but those cost data may also be
adjusted for fine tuning or sensitivity analysis, as well. Finally, the number of the
transformers and radial feeding configuration can be altered without many great
With the procedures described above the voltage profile, the conductor thermal
capacity, tapering and short-circuit strength and the protective grounding of a radial
secondary power distribution system can be examined. If the results of this examination
are not satisfactory to the system designer, alternative optimizing technical solutions must
These solutions are economically estimated and the most economical one is finally
adopted.
Adjusting for load growth is also challenging for the distribution designers, as it
will pose the predicament for the system designers to be more conservative with their
initial designs and allow higher equipment rating or better specification to fit into the
primary side. Higher protection standards and non-linear nature of many loads cause
equipment to fail prematurely, or heat up and result in shorter life due to harmonics.
Resources (DER) that will dominate the future distribution grid. Many of these DERs
have solid state inverters that will exacerbate the harmonics effect.
Furthermore, the planned procedures must provide for some degree of the
flexibility from the norm. Electric Cars charging needs, e.g., requires direct upgrade of
therefore, the concept of effective integration is vital because of the charging capability
66
of each vehicle. Future distribution system engineers and designers undoubtedly are faced
The loading on the distribution transformers will be significantly increased once the
modern society and when the average neighborhood displays a significant presence of
these cars. The average electric car will need about 20 to 30 kW-hour of charge for a
round trip of about 60 miles. While that is not a huge load by itself, relative to size of
transformers and wires, it puts undue burden on the grid [14]. One can imagine that while
the early adoption may be low, even only two out of twelve houses owning and charging
these electrical vehicles can seriously burden the neighborhood distribution grid. Finally,
the new utility tariff and rate structure must be provided by the regulators to provide for
the shifting paradigm in the utility industry and its ultimate migration to the Smart grid
domain.
The purpose of this masters project was to demonstrate that (1) the optimization
process is essential between main components of the distribution system, being primary
or secondary and (2) the optimization process can be implemented between the main
components on the basis of fixed initial cost and operating cost of the system, and even a
basic Matlab Program is capable of obtaining solutions to the design problem. Future
Smart grid vision is to develop and deploy a more reliable, secure, economic, efficient,
several sub system to attain that goal. Advanced grid technologies will help attaining that
APPENDIX A
The following are instruction steps to utilize the Matlab Optimization program:
designer who will layout the typical urban area City block. It can easily be
modified to use it for bigger acreages available in the agricultural areas as well.
system greatly affects the outcome as the layout will determine the efficient
typically found in the urban areas of most major U.S cities (typically 960 feet
2. Typically, the utility would like to reduce the voltage drop at the end of the line
and hence would bring the distribution high voltage side to the middle of the
circuit so that two almost equal strings can service the two sides of the pattern.
The utility therefore serves the two strings by the two transformers from the
circuit of the serving electric utility. We provided the input queries for the
69
dimensions of this block as to the length and width, which will have a bearing
upon the length of service laterals and service drop conductors serving the
neighborhood area. The example in the book has assumed two single-phase
transformers serving this block, and each transformer serving power to twelve
3. The utilities have to justify their cost expenditures to their financial managers
and public agencies involved, as the total expenditures will undoubtedly affect
the tiered electric rates that ratepayers must pay. Therefore, extra prudence is
applied so that the utility is not heavily weighted in the purchase of non-utilized
assets. Of course, different assets have different life spans and that is why the
utility industry has developed the annualized asset cost to have comparison basis
compared on the basis of their amortized life, it will simplify the job of planning
4. The optimized equations in the program are derived from the absolute
designer to obtain a standard size that can still provide near optimal value to the
70
utility, minimizing the Total Annualized Cost (TAC) that service utility must
burden with.
5. The average load a house may use may greatly depend on the neighborhood
demography and its location. Over the past century electricity consumption has
human life in the developed world, while it provides the advances in quality of
life. Interestingly, while the utilities seek to dampen the peak power usage to
curtail high cost of their spot generation, they have to design their distribution
equipment may not be fully utilized a great portion of the time. Hence, sizing
the local authorities having jurisdictions. The average household load is also
provided thru an input to the program, as different type of residential areas may
vary in their demography and their electrical usage. The program calculates the
load, sizes the next commercially available transformer, and provides the
appropriate sizes for the Service Lateral (SL) and Service Drop (SD) conductors.
