Rod Daz 2006

Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31 – 65
www.elsevier.com/locate/chemgeo
Controls on weathering and provenance in the Amazonian

foreland basin: Insights from major and trace element
geochemistry of Neogene Amazonian sediments
Martin Roddaz *, Jérôme Viers, Stéphane Brusset, Patrice Baby,
Carole Boucayrand, Gérard Hérail
LMTG-Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse 3-UMR 5563-14 avenue Edouard Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France
Received 15 September 2004; received in revised form 11 August 2005; accepted 20 August 2005
Abstract
Miocene and Pliocene deposits from the Ecuadorian, Bolivian and Peruvian Amazonian foreland basin (north and south
Amazonian foreland basin, NAFB and SAFB) were analyzed for major and trace element geochemistry (97 and 104 samples
respectively). Neogene deposits are well homogenized and have an overall PAAS-like composition. They are mainly derived from
a granodioritic crust. In the NAFB, chemical weathering increases from Miocene to Pliocene to CIA values ~100. Physical sorting
seems to have played a minor role in the chemical composition of these sediments. Chemical ratios such as Cr / Th and Th / U and
Eu anomaly vary within each formation and from one formation to another. In the SAFB, sediments have a PAAS-like composition
with recycling increasing toward the distal part of the foreland basin. In the NAFB, the Neogene formations have various
provenances. Basic/andesitic sediments originated from the Ecuadorian Andes. These sediments were trapped in the subsiding
Ecuadorian foredeep during the Miocene and reached the Iquitos forebulge to join the paleo-Amazon near Iquitos (Amazon
formation) during the Pliocene. Other Miocene formations have PAAS-like affinities but are enriched in Zr and Hf relative to the
PAAS suggesting that they are derived from a recycled and differentiated upper continental crust. Uplift of the Iquitos forebulge
may have been responsible for dividing drainage networks originating from the Andes and the craton. The Quaternary floodplain
deposits of the Amazon River resemble PAAS with depletion in trace elements and enrichment in Zr and Hf, which indicate that
they are derived from a recycled differentiated upper continental crust. Overall, the transition from tidal sedimentation in the
Miocene to fluvial sedimentation in the Late Miocene–Pliocene related to a change with foreland basin dynamics have caused
increasing silicate weathering that could have had consequences on climate and global carbon cycle during the Neogene.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Major and trace elements; Weathering; Provenance; Amazonian foreland basin; Neogene
1. Introduction of global mass transfer, the Amazon River ranks num-

ber one. It supplies about 17% of the water, 12% of the
The Amazon basin is the world’s largest fluvial dissolved load, and 7% of the suspended load to the
basin (actual drainage area of 5.8 106 km2, deposi- world’s oceans (Milliman and Meade, 1983; Degens et
tional area of approximately 2.5–3 106 km2). In terms al., 1991). Consequently, the Amazon system is one of
the most prominent examples for studying fluxes of
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 5 6133 2632. continental material to the oceans, providing insights
E-mail address: mroddaz@lmtg.obs-mip.fr (M. Roddaz). into the composition of the average continental crust, as
0009-2541/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2005.08.010
32 M. Roddaz et al. / Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31–65
well as for assessing erosion processes on a global scale zinelli and Potter, 1983; Kronberg et al., 1986; Sholk-
(Potter, 1978; Milliman and Meade, 1983; Taylor and ovitz, 1988; Nesbitt et al., 1990; Konhauser et al., 1994;
McLennan, 1985; Stallard and Edmond, 1987; Gold- Ferraz et al., 1996; Vital and Stattegger, 2000; Dobson
stein and Jacobsen, 1988). In contrast with the quantity et al., 2001). Studies related to bedload sediments in the
of published data on the chemistry of Amazonian Amazon upstream concern only recent sediments sam-
waters, very few studies have dealt with the chemical pled in the lowermost Amazonian basin (e.g., Vital and
composition of Amazonian sediments at the scale of the Stattegger, 2000). The geochemistry of the Neogene
basin. Most studies are concentrated on the Amazon sediments of the uppermost Amazonian basin has hard-
shelf or fan, or on the lowermost Amazon River (Fran- ly received any attention so far. The Neogene deposi-
Fig. 1. a) Location of sampled outcrops. NAFB: North Amazonian foreland basin; SAFB: South Amazonian foreland basin; b) schematic cross
section depicting the concept of foreland basin system sensu DeCelles and Giles (1996) with the wedge-top, foredeep, forebulge and backbulge at
approximately true scale. Depozone is labeled dz.
M. Roddaz et al. / Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31–65 33
Table 1
Localization, estimated age, the average grain size (mud/sand) and the depositional setting for the Neogene sediments of Western Amazonia
South Amazonian foreland basin
Sources
Sample Country Basin Formation Age Type Depositional Latitude Longitude
setting
1-BEN42A Bolivia Beni Subandean zone Bala Sandstone Fluvial 14853.966VS 67841.009VW
1-BEN34 Bolivia Beni Subandean zone Beu Sandstone Eolian 15800.068VS 67844.109VW
1-TIP002 Bolivia Beni Subandean zone Ordovician Ordovician Quartzite 15830.516VS 67850.408VW
1-TIP003A Bolivia Beni Subandean zone Silurian Silurian Sandstone ? 15828.958VS 67849.046VW
1-TIP004 Bolivia Beni Subandean zone Silurian Silurian Mudstone ? 15828.282VS 67845.493VW
1-BEN-95A Bolivia Beni–Mamore Brazilian craton Precambrian Granite 10832.121VS 65834.855VW
1-BEN-95B Bolivia Beni–Mamore Brazilian craton Precambrian Granite 10832.121VS 65834.855VW
Miocene tidal formations

Madre de Dios formation–Madre de Dios basin
1-MD08A Peru Madre de Dios foredeep Madre de Dios Late Miocene Mud Tidal 12845.609VS 69850.453VW
1-MD13A Peru Madre de Dios foredeep Madre de Dios Late Miocene Mud Tidal 12855.325VS 70820.947VW
1-MD42A Peru Madre de Dios foredeep Madre de Dios Late Miocene Mud Tidal
1-MD04 Peru Madre de Dios foredeep Madre de Dios Late Miocene Mud Tidal 12843.221VS 69835.312VW
1-MD10 Peru Madre de Dios foredeep Madre de Dios Late Miocene Mud Tidal 12846.361VS 69854.446VW
Madre de Dios formation–Beni–Mamore basin

1-BEN-101 Bolivia Beni–Mamore Madre de Dios Late Miocene Mud Pebas lake/sea 10848.541VS 66802.158VW
1-BEN-32B Bolivia Beni–Mamore Madre de Dios Late Miocene Mud Pebas lake/sea 15803.732VS 67841.691VW
1-BEN-57 Bolivia Beni–Mamore Madre de Dios Late Miocene Mud Paleosol 14820.926VS 67842.715VW
1-BEN-61G Bolivia Beni–Mamore Madre de Dios Late Miocene Mud Pebas lake/sea 12832.243VS 66855.049VW
1-BEN-74B Bolivia Beni–Mamore Madre de Dios Late Miocene Mud Pebas lake/sea 11846.256VS 66853.311VW
1-BEN-76A Bolivia Beni–Mamore Madre de Dios Late Miocene Mud Pebas lake/Sea 11842.439VS 66849.439VW
1-BEN-99 Bolivia Beni–Mamore Madre de Dios Late Miocene Mud Paleosol 10850.880VS 66804.562VW
Late Miocene–Pliocene formation

Iñapari formation–Beni–Mamore basin
1-BEN-106 Bolivia Beni–Mamore Iñapari Mio–Pliocene Silt Tidal 10841.289VW 65852.574VW
1-BEN-61C Bolivia Beni–Mamore Iñapari Mio–Pliocene Sand Fluvial 12832.243VS 66855.049VW
1-BEN-61E Bolivia Beni–Mamore Iñapari Mio–Pliocene Mud Floodplain 12832.243VS 66855.049VW
1-BEN-61F Bolivia Beni–Mamore Iñapari Mio–Pliocene Sand Tidal 12832.243VS 66855.049VW
1-BEN-61I Bolivia Beni–Mamore Iñapari Mio–Pliocene Sand Fluvial 12832.243VS 66855.049VW
1-BEN-70A Bolivia Beni–Mamore Iñapari Mio–Pliocene Sand Fluvial 12803.526VS 66854.516VW
1-BEN-76B Bolivia Beni–Mamore Iñapari Mio–Pliocene Sand Tidal 11842.439VS 66849.439VW
1-BEN-76C Bolivia Beni–Mamore Iñapari Mio–Pliocene Sand Tidal 11842.439VS 66849.439VW
1-BEN-82 Bolivia Beni–Mamore Iñapari Mio–Pliocene Sand Fluvial 11828.841VS 66844.073VW
1-BEN-89B Bolivia Beni–Mamore Iñapari Mio–Pliocene Sand Fluvial 11806.937VS 66812.891VW
1-BEN-93 Bolivia Beni–Mamore Iñapari Mio–Pliocene Sand Tidal 10859.091VS 66803.265VW
1-BEN-97B Bolivia Beni–Mamore Iñapari Mio–Pliocene Sand Fluvial 10835.230VS 65835.480VW
North Amazonian foreland basin

Curaray formation–Oriente basin
1-AN-1 Ecuador Oriente Curaray Miocene Mud Tidal 01814.592VS 77826.490VW
Ipururo formation–Huallaga basin

1-HUA-007A Peru Huallaga Ipururo Miocene Sand Tidal 07804.283VS 76842.050VW
1-HUA-008A Peru Huallaga Ipururo Miocene Sand Tidal 07804.333VS 76842.133VW
1-HUA-12A Peru Huallaga Ipururo Miocene Mud ?
1-HUA-13A Peru Huallaga Ipururo Miocene Mud Tidal 07832.233VS 76840.817VW
1-HUA-13B Peru Huallaga Ipururo Miocene Sand Tidal 07832.233VS 76840.817VW
(continued on next page)
Table 1 (continued)
setting
Ipururo formation–Huallaga basin
1-HUA-13D Peru Huallaga Ipururo Miocene Sand Tidal 07832.233VS 76840.817VW
1-HUA-13E Peru Huallaga Ipururo Miocene Mud Tidal 07832.233VS 76840.817VW
1-HUA-16B Peru Huallaga Ipururo Miocene Sand Tidal 07804.333VS 76842.050VW
1-HUA-16C Peru Huallaga Ipururo Miocene Mud Tidal 07804.283VS 76834.517VW
1-HUA-005 Peru Huallaga Ipururo Oligo–Miocene Sand Tidal 06842.367VS 76816.960VW
Pebas formation–Iquitos forebulge

1-POM-19B Peru Iquitos forebulge Pebas Late Miocene Sand Tidal 03837.400VS 73820.367VW
1-IQ-22A Peru Iquitos forebulge Pebas Late Miocene Mud Tidal 04813.810VS 73822.330VW
1-POM-002A Peru Iquitos forebulge Pebas Late Miocene Mud Tidal 03851.814VS 73820.673VW
1-POM-003C Peru Iquitos forebulge Pebas Late Miocene Mud Tidal 04800.536VS 73809.449VW
1-POM-18B Peru Iquitos forebulge Pebas Late Miocene Mud Tidal 03841.500VS 73815.450VW
1-POM-30A Peru Iquitos forebulge Pebas Late Miocene Sand Tidal 04855.267VS 73840.867VW
1-POM-51A Peru Iquitos forebulge Pebas Late Miocene Mud Paleosol 04815.083VS 73829.783VW
1-POM-54A Peru Iquitos forebulge Pebas Late Miocene Sand Tidal 04817.950VS 73831.183VW
1-IQ-13 Peru Iquitos forebulge Pebas Late Miocene Mud Tidal 02828.980VS 73841.290VW
1-IQ-13B Peru Iquitos forebulge Pebas Late Miocene Mud Tidal 02828.980VS 73841.290VW
1-IQ-13C Peru Iquitos forebulge Pebas Late Miocene Mud Tidal 02828.980VS 73841.290VW
1-IQ-13D Peru Iquitos forebulge Pebas Late Miocene Sand Tidal 02828.980VS 73841.290VW
1-IQ-13E Peru Iquitos forebulge Pebas Late Miocene Mud Tidal 02828.980VS 73841.290VW
1-IQ-14D Peru Iquitos forebulge Pebas Late Miocene Mud Fe nodule 02848.380VS 73832.440VW
Pebas formation–Pevas backbulge

1-POM-007A Peru Iquitos backbulge Pebas Middle Miocene Mud Tidal/fluvial 03828.000VS 72831.583VW
1-POM-007C Peru Iquitos backbulge Pebas Middle Miocene Silt Tidal/fluvial 03828.000VS 72831.583VW
1-POM-007G Peru Iquitos backbulge Pebas Middle Miocene Mud Tidal/fluvial 03828.000VS 72831.583VW
1-POM-007H0 Peru Iquitos backbulge Pebas Middle Miocene Silt Tidal/fluvial 03828.000VS 72831.583VW
1-POM-11B Peru Iquitos backbulge Pebas Middle Miocene Mud Tidal/fluvial 03820.467VS 71848.500VW
1-POM-12C Peru Iquitos backbulge Pebas Middle Miocene Mud Tidal/fluvial 03820.167VS 71849.150VW
Nauta 1 Mb–Iquitos forebulge

1-IQ-19A Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 1 Late Miocene Mud Tidal/fluvial 04828.870VS 73835.660VW
1-IQ-19B Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 1 Late Miocene Mud Tidal/fluvial 04828.870VS 73835.660VW
1-POM-25A Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 1 Late Miocene Sand Tidal/fluvial 03852.437VS 73820.478VW
1-POM-25B Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 1 Late Miocene Sand Tidal/fluvial 03852.437VS 73820.478VW
1-POM-50A Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 1 Late Miocene Sand Tidal/fluvial 04814.833VS 73V29.600VW
1-POM-50B Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 1 Late Miocene Mud Tidal/fluvial 04814.833VS 73V29.600’W
1-POM-63A Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 1 Late Miocene Sand Tidal/fluvial 04820.800’S 73832.533’W
1-POM-64A Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 1 Late Miocene Sand Tidal/fluvial 04823.367’S 73834.015’W
1-POM-66B Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 1 Late Miocene Mud Tidal/fluvial 04824.217VS 73834.583VW
Table 1 (continued)
setting
Late Miocene–Pliocene formation
Nauta 2 Mb–Iquitos forebulge
1-IQ-17A Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 2 Pliocene Sand Fluvial 04830.690VS 73834.820VW
1-IQ-17B Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 2 Pliocene Sand Fluvial 04830.690VS 73834.820VW
1-IQ-18A Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 2 Pliocene Sand Fluvial 04830.010VS 73835.420VW
1-IQ-28A Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 2 Pliocene Mud Fluvial 03852.437VS 73820.478VW
1-POM-27A Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 2 Pliocene Sand Fluvial 04830.690VS 73834.820VW
1-POM-38A Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 2 Pliocene Silt Fluvial 03859.550VS 73825.700VW
1-POM-38B Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 2 Pliocene Silt Fluvial 03859.550VS 73825.700VW
1-POM-50C Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 2 Pliocene Silt Fluvial 04814.833VS 73V29.600VW
1-POM-54C Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 2 Pliocene Sand Fluvial 04817.950VS 73831.183VW
1-POM-65A Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 2 Pliocene Mud Fluvial 04823.533VS 73834.283VW
1-POM-66C Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 2 Pliocene Sand Fluvial 04824.217VS 73834.583VW
1-POM-67A Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 2 Pliocene Mud Fluvial 04824.667VS 73834.917VW
1-POM-46B Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 2 Pliocene Sand Fluvial 04808.123VS 73828.154VW
1-POM-48A Peru Iquitos forebulge Nauta 2 Pliocene Sand Fluvial 04814.250VS 73829.250VW
White Sand formation–Iquitos forebulge

1-IQ-2 Peru Iquitos forebulge WS Pliocene Sand Fluvial 03846.006VS 73818.126VW
1-IQ-37A Peru Iquitos forebulge WS Pliocene Mud Fluvial 04801.045VS 73825.963VW
1-POM-001A Peru Iquitos forebulge WS Pliocene Sand Fluvial 03851.533VS 73820.617VW
1-POM-37B Peru Iquitos forebulge WS Pliocene Sand Fluvial 03859.067VS 73825.483VW
1-POM-37D Peru Iquitos forebulge WS Pliocene Sand Fluvial 03859.067VS 73825.483VW
1-POM-40A Peru Iquitos forebulge WS Pliocene Mud Fluvial 04801.045VS 73825.963VW
1-POM-001B Peru Iquitos forebulge WS Pliocene Sand Fluvial 03851.533’S 73820.617’W
Amazon formation–Iquitos forebulge

1-POM-10B Peru Iquitos backbulge Amazon Pliocene Sand Fluvial 03818.883’S 71851.333’W
1-POM-14 Peru Iquitos backbulge Amazon Pliocene Sand Fluvial
1-POM-002B Peru Iquitos forebulge Amazon Pliocene Sand Fluvial 03851.814’S 73820.673’W
1-POM-003D Peru Iquitos forebulge Amazon Pliocene Sand Fluvial 04800.536’S 73809.449’W
1-POM-23A Peru Iquitos forebulge Amazon Pliocene Sand Fluvial 03849.633’S 73822.650’W
1-POM-55A Peru Iquitos forebulge Amazon Pliocene Sand Fluvial 04818.700’S 73831.400’W
1-IQ-26B Peru Iquitos forebulge Amazon Pliocene Sand Fluvial 04800.536’S 73809.449’W
1-IQ-12CGT Peru Iquitos forebulge Amazon Pliocene Sand Fluvial 02820.780’S 73847.690’W
Quaternary floodplain deposits–Iquitos forebulge