6. Two files are attached with this instruction sheet. One is the Matlab program
called OptimizeTAC.m and the other is the Excel input data called
the folder that Matlab works with to be able to import the table values
else
ST=iscolumn(A(1));ASL=iscolumn(B(12));ASD=iscolumn(B(12));RSL=iscolumn(
B(3));
XSL=iscolumn(B(5));RSD=iscolumn(B(3));XSD=iscolumn(B(5));AMP=iscolumn(B
(2));
SD1=iscolumn(B(2));
end
syms ST positive
syms ASL positive
syms ASD positive
TAC=C1+C2+C3+C4+C5+C6+C7+C8+C9;
disp(TAC);
diff(TAC,ST);ST1=ans;
E=ans;
ST=vpa(solve(E),5);ST1=ST;
diff(TAC,ASL);
F=ans;
ASL=vpa(solve(F),5);ASL1=ASL;
74
diff(TAC,ASD);
G=ans;
ASD=vpa(solve(G),5);ASD1=ASD;
ST0=ST1;
ASL0=ASL1;
ASD0=ASD1;
disp(ST1);
disp(ASL1);
disp(ASD1);
TAC0=C01+C02+C03+C04+C05+C06+C07+C08+C09;
disp(' “Value of TAC0 “');
disp(TAC0);
disp(ST);
elseif ST1<=A(2,1)
ST=A(2,1);XT=A(2,13);
disp(ST);
elseif ST1<=A(3,1)
ST=A(3,1);XT=A(3,13);
disp(ST);
elseif ST1<=A(4,1)
ST=A(4,1);XT=A(4,13);
disp(ST);
elseif ST1<=A(5,1)
ST=A(5,1);XT=A(5,13);
disp(ST);
elseif ST1<=A(6,1)
ST=A(6,1);XT=A(6,13);
disp(ST);
elseif ST1<=A(7,1)
ST=A(7,1);XT=A(7,13);
disp(ST);
elseif ST1<=A(8,1)
ST=A(8,1);XT=A(8,13);
disp(ST);
elseif ST1<=A(9,1)
ST=A(9,1);XT=A(9,13);
disp(ST);
else disp('Provide a different design');
end
%ASL=B(k,12);AMP=B(k,2);XSL=B(k,5);RSL=B(k,3);
if ASL1<=B(1,12) % Service Lateral Ampacity (SL) Selection Logic
ASL=B(1,12);AMP=B(1,2);XSL=B(1,5);RSL=B(1,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(2,12)
ASL=B(2,12);AMP=B(2,2);XSL=B(2,5);RSL=B(2,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(3,12)
ASL=B(3,12);AMP=B(3,2);XSL=B(3,5);RSL=B(3,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(4,12)
ASL=B(4,12);AMP=B(4,2);XSL=B(4,5);RSL=B(4,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(5,12)
ASL=B(5,12);AMP=B(5,2);XSL=B(5,5);RSL=B(5,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(6,12)
ASL=B(6,12);AMP=B(6,2);XSL=B(6,5);RSL=B(6,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(7,12)
ASL=B(7,12);AMP=B(7,2);XSL=B(7,5);RSL=B(7,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(8,12)
ASL=B(8,12);AMP=B(8,2);XSL=B(8,5);RSL=B(8,3);
76
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(9,12)
ASL=B(9,12); AMP=B(9,2);XSL=B(9,5);RSL=B(9,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(10,12)
ASL=B(10,12); AMP=B(10,2);XSL=B(10,5);RSL=B(10,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(11,12)
ASL=B(11,12); AMP=B(11,2);XSL=B(11,5);RSL=B(11,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(12,12)
ASL=B(12,12); AMP=B(12,2);XSL=B(12,5);RSL=B(12,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(13,12)
ASL=B(13,12); AMP=B(13,2);XSL=B(13,5);RSL=B(13,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
else disp('Provide a different design');
end
ASL2=ASL;
VDSL2=4*1000*(L4/(volt)^2)*2*(LSL/1000)*(RSL*cos(phi)+XSL*sin(phi))*100
;
for k=1:1:13
VDSL3=4*1000*(L4/(volt)^2)*2*(LSL/1000)*(RSL*cos(phi)+XSL*sin(phi))*100
;
if VDSL2<5
break
else ASL3=B(k,12);AMP=B(k,2);XSL=B(k,5);RSL=B(k,3);
if VDSL3<5
ASL2=ASL3;
VDSL2=VDSL3;
else
ASL3=B(k+1,12);AMP=B(k+1,2);XSL=B(k+1,5);RSL=B(k+1,3);