1-IQ-28B Peru Iquitos forebulge QFP Quaternary Silt Floodplain 03852.437’S 73820.478’W
1-POM-23B Peru Iquitos forebulge QFP Quaternary Silt Floodplain 03849.633’S 73822.650’W
1-POM-24A Peru Iquitos forebulge QFP Quaternary Silt Floodplain 03849.917’S 73821.683’W
tional environment of western Amazonia is still a mat- establishment of the modern Amazon drainage network
ter of debate. It was long unclear if either a lake during the Pliocene (Hoorn et al., 1995; Roddaz et al.,
complex (Wesselingh et al., 2002) or a tidally influ- 2005).
enced sea (Räsänen et al., 1995) occupied western The aims of this study are, based on extensive
Amazonia. However, additional evidence of tidal sampling of Neogene Amazonian foreland basin sedi-
deposits has been presented recently (Gingras et al., ments, to i) examine the effects of tropical weathering,
2002a,b; Roddaz et al., 2004; Hovikoski et al., 2005) ii) determine the influence of sedimentary processes on
and it is now accepted that western Amazonia has sediment geochemistry, iii) establish the provenance of
experienced recurrent marine ingressions during the the Neogene sediments of western Amazonia and iv)
Miocene. The transition from marine to continental examine the influence of foreland basin dynamic
sedimentation is poorly known although some authors changes on weathering and provenance of Neogene
have emphasized the role of Andean tectonics in the Amazonian sediments.
2. Geological setting sands and muds–silts was made by visual inspection at

the time of collection, as recommended by Nesbitt et al.
The western Amazonian basin (Fig. 1a) is consid- (1996). This is essential for comparing different studies
ered to represent the retroarc foreland basin of the where the sedimentary rock equivalents, mudstones and
Cenozoic Andes. Recent studies (Roddaz et al., 2004, sandstones were classified by visual inspection. For
2005; Hermoza et al., 2005) have shown that the north each sample name, the letters indicate the blocation
and south Amazonian foreland basins have developed a nameQ (i.e. POM: Putumayo-Oriente-Marañón basin;
four-component configuration (wedge-top, foredeep, IQ: Iquitos Arch; AN: Anangoza River; BEN: Beni–
forebulge and backbulge depozones, DeCelles and Mamore basin; HUA: Huallaga basin; MD: Madre de
Giles, 1996; Fig. 1b) since the Middle–Late Miocene Dios basin; TIP: Tipuani basin), and the following
(15–10 Ma). Forebulge and backbulge depozones have number indicates outcrop (complied sedimentological
low subsidence rates (DeCelles and Giles, 1996) where- sections can be supplied on request).
as wedge-top and especially foredeep depozones have
high subsidence rates and hence are more likely to 3.1. Sampling and stratigraphy of the north Amazonian
record a complete sedimentary filling of the basin. foreland basin (NAFB)
3. Stratigraphy of western Amazonia and sampling The NAFB can be divided into four depozones
strategy (Hermoza et al., 2005; Roddaz et al., 2005): i) the
Huallaga wedge-top depozone; ii) the Marañón fore-
Sampling was performed along two cross sections deep depozone; iii) the Iquitos forebulge depozone; and
across the western Amazonian foreland basin (Fig. 1a): iv) the Pevas backbulge depozone (Figs. 1a and 2). The
one transect trough the north Amazonian foreland basin Oriente basin corresponds to the Ecuadorian part of the
(northern Peru–southern Ecuador, Fig. 1a; hereafter foredeep depozone of the NAFB (Christophoul et al.,
indicated as NAFB) and the other one trough the 2002). The Miocene formations (called hereafter bFmQ),
south Amazonian foreland basin (southern Peru–north- which are predominantly composed of tidal deposits,
ern Bolivia, Fig. 1a; hereafter indicated as SAFB). have been sampled along the entire NAFB: in the
Samples were collected during five field trips in wedge-top depozone (Ipururo Fm in the Huallaga
Ecuador (Oriente basin), Peru (Iquitos forebulge, Hual- basin; Hermoza et al., 2005), in the foredeep depozone
laga basin, and Madre de Dios Basin) and Bolivia (Beni (Curaray Fm in the Oriente basin; Christophoul et al.,
basin). Depending on the geographical position, the 2002), in the forebulge depozone (Pebas Fm in the
estimated age and the sedimentological relationships, Iquitos Arch; Roddaz et al., 2005) and in the backbulge
samples have been grouped into several formations. depozone (Pebas Fm in the Pevas backbulge depo-
Table 1 shows the location, the estimated age, the zone). The transition from marine to continental sedi-
average grain size (mud–silt/sand) and the depositional mentation can be observed in the wedge-top and
setting for each sample. The collected samples range forebulge depozones that are currently being uplifted.
from muds to fine sandstones. The distinction between Provenance in the wedge-top depozone is rather well
Fig. 2. Simplified chronostratigraphic diagram of sampled formations of western Amazonia. Also shown is the number of sampled sediments (n).
Fm: formation; Mb: Member; QFP: Quaternary floodplain deposits; WS: White Sand.
constrained and sediments accumulating in this zone northern Bolivia. Approximately 5 kg of sediments
come from the thrust-related uplifted structures (DeCel- were collected for each sample. Samples were dried
les and Giles, 1996). On the contrary, sediments accu- in an oven at 100 8C during 24 h to remove pore
mulating in the forebulge depozone may come from the waters. One hundred and four samples were finely
related thrust and fold belt or from the craton (see crushed in an agate mortar. After crushing, pulveri-
DeCelles and Giles (1996) for review). Special atten- zation and homogenization of the solids, 100 mg of
tion has been paid to the Iquitos forebulge depozone powder was fused in a platinum crucible with 125
where five units overlying the Pebas Fm were defined mg of LiB4O7 and 375 mg of LiBO2. Alkaline
(i.e., the Nauta 1 Mb, the Nauta 2 Mb, the White Sand fusion was employed to ensure a complete dissolu-
Fm, the Amazon Fm, and the Quaternary floodplain tion of refractory minerals such as zircon (Voino-
deposits; Fig. 2; Roddaz et al., 2005). The Nauta 1 Mb, vitch, 1988). The glass was dissolved in ultrapure
estimated to be Late Miocene in age (Räsänen et al., 1 M HNO3 for two hours, followed by a 10,000 fold
1998), corresponds to estuarine deposits and has mainly dilution. All samples were analyzed by ICP-MS
been observed on the western part of the forebulge (Fig. (Perkin Elmer Elan 6000) for trace elements and
2). The Nauta 2 Mb is made up of fluvial deposits and the international geostandard granite (GA) was used
develops in the western part of the forebulge (Fig. 2). to check the validity and reproducibility of both the
The supposed time equivalent of the Nauta 2 Mb is the alkaline fusion and ICP-MS analyses. Interference
White Sand Fm (Roddaz et al., 2005), which is located corrections for oxides and hydroxides on trace ele-
in the eastern part of the forebulge (Fig. 2). The Plio- ments were done following the procedure of Aries et
cene fluvial Amazon Fm erodes all these formations. al. (2000). Blind analyses of the GA geostandard
The Quaternary floodplain deposits correspond to the were in good agreement with the certified concen-
floodplain deposits of the modern Amazon drainage trations (relative difference b 10% for all elements
network (Fig. 2). except Co (12%)). Ninety seven samples were select-
ed for major element analysis by ICP-AES at the
3.2. Sampling and stratigraphy of the south Amazonian CRPG (Nancy, France). Concentrations of major and
foreland basin (SAFB) trace elements for individual samples are available in
Table 2.
The SAFB developed a four-component configura-
tion during the Late Miocene (Baby et al., 1999; Rod- 5. Results
daz et al., 2004). Samples were collected in the Beni
subandean depozone, in the Madre de Dios foredeep Mean concentrations and standard deviation values
depozone and in the Beni forebulge–backbulge depo- for major and trace elements in each formation are
zone (Fig. 1a). Due to uncertainties in age-dating, the presented in Table 3. For mean calculations, we distin-
location of the Miocene forebulge in the SAFB is not guish two groups: one that comprises muds and silts
precisely known and therefore the forebulge and the (termed hereafter muds) and another that comprises
backbulge depozone were not separated. The Madre de sands. For each class of elements i.e. Major elements,
Dios Fm is composed of tidal deposits (Roddaz et al., Large Ion Lithophile Elements (LILE), High Field
2004; Hovikoski et al., 2005) and has been sampled in Strength Elements (HFSE), Transition Trace Elements
the Madre de Dios foredeep and in the Beni forebulge– (TTE), and Rare Earth Elements (REE), the analyzed
backbulge depozones (Fig. 1a). samples have been grouped depending on the basin
All uplifted structures of the Beni subandean zone (SAFB or NAFB), the age and the corresponding de-
and the Brazilian craton have been sampled in order to positional setting (Miocene tidal deposits or Late Mio-
evaluate potential sources for the Amazonian foreland cene–Pliocene deposits). We classify all samples
basin sediments. The Pliocene fluvial sediments of the according to the Herron classification (Fig. 3) (Herron,
Beni forebulge–backbulge depozone have also been 1988), which has been proven to be useful when
collected and are part of the so-called Iñapari Fm applied to unconsolidated modern Amazonian sedi-
(Campbell et al., 1985; Fig. 2). ments (Vital and Stattegger, 2000). For each class of
elements (e.g., LILE, HFSE), we compare the analyzed
4. Analytical methods samples with average Post-Archean Australian shales
(PAAS; Taylor and McLennan, 1985), which are con-
A total of 118 sediment samples was collected sidered to be representative of the upper continental
along river cuts in northern and southern Peru and in crust composition.
38
Table 2
Major (wt.%) and trace elements (ppm) concentrations of Neogene Amazonian sediments
SAFB
Formation Madre de Dios Fm (Madre de Dios foredeep) Madre de Dios Fm (Beni forebulge–backbulge) Iñapari Fm
Sample MD04 MD08A MD10 MD13A MD42A BEN-101 BEN-32B BEN-61G BEN-74B BEN-76A BEN-106 BEN-61C BEN-61E BEN-61F BEN-611 BEN-70A BEN-76B BEN-76C BEN-82 BEN-89B
Type Mud Mud Mud Mud Mud Mud Mud Mud Mud Mud Silt Sand Mud Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand
wt.%
SiO2 60.85 60.36 48.57 55.35 76.68 57.54 75.26 72.95 91.92 63.56 85.06 85.32 86.91 89.52 84.91 82.54 63.17
Al2O3 19.80 19.30 20.61 21.94 13.75 22.57 13.44 11.63 4.59 20.38 4.82 9.15 5.23 4.16 4.79 10.05 3.77
Fe2O3 6.46 7.45 4.30 7.58 1.01 3.75 2.75 4.62 0.69 3.96 6.58 0.64 3.88 3.20 6.28 2.27 26.06
MnO 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.05 b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. 0.03 b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. bL.D. 0.46
MgO 1.13 1.25 0.92 1.79 0.48 0.97 0.53 0.75 b L.D. 0.58 b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. bL.D. b L.D.
CaO b L.D. 0.35 0.25 0.39 0.10 b L.D. b L.D. 0.35 b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. bL.D. b L.D.
Na2O 0.63 0.75 0.22 0.26 0.18 0.52 0.20 0.29 b L.D. 0.25 b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. bL.D. b L.D.
M. Roddaz et al. / Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31–65

K2O 3.17 3.03 2.09 4.22 2.45 3.83 2.36 2.11 0.62 3.62 0.75 1.34 0.69 0.82 0.71 0.80 0.37
TiO2 1.08 0.94 0.82 0.86 0.81 0.77 0.77 0.67 0.29 0.90 0.26 0.62 0.37 0.32 0.49 0.64 0.19
P2O5 0.11 0.17 0.11 0.23 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.12 b L.D. 0.15 0.08 0.11 0.05 0.07 0.22 0.08 0.62
LOI 6.54 6.22 21.95 7.19 4.26 9.82 422 6.34 1.40 6.07 2.20 2.71 1.92 1.67 2.35 3.37 5.14
Total 99.83 99.88 99.88 99.86 99.82 99.86 99.59 99.83 99.51 99.50 99.75 99.89 99.05 99.76 99.75 99.75 99.78
CIA 82 79 87 80 81 82 82 78 87 82 86 86 87 82 86 92 90
ppm
Rb 173.44 208.19 166.53 175.96 199.80 141.02 202.02 121.56 205.80 120.51 105.55 32.79 169.87 38.69 65.79 35.63 37.75 34.92 37.76 21.09
Cs 12.09 19.13 14.68 9.65 12.71 11.43 16.53 7.95 17.27 9.08 7.32 2.28 14.40 2.30 4.75 2.14 2.10 2.29 2.28 1.40
Ba 812.93 825.49 732.24 745.26 753.20 476.14 630.66 424.67 614.52 419.29 419.08 125.75 564.12 158.20 261.17 129.72 160.81 136.18 172.49 224.69
Sr 117.12 120.23 131.03 165.81 99.34 91.61 139.72 67.67 123.6 74.44 82.48 22.81 90.51 24.46 44.95 30.24 36.09 39.87 26.84 28.07
Th 16.51 16.99 14.04 12.83 14.02 14.38 19.33 14.14 20.17 14.00 12.83 5.46 17.29 4.50 11.06 6.82 6.03 8.95 8.51 4.41
U 3.34 4.60 2.51 2.93 3.20 3.22 4.01 3.45 3.81 3.52 3.16 1.14 3.61 1.41 3.35 1.57 1.83 2.89 2.04 4.95
Y 52.26 41.33 43.30 45.96 40.25 36.07 36.80 32.75 30.11 38.33 31.26 15.85 44.79 11.02 33.26 18.38 14.77 31.33 16.58 11.70
Zr 261.63 215.37 235.06 200.80 185.67 139.90 164.85 327.92 157.96 462.76 269.82 122.25 216.27 87.33 421.51 302.51 302.16 780.57 308.94 76.59
Nb 29.76 30.42 28.21 26.26 25.66 16.97 19.39 17.17 17.15 17.02 14.31 5.43 20.45 5.23 12.20 6.94 6.29 9.32 13.36 4.08
Hf 6.92 5.95 6.22 5.76 5.06 4.10 4.89 8.98 4.68 12.47 8.00 2.99 6.34 2.25 10.39 7.38 7.26 17.61 8.41 1.99
Cr 101.43 107.82 99.95 101.64 107.01 85.75 96.26 64.29 110.59 65.04 49.85 24.17 89.89 31.41 41.69 21.76 31.71 31.86 35.82 28.42
Co 22.22 31.38 19.51 28.60 21.51 63.78 21.14 35.89 10.58 23.57 13.46 2.25 19.29 10.30 7.21 1.76 3.77 9.38 2.48 12.72
V 147.74 167.79 151.32 170.96 162.42 148.55 139.30 84.37 144.38 88.50 71.78 32.83 130.26 30.25 55.84 35.56 33.78 38.51 75.50 39.80
La 60.24 54.05 51.33 49.30 47.23 54.23 55.65 43.13 58.80 43.08 35.93 26.84 56.28 18.24 40.58 23.94 24.06 37.06 26.42 17.19
Ce 119.30 106.05 101.48 97.53 92.44 111.16 109.26 84.12 115.59 86.53 74.55 45.33 111.28 33.72 79.12 48.14 47.44 76.95 55.62 37.44
Pr 13.75 12.50 11.76 11.31 10.75 13.09 12.99 9.89 13.49 10.38 8.79 6.23 13.95 3.97 9.76 5.58 5.51 9.07 6.00 4.15
Nd 53.27 48.12 45.16 43.59 41.56 50.78 49.69 36.90 50.71 40.03 34.48 24.12 54.48 15.53 37.72 21.42 21.43 35.25 23.54 16.98
Sm 10.24 9.24 8.74 8.42 7.91 9.70 9.25 6.73 9.31 7.73 6.83 4.58 10.59 2.79 7.09 3.88 3.78 6.65 4.33 3.52
Eu 2.02 1.93 1.70 2.08 1.65 1.87 1.86 1.21 1.72 1.41 1.33 0.78 2.01 0.76 1.42 0.72 0.64 1.02 0.77 0.73
Gd 8.78 7.74 7.19 13.32 6.63 7.99 7.54 5.31 6.54 6.93 5.97 3.60 8.85 2.34 6.40 3.22 2.68 5.46 3.31 3.03
Tb 1.39 1.23 1.14 1.40 1.10 1.19 1.16 0.90 0.98 1.10 0.96 0.49 1.38 0.37 0.97 0.49 0.41 0.85 0.47 0.45
Dy 8.53 7.34 7.27 8.00 6.61 6.91 7.05 5.84 5.89 6.99 6.22 2.91 8.35 2.29 6.19 3.35 2.69 5.44 3.18 2.66
Ho 1.75 1.45 1.45 1.53 1.33 1.32 1.42 1.21 1.17 1.44 1.24 0.56 1.67 0.42 1.25 0.67 0.53 1.12 0.62 0.49
Er 4.98 4.12 4.14 4.46 3.79 3.66 3.96 3.57 3.30 4.19 3.56 1.61 4.79 1.20 3.58 2.03 1.63 3.33 1.88 1.33
Tm 0.70 0.56 0.60 0.62 0.54 0.51 0.59 0.55 0.49 0.60 0.52 0.23 0.68 0.19 0.51 0.31 0.24 0.51 0.30 0.19
Yb 4.65 3.69 3.84 4.23 3.48 3.22 3.66 3.51 3.18 4.00 3.35 1.42 4.14 1.23 3.36 1.93 1.67 3.46 1.88 1.23
Lu 0.71 0.57 0.57 0.62 0.53 0.48 0.55 0.54 0.49 0.60 0.52 0.23 0.63 0.18 0.52 0.31 0.26 0.53 0.31 0.16
Eu / Eu* 0.65 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.69 0.65 0.68 0.62 0.67 0.59 0.64 0.59 0.63 0.91 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.52 0.62 0.68
Cr / Th 6.14 6.35 7.12 7.92 9.63 5.96 4.98 4.55 5.48 4.64 3.89 4.43 5.20 6.97 3.77 3.19 5.26 3.56 4.21 6.44
Th / U 4.94 3.69 5.60 4.38 4.38 4.46 4.82 4.09 5.30 3.98 4.06 4.79 4.78 3.20 3.30 4.35 3.31 3.10 4.17 0.89
CIA: Chemical Index of Alteration (Nesbitt and Young, 1982).
Table 2 (continued)
SAFB NAFB
Formation Iñapari Fm Curaray Fm Ipururo Fm Pebas Fm (Iquitos forebulge)
Sample BEN-93 BEN97B AN-1 AN-2 AN-3 HUA-007A HUA-008A HUA-12A HUA-13A HUA-13B HUA-13D HUA-13E HUA-13E HUA-16C IQ-22A POM-002A POM-003C POM-18B POM-19B POM-28A POM-29A
Type Sand Sand Mud Mud Mud Sand Mud Mud Mud Sand Sand Mud Sand Mud Mud Mud Mud Mud Sand Mud Mud
wt.%
SiO2 82.93 90.27 66.07 55.11 67.36 87.63 76.29 61.50 44.91 55.88 62.19 25.91 62.58 61.67 52.67 61.61 66.30 54.87 67.64 63.00 80.36
Al2O3 4.99 5.89 14.85 22.40 18.10 5.29 12.05 18.74 15.23 13.86 13.95 6.28 3.27 11.40 16.86 19.80 16.77 16.21 14.81 17.67 10.03
Fe2O3 7.91 0.38 5.76 5.32 2.92 1.74 2.47 4.25 4.55 2.47 2.92 1.40 0.76 3.07 6.84 4.22 3.37 6.49 4.20 4.11 1.87
MnO b L.D. b L.D. bL.D. 0.04 b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. 0.05 0.08 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.08 b L.D. 0.04 b L.D. b L.D. 0.04 bL.D. bL.D. b L.D.
MgO b L.D. b L.D. 0.92 0.95 0.43 b L.D. 0.27 1.55 3.20 2.76 1.42 2.58 bL.D. 1.35 1.45 0.85 0.92 1.99 1.42 0.90 0.31
CaO b L.D. b L.D. 0.52 0.51 b L.D. 0.36 0.43 0.89 9.60 6.88 5.64 32.03 17.64 6.49 4.24 b L.D. 0.33 3.61 0.49 0.67 0.19
Na2O b L.D. b L.D. 0.86 1.09 b L.D. 0.46 2.36 2.02 1.15 2.33 2.12 b L.D. 0.68 0.81 b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. 0.44 0.67 bL.D. b L.D.
K2 O 0.72 b L.D. 1.31 1.83 0.70 1.72 3.42 4.50 3.22 1.64 3.32 1.76 0.41 1.80 1.71 1.41 2.33 2.37 2.29 1.36 0.73