end
end
end
VDSL=VDSL2;
ASD=B(5,12);SD1=B(5,2);XSD=B(5,5);RSD=B(5,3); %ZSD=B(5,4);
disp(ASD);disp(SD1);
elseif ASD1<=B(6,12)
ASD=B(6,12);SD1=B(6,2);XSD=B(6,5);RSD=B(6,3); %ZSD=B(6,4);
disp(ASD);disp(SD1);
elseif ASD1<=B(7,12)
ASD=B(7,12);SD1=B(7,2);XSD=B(7,5);RSD=B(7,3); %ZSD=B(7,4);
disp(ASD);disp(SD1);
elseif ASD1<=B(8,12)
ASD=B(8,12);SD1=B(8,2);XSD=B(8,5);RSD=B(8,3); %ZSD=B(8,4);
disp(ASD);disp(SD1);
elseif ASD1<=B(9,12)
ASD=B(9,12);SD1=B(9,2);XSD=B(9,5);RSD=B(9,3); %ZSD=B(9,4);
disp(ASD);disp(SD1);
else
end
ASD2=ASD;
VDSD2=1000*(L1/(volt)^2)*2*(LSD/1000)*(RSD*cos(phi)+XSD*sin(phi))*100;
for j=1:1:9
VDSD3=1000*(L1/(volt)^2)*2*(LSD/1000)*(RSD*cos(phi)+XSD*sin(phi))*100;
if VDSD2<5
break
else ASD3=B(j,12);SD1=B(j,2);XSL=B(j,5);RSL=B(j,3);
if VDSL3<5
ASD2=ASD3;
VDSD2=VDSD3;
else
ASD3=B(j+1,12);SD1=B(j+1,2);XSL=B(j+1,5);RSL=B(j+1,3);
end
end
end
VDSD=VDSD2;
C1=XX*8*(250+7.26*ST)*i;
% $/Block-2 trx per block & 12 services per ea. trx
C2=XX*8*(60+4.5*ASL)*i*2*(LSL/1000); %Triplex aluminum cable cost for
Service Lateral per transformer
C3=XX*8*(60+4.5*ASD)*i*YY*LSD/1000; % Service Drop initial cost
($/block)
C4=8*160*poles*i; % Cost of Poles $/ block
C5=2*Iexc*ST*ICCAP*i; % Capacitors’cost for System energizing & I
excitation
C6=2*(ICsys*i+8760*ECoff)*0.004*ST; % Cost of iron losses/ upleg of
Secondary ($/ block)
FLS=0.3*FLD+0.7*FLD^2;
Smax=YY*La12; % This is found from Table 6.4 for 12 class 2 customers,
per book example
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TAC2=C1+C2+C3+C4+C5+C6+C7+C8+C9;
disp(' “Value of TAC2 “');
disp(TAC2);
VoltDrop=VDT+VDSL+VDSD;
end
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APPENDIX B
The following are instruction steps to utilize the Matlab TAC program:
1. This program is constructed with the idea that configuration of distribution system
greatly affects the outcome as the layout will determine the efficient means of
distribution, and hence, we have assumed a city residential block typically found
2. Typically, two transformers from the utility Right of Way serve these blocks,
previous program, it queries for the inputs of Transformer size in KVA, Cable
sizes (ASL and ASD) in kcmil, and loads (L1, L4, and La12) in KVA . Values for
loads L1, L4, and La12 can be obtained from Table 4.1, or can be any
before, two single-phase transformers are serving this block, and each transformer
What is ST in kVA?
Sample Runs
TAC = 7746
*****************************************************
What is ST in kVA? 50
TAC = 4559
*******************************************************
What is ST in kVA? 15
TAC =2255
82
% this formula was driven for the cost (C1-C9)in the report page
APPENDIX C
The following are instruction steps to utilize the Matlab Voltage Drop Program :
distribution system designer who has the layout of the typical urban Area City
block, found in the urban areas of most major U.S cities (typically 960 feet long
2. It may also be modified to use it for bigger acreages available in the agricultural
voltage drop within the Transformer, Service Lateral (SL), and Service Drop
(SD).
3. The utility would reduce the voltage drop at the end of the line by bringing the
distribution high voltage side to the middle of the circuit, so that two almost
equal strings can service the two sides of the pattern. The utility therefore serves
the two strings by the two transformers from the utility Right of Way which
utility. We provided the input queries for the dimensions of this block as to the
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length and width, which will have a bearing upon the length of service laterals
and service drop conductors serving the neighborhood area. The example in the
book has assumed two single-phase transformers serving this block, and each
distributions for these transformers, and 240- volt secondary to customers) [1].
4. The utilities have technical designers who are responsible to keep voltage drop
within a tolerance level and at the same time must justify their cost expenditures
expenditures will undoubtedly affect the tiered electric rates that ratepayers must
pay. Therefore, extra prudence is applied so that the utility is not heavily
5. The load is queried into this program as energy use of a house may greatly
depend on the neighborhood demography and its location. The program queries
for the single family load, diversified loads, and it then calculates the voltage
drops values at the Transformer (ST), Service Lateral (SL) and Service Drop
(SD) conductors. It then calculates the Total Voltage Drop for all three in the
secondary system.
85
6. Two files are attached with this instruction sheet. One is the Matlab program
called VoltageDrop.m and the other is the Excel input data called
TransfDataTryVD24.xls.
User needs to save the TransfDataTryVD24.xls in the folder that Matlab works
clear all
clc
%Lab=1*960;Wac=1*330;volt=240;La12=10;L4=12;L1=18;pf=0.9;
%ST1=75;ASL1=74;ASD1=43;
i=0.1; % The utility cost annualized Rate (Capitalization Rate)
ICCAP=15;ICsys=8*350;Iexc=0.015;FLD=0.35;ECoff=.015;ECon=.02;
% Defining the parameters;
XX=2; % No of Transformers
YY=12; % No of Customers
poles=6; % No. of Poles
LotW=Lab/12; % Lot Width
LotL=Wac/2; % Lot Length
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LSL=4*LotW; % Length of SL
LSD=0.5*LotL; % Length of SD
phi=acos(pf); % Phi Angle (phi)
Smin=YY*1.1; % In kVA
Aload=YY*La12;
if Aload<Smin
ST=Smin;ASL=41.74;ASD=26.24;
else
ST=iscolumn(A(1));ASL=iscolumn(B(12));ASD=iscolumn(B(12));RSL=iscolumn(
B(3));
XSL=iscolumn(B(5));RSD=iscolumn(B(3));XSD=iscolumn(B(5));AMP=iscolumn(B
(2));
SD1=iscolumn(B(2));
end
%disp(ST1);
%disp(ASL1);
%disp(ASD1);
end
%ASL=B(k,12);AMP=B(k,2);XSL=B(k,5);RSL=B(k,3);
if ASL1<=B(1,12) % Service Lateral Ampacity (SL) Selection Logic
ASL=B(1,12);AMP=B(1,2);XSL=B(1,5);RSL=B(1,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
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elseif ASL1<=B(2,12)
ASL=B(2,12);AMP=B(2,2);XSL=B(2,5);RSL=B(2,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(3,12)
ASL=B(3,12);AMP=B(3,2);XSL=B(3,5);RSL=B(3,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(4,12)
ASL=B(4,12);AMP=B(4,2);XSL=B(4,5);RSL=B(4,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(5,12)
ASL=B(5,12);AMP=B(5,2);XSL=B(5,5);RSL=B(5,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(6,12)
ASL=B(6,12);AMP=B(6,2);XSL=B(6,5);RSL=B(6,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(7,12)
ASL=B(7,12);AMP=B(7,2);XSL=B(7,5);RSL=B(7,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(8,12)
ASL=B(8,12);AMP=B(8,2);XSL=B(8,5);RSL=B(8,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(9,12)
ASL=B(9,12); AMP=B(9,2);XSL=B(9,5);RSL=B(9,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(10,12)
ASL=B(10,12); AMP=B(10,2);XSL=B(10,5);RSL=B(10,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(11,12)
ASL=B(11,12); AMP=B(11,2);XSL=B(11,5);RSL=B(11,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(12,12)
ASL=B(12,12); AMP=B(12,2);XSL=B(12,5);RSL=B(12,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