TiO2 0.36 0.68 0.67 0.88 0.99 0.23 0.30 0.50 0.56 0.37 0.39 0.25 0.28 0.62 0.70 0.79 0.80 0.79 0.76 0.91 1.08
P2O5 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.14 0.14 0.18 0.07 0.18 0.27 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.04 0.13 0.19 0.14 0.10 0.17 0.19 0.08 0.08
LOI 2.76 3.22 9.30 11.63 9.64 2.08 2.16 5.65 17.06 13.45 7.56 29.45 13.95 12.48 14.98 11.58 8.84 12.85 7.85 11.06 5.63
Total 99.75 100.50 100.34 99.90 100.28 99.69 99.82 99.83 99.83 99.87 99.85 100.11 99.69 99.82 99.68 100.40 99.76 99.83 100.32 99.76 100.28
CIA 86 100 80 83 96 62 59 66 68 59 57 77 55 71 90 93 87 80 77 92 93
ppm
Rb 37.52 3.46 57.91 80.93 40.08 51.29 111.69 280.91 193.08 72.85 172.38 62.29 13.99 79.09 100.84 98.01 107.17 114.68 105.77 107.72 58.08
Cs 2.42 1.03 3.05 6.56 3.26 1.43 2.45 1.66 20.445 4.96 9.51 5.75 0.90 6.35 9.15 10.63 10.17 10.73 8.28 8.23 4.61
Ba 137.29 15.20 475.27 866.42 232.95 370.78 707.53 469.84 312.53 524.15 520.20 134.41 101.03 186.94 210.90 170.54 400.11 345.02 423.20 305.84 198.68
Sr 26.53 10.81 254.8 171.78 50.99 43.23 117.71 105.78 180.32 475.02 203.78 303.08 140.34 190.61 178.19 72.23 87.87 144.64 120.40 91.37 70.08
Th 6.59 8.41 6.80 15.96 9.38 6.02 10.60 12.23 17.47 10.27 7.94 5.11 2.73 10.42 13.97 14.10 12.58 12.27 10.88 15.29 13.64
U 2.31 2.90 2.02 5.20 3.42 1.74 2.52 8.73 10.51 3.06 3.58 6.25 2.07 3.38 2.96 3.36 3.77 2.86 2.89 5.10 3.98
Y 18.42 27.58 24.84 37.32 31.63 17.65 18.62 16.39 22.73 10.11 16.15 19.56 11.68 25.35 28.59 20.86 55.29 27.12 26.06 33.45 29.60
Zr 320.99 564.51 182.75 182.18 301.74 128.48 152.24 137.60 83.06 152.60 141.45 59.58 234.47 315.74 174.96 209.67 222.73 195.64 294.71 237.21 416.66
Nb 6.76 13.52 7.78 16.28 12.16 4.30 8.13 9.41 10.10 6.33 6.28 4.96 4.44 11.57 15.11 14.96 14.86 16.51 13.74 19.24 21.85
Hf 7.35 15.89 5.06 5.03 8.45 3.33 4.36 4.77 2.71 4.62 4.13 1.96 6.26 8.41 4.93 5.95 6.38 5.42 7.62 6.51 11.12
Cr 34.58 22.60 97.26 70.58 195.88 20.17 17.82 54.74 40.54 18.97 26.60 61.98 18.82 42.97 56.35 57.75 56.67 61.47 54.11 62.68 42.77
Co 8.75 1.31 17.68 15.89 7.88 5.32 3.55 8.26 12.51 4.28 6.43 5.38 3.67 20.87 13.76 7.02 24.27 17.94 28.70 12.35 9.10
V 35.12 27.57 155.98 181.23 160.87 33.46 34.78 65.59 107.79 50.41 62.66 189.00 32.19 96.20 116.32 141.32 108.28 126.55 106.54 124.66 70.52
La 30.72 11.67 26.14 70.32 45.53 19.27 29.13 30.93 41.14 25.74 25.00 17.18 12.73 29.19 41.95 35.13 44.87 35.38 33.74 51.12 33.98
Ce 64.60 20.58 52.02 125.63 105.91 37.91 55.45 68.62 85.66 44.99 48.05 26.16 24.20 54.24 80.91 63.52 77.43 72.25 65.78 105.72 63.12
Pr 7.73 2.42 6.62 15.12 12.73 4.86 6.54 8.01 10.21 5.35 5.78 3.50 2.95 6.63 9.41 7.26 11.23 8.62 7.85 11.70 6.93
Nd 30.12 9.58 34.28 57.82 52.34 19.89 24.29 30.77 39.48 20.52 22.91 14.37 12.22 26.19 35.87 26.67 45.98 32.53 30.89 44.81 25.48
Sm 5.86 1.91 5.54 10.38 10.88 3.94 4.22 6.30 8.11 3.32 4.39 2.73 2.32 5.00 6.68 4.45 9.30 6.31 5.89 8.53 4.37
Eu 1.16 0.30 1.65 2.54 2.65 0.87 0.89 1.11 1.35 0.75 0.79 0.58 0.56 1.05 1.38 0.81 2.11 1.25 1.27 1.56 0.72
Gd 4.20 2.33 4.65 8.59 8.58 3.41 3.20 4.46 5.86 2.28 3.22 2.47 2.01 4.28 5.54 3.30 9.28 5.59 5.00 6.43 3.94
Tb 0.62 0.53 0.72 1.29 1.28 0.53 0.51 0.59 0.80 0.31 0.48 0.38 0.33 0.69 0.87 0.56 1.44 0.85 0.76 0.97 0.69
Dy 3.53 4.37 4.75 7.44 7.82 3.22 3.28 3.22 4.47 1.76 2.93 2.55 2.09 4.52 5.35 3.78 9.06 5.01 4.88 6.07 4.94
Ho 0.70 1.02 0.97 1.39 1.42 0.64 0.68 0.61 0.82 0.34 0.56 0.53 0.43 0.95 1.08 0.81 1.87 1.01 1.02 1.23 1.08
Er 1.96 3.33 2.74 3.81 3.80 1.78 2.07 1.65 2.23 0.97 1.60 1.61 1.25 2.83 3.12 2.41 5.45 2.97 2.96 3.60 3.38
Tm 0.28 0.50 0.39 0.54 0.53 0.24 0.32 0.24 0.32 0.13 0.23 0.23 0.19 0.44 0.44 0.38 0.76 0.43 0.45 0.55 0.53
Yb 1.89 3.47 2.55 3.40 3.52 1.56 2.13 1.51 1.92 0.91 1.45 1.53 1.31 2.91 2.96 2.60 4.71 2.78 2.87 3.62 3.62
Lu 0.29 0.55 0.38 0.50 0.50 0.24 .033 0.23 0.28 0.14 0.21 0.24 0.21 0.45 0.44 0.40 0.74 0.43 0.43 0.56 0.57
Eu / Eu* 0.71 0.44 0.99 0.82 0.84 0.72 0.74 0.64 0.60 0.84 0.64 0.68 0.80 0.69 0.69 0.65 0.69 0.64 0.72 0.64 0.53
Cr / Th 5.24 2.69 14.31 4.42 20.88 3.35 1.68 4.48 2.32 1.85 3.35 12.14 6.90 4.12 4.03 4.09 4.50 5.01 4.97 4.10 3.14
Th / U 2.85 2.90 3.37 3.07 2.74 3.45 4.21 1.40 1.66 3.36 2.22 0.82 1.32 3.08 4.73 4.20 3.33 4.30 3.76 3.00 3.43
39
40
Table 2 (continued)
NAFB
Formation Pebas Fm (Iquitos forebulge) Pebas Fm (Pevas backbulge) Nauta1 Mb
Sample POM-30A POM-35B POM-37A POM-46A POM-54A POM-54B POM-59A POM-68A IQ-13 IQ-13B IQ-13D IQ-13E POM-007A POM-007C POM-007G POM-007H0 POM-11A POM-11B POM-12C POM-15A IQ-19A
Type Sand Mud Mud Mud Sand Mud Mud Mud Mud Mud Sand Mud Mud Silt Mud Silt Mud Mud Mud Mud Mud
wt.%
SiO2 94.62 82.75 71.54 60.19 69.63 61.99 64.61 64.50 57.22 49.76 56.20 60.08 54.65 67.95 53.61 66.98 66.02 51.84 57.13 75.08 62.91
Al2O3 3.01 11.15 15.26 18.91 12.89 20.98 14.84 16.23 15.36 21.18 15.46 18.88 14.09 10.78 21.53 12.95 12.66 10.86 17.73 10.51 18.62
Fe2O3 0.21 0.62 2.60 4.90 4.14 2.70 6.55 4.74 5.38 9.09 6.68 4.48 3.95 2.87 5.89 4.62 4.04 4.62 5.09 3.54 3.62
MnO bL.D. b L.D. b L.D. bL.D. b L.D. bL.D. bL.D. b L.D. 0.03 0.34 0.20 bL.D. 0.07 0.04 b L.D. 0.05 0.07 0.17 0.08 b L.D. bL.D.
MgO bL.D. b L.D. 0.72 1.26 0.46 0.76 0.66 1.57 1.91 1.56 1.49 1.42 2.09 1.06 1.93 1.50 1.27 1.21 1.33 0.49 0.92
CaO bL.D. b L.D. 0.25 bL.D. 0.24 0.52 0.20 0.83 3.67 1.20 3.92 0.10 8.05 5.24 0.84 1.23 2.85 12.90 3.16 0.59 bL.D.
Na2O bL.D. b L.D. 0.21 bL.D. 0.11 0.18 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.20 0.41 bL.D. 0.52 0.85 0.41 1.06 0.79 0.50 .030 1.06 bL.D.

K2O 1.07 0.47 1.63 1.66 1.11 1.49 1.57 2.25 2.52 2.46 1.97 2.31 2.37 2.07 2.71 2.39 2.09 1.63 2.02 1.70 2.00
TiO2 0.25 0.84 0.83 0.73 0.64 0.83 0.69 0.71 0.74 0.94 1.22 0.84 0.70 0.62 0.69 0.68 0.72 0.57 0.85 0.69 0.76
P2O5 bL.D. 0.04 0.14 0.14 0.08 0.15 0.07 0.16 0.25 0.25 0.42 0.14 0.18 0.20 0.17 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.11 0.15 0.17
LOI 0.86 4.53 7.11 11.96 9.77 10.23 10.30 8.48 12.38 12.86 11.89 11.52 13.16 8.22 12.06 8.19 9.53 15.69 12.03 6.04 10.77
Total 100.02 100.40 100.29 99.75 99.07 99.83 99.82 99.83 99.84 99.84 99.86 99.77 99.83 99.90 99.84 99.85 100.25 100.20 99.83 99.85 99.77
CIA 72 96 86 91 89 90 85 78 79 86 82 88 77 68 83 68 72 76 85 69 90
ppm
Rb 33.40 25.48 76.53 89.65 60.70 106.00 83.16 97.16 111.58 152.19 102.33 115.52 104.61 76.96 148.13 87.66 92.10 75.66 120.82 68.75 107.97
Cs 0.94 2.84 5.24 7.87 5.05 9.84 6.77 7.45 8.14 12.09 7.51 10.48 7.91 4.80 11.52 5.62 6.43 5.97 10.92 3.63 7.74
Ba 231.08 124.19 374.45 206.93 242.06 340.68 378.24 360.31 346.42 458.31 411.58 212.44 325.81 321.82 428.67 423.48 326.74 424.45 414.93 390.21 232.21
Sr 26.11 36.48 91.33 74.32 62.64 110.02 93.03 89.53 155.30 184.50 229.40 102.41 174.31 125.73 179.07 142.28 154.01 490.15 194.23 111.36 62.90
Th 4.06 9.44 13.00 15.67 13.15 19.09 12.14 13.82 12.00 22.74 17.71 13.93 11.22 9.45 16.75 10.59 10.25 9.31 12.63 10.08 13.71
U 1.46 3.01 3.22 2.89 4.95 14.84 3.28 3.61 2.81 4.55 4.44 3.81 2.76 2.74 4.11 2.90 2.73 2.43 2.93 3.54 3.45
Y 12.51 23.54 60.01 59.26 20.89 46.44 26.48 34.48 31.63 38.14 49.36 24.62 27.10 24.49 30.34 26.13 28.58 31.79 26.17 29.27 39.16
Zr 360.02 657.44 334.50 209.73 255.85 201.58 303.15 344.08 185.77 145.73 206.58 220.47 192.68 383.57 151.32 293.22 278.12 216.41 153.34 387.39 238.49
Nb 5.09 16.71 14.66 16.06 12.51 16.78 11.67 13.60 15.25 19.79 22.51 18.03 15.12 11.16 13.15 13.20 14.47 11.23 16.38 12.75 16.41
Hf 8.02 14.66 9.08 5.99 7.02 5.67 8.20 9.43 5.43 4.21 5.76 6.03 5.44 9.58 4.41 8.15 7.69 5.50 4.87 11.35 6.69
Cr 14.51 45.45 58.61 58.46 51.67 86.75 56.55 56.02 82.13 86.46 63.98 68.31 54.10 41.73 80.30 48.97 47.72 168.67 63.70 36.45 56.41
Co 2.46 3.35 9.55 11.67 27.92 8.06 21.06 15.04 14.22 17.67 22.60 7.03 14.10 10.01 15.07 11.15 12.21 11.79 9.34 9.37 8.32
V 16.32 70.29 114.41 131.40 139.55 191.91 131.91 124.11 117.28 153.45 126.06 138.93 101.81 74.79 163.04 90.06 86.80 75.68 127.64 72.06 107.56
La 11.85 19.50 66.85 51.88 26.85 55.17 33.74 40.34 37.57 69.29 56.47 39.67 32.08 27.49 46.96 29.50 30.35 35.01 36.77 27.83 46.82
Ce 22.63 31.41 149.76 94.92 51.11 105.72 66.51 78.69 75.91 136.40 117.23 74.14 64.06 53.19 92.08 59.83 62.55 73.57 73.43 58.33 87.80
Pr 2.55 3.35 18.96 12.84 5.89 11.95 8.12 9.34 9.16 16.05 13.39 7.96 7.82 6.61 11.20 7.32 7.54 8.68 9.05 7.09 10.94
Nd 10.08 12.33 77.35 53.62 21.25 44.58 31.04 36.65 34.51 59.49 52.38 29.37 29.98 25.42 42.33 28.22 29.01 34.92 34.66 27.62 43.75
Sm 1.84 2.14 16.15 10.96‘ 3.84 7.92 6.02 9.96 6.77 10.84 10.10 4.95 5.86 4.89 8.21 5.63 5.71 6.83 6.62 5.67 8.46
Eu 0.37 0.41 3.50 2.36 0.75 1.64 4.11 1.31 1.42 2.10 2.13 1.02 1.23 1.05 1.66 1.16 1.22 1.65 1.35 1.11 1.79
Gd 1.63 2.14 13.79 10.63 3.17 6.93 4.84 6.02 6.07 8.15 9.12 3.95 5.16 4.27 6.41 4.83 5.05 6.08 5.45 5.04 7.86
Tb 0.28 0.46 2.11 1.64 0.52 1.15 0.75 0.95 0.90 1.22 1.44 0.62 0.79 0.68 0.99 0.77 0.81 0.93 0.84 0.84 1.15
Dy 2.08 3.58 12.40 9.93 3.50 7.44 4.92 6.14 5.54 7.24 8.98 4.20 5.01 4.45 5.96 4.68 5.11 5.75 5.16 5.34 7.13
Ho 0.45 0.83 2.39 2.04 0.77 1.58 1.01 1.25 1.12 1.45 1.79 0.91 1.03 0.94 1.19 0.97 1.06 1.14 1.04 1.10 1.45
Er 1.41 2.67 6.63 5.64 2.38 4.69 3.00 3.66 3.26 4.06 5.20 2.70 2.90 2.68 3.36 2.80 3.14 3.16 3.04 3.35 4.12
Tm 0.25 0.46 0.94 0.80 0.35 0.68 0.46 0.55 0.49 0.60 0.73 0.42 0.43 0.41 0.49 0.43 0.47 0.48 0.46 0.50 0.61
Yb 1.71 3.12 5.88 4.92 2.48 4.44 2.95 3.62 3.04 3.91 4.75 2.83 2.80 2.79 3.14 2.70 2.98 2.90 2.89 3.37 3.94
Lu 0.27 0.53 0.87 0.73 0.39 0.67 0.45 0.58 0.46 0.58 0.71 0.43 0.41 0.44 0.49 0.41 0.46 0.44 0.44 0.52 0.59
Eu / Eu* 0.66 0.58 0.72 0.67 0.66 0.68 0.63 0.62 0.68 0.68 0.68 0.71 0.68 0.70 0.70 0.68 0.70 0.78 0.69 0.64 0.67
Cr / Th 3.58 4.81 4.51 3.73 3.93 4.55 4.66 4.05 6.84 3.80 3.61 4.90 4.82 4.41 4.79 4.62 4.66 18.12 5.04 3.62 4.11
Th / U 2.79 3.13 4.04 5.42 2.66 1.29 3.70 3.83 4.27 4.99 3.99 3.66 4.06 3.45 4.07 3.65 3.75 3.84 4.32 2.85 3.98
Table 2 (continued)
NAFB
Formation Nauta1 Mb Nauta2 Mb
Sample IQ-19B POM-25A POM-25B POM-34A POM-35A POM-50A POM-50B POM-63A POM-64A POM-66A POM-66B IQ-17B IQ-18A IQ-28A POM-27A POM-38A POM-38B POM-50C POM-54C POM-65A POM-66C
Type Mud Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Mud Sand Sand Sand Mud Sand Sand Mud Sand Silt Silt Silt Sand Mud Sand
wt.%
SiO2 59.62 73.65 72.54 75.13 72.59 76.84 61.62 79.63 74.26 67.43 76.86 80.54 62.09 68.58 72.12 81.34 78.91 63.99 85.98 73.07 79.87
Al2O3 22.67 16.03 14.13 13.01 15.08 12.17 21.38 11.77 12.40 18.91 11.02 10.40 24.53 19.73 18.66 11.13 13.29 18.52 7.20 15.44 11.39
Fe2O3 4.85 2.29 4.53 5.37 4.82 4.34 4.89 2.47 6.28 3.91 5.12 3.51 0.82 1.12 0.80 1.31 0.89 6.77 2.36 2.96 2.71
MnO b L.D. bL.D. b L.D. bL.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. 0.40 b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. bL.D. bL.D.
MgO 0.48 bL.D. 0.11 bL.D. b L.D. b L.D. 0.55 b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. 0.26 b L.D. b L.D. 0.30 b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. 0.26 b L.D. 0.34 bL.D.
CaO b L.D. bL.D. b L.D. bL.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. bL.D. bL.D.
Na2O b L.D. bL.D. b L.D. bL.D. b L.D. b L.D. 0.18 b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. bL.D. bL.D.
K2O 1.79 0.96 0.53 0.19 0.58 0.69 1.77 0.51 0.63 1.44 0.64 0.34 0.71 1.47 0.61 0.17 0.41 1.07 0.47 0.96 0.58