elseif ASL1<=B(13,12)
ASL=B(13,12); AMP=B(13,2);XSL=B(13,5);RSL=B(13,3);
disp(ASL);disp(AMP);
else disp('Provide a different design');
end
ASL2=ASL;
VDSL2=4*1000*(L4/(volt)^2)*2*(LSL/1000)*(RSL*cos(phi)+XSL*sin(phi))*100
;
for k=1:1:13
VDSL3=4*1000*(L4/(volt)^2)*2*(LSL/1000)*(RSL*cos(phi)+XSL*sin(phi))*100
;
if VDSL2<15
break
else ASL3=B(k,12);AMP=B(k,2);XSL=B(k,5);RSL=B(k,3);
if VDSL3<15
ASL2=ASL3;
89
VDSL2=VDSL3;
else
ASL3=B(k+1,12);AMP=B(k+1,2);XSL=B(k+1,5);RSL=B(k+1,3);
end
end
end
VDSL=VDSL2;
ASD2=ASD;
VDSD2=1000*(L1/(volt)^2)*2*(LSD/1000)*(RSD*cos(phi)+XSD*sin(phi))*100;
for j=1:1:9
VDSD3=1000*(L1/(volt)^2)*2*(LSD/1000)*(RSD*cos(phi)+XSD*sin(phi))*100;
if VDSD2<5
break
else ASD3=B(j,12);SD1=B(j,2);XSL=B(j,5);RSL=B(j,3);
if VDSL3<5
ASD2=ASD3;
90
VDSD2=VDSD3;
else
ASD3=B(j+1,12);SD1=B(j+1,2);XSL=B(j+1,5);RSL=B(j+1,3);
end
end
end
VDSD=VDSD2;
% The Voltage Drop Constraint is tested on the obtained values
% VoltDrop = VDT+VDSL+VDSD;
%Zpu=0.02; %Zbase=voltage^2/ST;%Zpu is given in input tables
%ZVST=Zpu*Zbase;
VDT=1000*(Aload/(volt)^2)*XT*100; % VDT=12*LoadC*ZVST;
%VDSD=1000*(L1/(volt)^2)*2*(LSD/1000*((RSD*cos(phi))+XSD*sin(phi)))*100
;
VoltDrop=VDT+VDSL+VDSD;
APPENDIX D
Conductors
For utility companies one of the most expensive components is the conductors.
Due to this fact, it is imperative that distribution system engineer and planner choose the
most appropriate conductor type and size so that optimum operating efficiency can be
realized[38][39]. The designer must come up with best price for a conductor with best
conductivity-to-weight ratio and/or strength -to-weight ratio. For necessary ratio designer
needs to look at all the factors such as voltage stability of the line, loading of the line,
Not only maximum power transfer, minimum loss and thermal capacity , per the system
design specification, but also the price should be take in to account. While choosing a
new conductor that has to match or work the existing conductor in the network, it has to
Most common conductor materials are Aluminum and copper. Copper is the best
conductor and is the base-line reference for conductivity characteristics. On the other
hand, the closest alternative for conductivity is Aluminum with less weight. Aluminum
conductivity is 61 percent, its weight is 30 percent, and its breaking strength is 43 percent
of copper [16].
92
strands of high-strength steel in their central core, and the combination is called
Aluminum Cable Steel Reinforced or ACSR. ACSR is lighter than copper and has
strength and conductivity of copper. At the same time, ACSR has longer life span and it
last much longer than conductor usual 40 years. Following figure shows various
Distribution Transformers
In the beginning, working power systems used direct current (DC) which carries
low voltage and high current. Because of this combination there were a very large voltage
drops and power losses especially in long distance distribution. The development of
Alternating Current (AC) eliminated above problems and issues and made efficient and
The first modern transmission was built in 1885 by William Stanley [37]. A
simple transformer consist of two set of coil wrapped around a ferromagnetic core. When
there is current in primary coil there will be flux created in the core and these flux going
troughs the secondary coil create current in secondary circuit. The powers in primary and
secondary circuits are identical (for ideal transformer). Because of that if the current goes
up in secondary voltage goes down in secondary and if current goes down in secondary
voltage goes up in secondary. Voltage ratio of primary over secondary is equal to the
Vp Primary voltage
Vs Secondary voltage
Pp Power in primary
Ps Power in secondary
95
Ip Current in primary
Is Current in secondary
transformers maintain rating of over 500 kVA at voltage levels of 69kV or greater [36].
Following page shows some typically rated transformers and associated data.
96
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