TiO2 1.02 0.83 0.73 0.70 0.73 0.59 0.92 0.48 0.63 0.90 0.70 0.48 1.40 1.09 0.90 0.88 0.90 0.81 0.35 0.73 0.62
P2O5 0.09 0.04 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.11 0.11 0.05 0.08 0.14 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.08 0.10 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.05
LOI 9.91 5.96 6.10 5.77 6.26 5.04 8.49 4.69 5.48 7.43 4.71 4.46 10.24 7.44 6.95 4.86 5.35 8.25 3.12 6.56 4.58
Total 100.43 99.76 98.76 100.25 100.12 99.78 99.91 99.60 99.76 100.16 99.81 99.78 99.84 99.83 100.12 99.79 99.81 99.73 99.54 100.15 99.80
CIA 92 94 96 98 96 94 92 96 95 92 94 97 97 93 97 98 97 94 93 94 95
ppm
Rb 97.33 41.68 27.01 10.59 26.93 32.31 81.84 21.28 27.96 61.92 27.25 16.46 33.73 64.05 28.06 8.63 20.92 49.64 18.72 49.16 24.26
Cs 10.98 2.92 1.68 0.93 1.94 2.52 9.00 1.85 2.06 6.17 1.73 1.08 1.76 5.86 1.61 1.09 1.94 5.24 1.25 5.88 1.67
Ba 152.81 165.77 119.72 68.84 117.09 169.20 342.47 98.64 138.11 289.05 400.49 82.31 193.95 231.31 138.42 54.99 107.62 248.20 116.15 98.55 178.12
Sr 79.85 28.61 18.33 15.39 16.20 27.58 68.40 17.47 25.32 51.51 23.04 12.39 27.83 45.59 18.43 28.90 30.71 51.47 18.74 43.24 34.40
Th 18.50 11.02 8.84 6.18 8.93 8.06 15.16 6.89 8.79 14.02 9.09 6.51 12.63 16.28 9.15 10.02 10.45 13.79 5.27 14.00 8.19
U 4.34 2.74 2.67 1.91 1.85 3.94 4.56 1.95 2.18 3.57 2.77 1.40 3.13 4.49 2.89 2.63 2.69 3.26 2.79 3.15 2.02
Y 42.32 16.16 11.97 5.63 10.40 35.70 76.36 15.62 15.23 61.43 14.30 6.86 13.54 23.92 10.41 19.85 23.19 24.87 9.36 80.99 12.80
Zr 300.70 338.55 302.02 118.25 243.28 267.12 259.83 147.02 266.31 368.68 418.81 98.02 297.49 455.23 247.94 518.01 554.09 363.93 89.50 426.95 257.33
Nb 20.24 12.63 8.60 6.74 9.29 8.17 16.05 5.88 10.21 14.86 8.79 6.00 15.07 19.84 10.10 14.25 16.98 13.76 4.94 14.95 8.04
Hf 8.87 9.06 8.33 3.39 6.57 6.76 7.44 3.62 7.37 10.32 10.59 2.62 8.38 13.20 7.00 12.64 15.16 9.54 2.18 12.38 6.17
Cr 83.50 61.45 77.35 82.23 60.16 32.33 83.50 22.58 80.47 56.61 27.27 42.24 167.23 65.86 101.08 41.56 36.80 54.45 31.27 41.06 25.09
Co 3.75 2.03 3.84 5.69 8.92 3.86 2.99 2.16 2.24 1.75 11.08 3.95 3.15 2.83 2.76 2.48 1.77 4.74 2.14 1.58 2.46
V 154.34 110.40 113.26 129.43 107.48 94.38 175.21 81.99 129.80 152.59 95.77 78.38 261.22 126.07 175.56 74.11 78.35 155.02 51.18 92.79 69.35
La 84.84 18.56 14.99 13.75 11.95 29.74 63.87 17.35 26.54 66.99 24.08 12.17 41.24 22.23 18.06 19.47 17.49 34.66 9.59 74.22 43.06
Ce 149.59 65.12 32.68 30.30 17.97 50.49 110.29 32.76 40.58 99.94 64.45 38.13 68.24 45.09 34.19 32.07 30.46 87.67 17.31 161.49 81.41
Pr 20.67 3.85 2.88 2.04 1.92 7.91 17.61 4.02 6.01 18.25 6.22 2.52 6.74 4.27 3.03 3.45 3.34 7.72 2.07 20.24 9.92
Nd 81.01 14.05 10.12 7.39 7.02 32.32 71.51 16.23 23.16 73.59 23.83 8.74 20.86 15.93 10.11 17.27 11.40 29.41 8.81 82.41 35.84
Sm 14.00 2.40 1.81 1.18 1.20 6.90 15.19 3.11 3.63 14.71 3.95 1.47 3.21 2.67 1.74 2.03 2.09 5.13 1.58 17.76 5.76
Eu 2.64 0.51 0.35 0.24 0.25 1.43 3.74 0.65 0.59 3.40 0.67 0.22 0.70 0.55 0.29 0.34 0.40 0.97 0.27 3.97 1.07
Gd 9.12 1.94 1.75 0.93 1.13 6.88 15.32 2.62 2.44 13.28 2.67 1.04 2.34 2.72 1.48 2.03 2.39 4.01 1.37 17.60 3.15
Tb 1.30 0.37 0.30 0.16 0.24 1.09 2.32 0.45 0.43 1.91 0.38 0.17 0.38 0.51 0.26 0.43 0.47 0.63 0.25 2.64 0.47
Dy 8.01 2.63 2.17 1.10 1.83 6.59 14.03 2.85 2.86 11.14 2.56 1.15 2.53 3.94 1.80 3.11 3.66 4.37 1.61 15.37 2.82
Ho 1.63 0.59 0.47 0.22 0.39 1.33 2.84 0.58 0.58 2.25 0.55 0.25 0.52 0.88 0.39 0.71 0.85 0.93 0.34 3.01 0.55
Er 4.86 1.88 1.51 0.65 1.26 3.70 7.81 1.73 1.72 6.27 1.71 0.81 1.60 2.89 1.23 2.28 2.78 2.85 1.03 8.49 1.49
Tm 0.73 0.31 0.24 0.10 0.20 0.53 1.12 0.25 0.26 0.90 0.27 0.12 0.27 0.46 0.19 0.39 0.45 0.44 0.15 1.18 0.24
Yb 4.72 2.18 1.60 0.72 1.42 3.35 6.75 1.61 1.83 5.65 1.94 0.86 1.70 3.23 1.37 2.69 3.14 2.91 1.05 7.38 1.52
Lu 0.73 0.34 0.28 0.12 0.23 0.52 1.04 0.25 0.29 0.84 0.32 0.13 0.28 0.52 0.22 0.46 0.50 0.47 0.16 1.10 0.24
Eu / Eu* 0.71 0.72 0.60 0.70 0.65 0.64 0.75 0.70 0.61 0.74 0.63 0.55 0.78 0.62 0.55 0.51 0.55 0.65 0.56 0.69 0.77
Cr / Th 4.51 5.57 8.75 13.31 6.74 4.01 5.51 3.28 9.15 4.04 3.00 6.49 13.24 4.05 11.05 4.15 3.52 3.95 5.93 2.93 3.07
Th / U 4.26 4.03 3.31 3.23 4.82 2.04 3.32 3.53 4.03 3.93 3.29 4.65 4.03 3.62 3.17 3.80 3.88 4.22 1.89 4.45 4.06
41
42
Table 2 (continued)
NAFB
Formation Nauta2 Mb White Sand Fm Amazon Fm Quaternary Floodplain deposits
Sample POM-67A POM-46B POM-48A IQ-2 IQ-37A POM-001A POM-001B POM-37B POM-37D POM-40A IQ-26B IQ-12CGT POM-002B POM-003D POM-10B POM-14 POM-23A POM-55A IQ-28B POM-23B POM-24A
Type Mud Sand Sand Sand Mud Sand Sand Sand Sand Mud Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Silt Silt Silt
wt.%
SiO2 79.13 85.57 84.66 99.72 69.22 80.21 79.27 70.94 96.70 94.94 98.62 78.49 72.67 81.50 84.44
Al2O3 11.98 6.85 10.02 bL.D. 19.33 11.63 11.00 8.03 1.67 2.10 0.56 9.21 14.60 10.35 8.72
Fe2O3 1.50 2.69 0.31 bL.D. 1.00 1.98 3.35 13.17 0.14 0.16 bL.D. 2.61 3.81 1.95 1.64
MnO b L.D. 0.04 b L.D. bL.D. bL.D. b L.D. b L.D. 0.36 b L.D. b L.D. bL.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D.
MgO b L.D. bL.D. b L.D. bL.D. 0.22 b L.D. 0.18 0.24 b L.D. b L.D. bL.D. 0.71 0.16 b L.D. b L.D.
CaO b L.D. bL.D. b L.D. bL.D. bL.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. bL.D. 0.85 b L.D. b L.D. b L.D.
Na2O b L.D. bL.D. b L.D. 0.11 0.18 b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. b L.D. bL.D. 0.84 b L.D. b L.D. b L.D.

K2O 1.12 0.44 0.50 bL.D. 0.91 0.13 0.23 0.23 0.11 0.16 bL.D. 1.36 0.74 0.13 b L.D.
TiO2 0.63 0.58 0.51 bL.D. 0.98 0.45 0.71 0.32 0.10 0.22 0.23 0.25 0.80 0.71 0.63
P2O5 0.04 0.10 0.05 bL.D. 0.12 b L.D. 0.10 0.53 0.03 b L.D. bL.D. 0.10 0.09 0.05 b L.D.
LOI 5.33 3.55 3.72 0.15 8.23 5.39 4.96 6.04 1.02 1.03 0.41 5.36 6.94 5.13 4.31
Total 99.73 99.82 99.77 99.98 100.19 99.79 99.80 99.86 99.77 98.61 99.82 99.78 99.81 99.82 99.74
CIA 91 93 95 94 99 98 97 93 92 100 68 95 99 100
ppm
Rb 56.72 22.25 23.33 0.55 46.45 0.37 0.36 3.83 1.45 43.97 8.74 10.74 11.97 15.12 6.68 9.78 2.17 47.79 33.27 10.15 5.84
Cs 4.49 1.86 1.52 0.27 5.49 0.23 0.26 0.42 0.14 5.78 0.93 1.18 0.99 1.42 0.59 0.93 0.36 2.54 2.32 2.05 1.31
Ba 116.03 117.62 126.72 6.04 206.80 3.85 3.93 30.50 13.01 194.01 82.65 842.26 108.37 622.79 97.02 53.18 16.56 327.77 136.62 56.34 46.61
Sr 37.45 20.56 20.28 3.10 49.73 2.09 2.50 9.20 4.79 46.84 14.02 20.67 43.65 19.65 19.63 12.11 6.45 75.22 23.37 33.39 28.52
Th 11.74 6.64 7.43 0.52 12.50 0.26 0.51 1.70 1.21 12.44 5.22 8.12 6.87 4.64 1.55 2.35 1.59 5.22 10.56 7.80 7.33
U 3.46 1.97 1.85 0.19 3.41 0.19 0.40 0.54 1.56 3.10 1.54 2.39 1.94 2.73 0.62 0.82 0.61 1.05 3.21 2.42 2.20
Y 39.32 15.46 12.78 1.40 25.04 0.88 2.53 3.32 2.51 22.94 18.55 13.60 14.77 46.78 6.09 7.01 4.54 13.78 15.98 21.11 14.34
Zr 422.76 316.69 211.37 34.92 437.28 35.84 134.62 263.07 120.79 429.40 100.45 182.85 404.96 111.32 101.91 106.61 261.19 84.70 461.35 426.24 317.19
Nb 12.07 6.70 6.71 0.62 17.56 0.63 2.08 1.99 1.48 18.00 5.53 11.86 7.29 4.81 1.85 3.60 3.62 4.21 11.03 11.82 10.36
Hf 10.66 7.10 4.87 1.00 11.71 1.04 3.52 6.79 3.24 11.93 3.17 5.15 9.37 3.06 2.31 2.64 6.66 2.24 12.70 10.70 7.53
Cr 38.77 23.19 31.29 8.16 55.48 8.80 8.79 10.55 12.31 50.47 26.76 274.49 96.17 65.27 22.12 16.86 14.69 21.63 71.48 39.16 37.52
Co 3.36 8.19 1.72 1.10 2.69 0.71 0.64 0.87 0.70 3.80 4.58 456.56 4.31 147.84 1.76 1.99 1.38 8.89 2.65 2.31 2.26
V 75.97 70.97 73.91 2.47 111.10 2.19 3.17 16.47 20.73 123.10 36.85 244.58 94.93 66.78 23.34 17.95 11.61 48.64 115.35 75.36 66.26
La 29.00 15.87 17.82 3.48 37.53 1.77 1.92 8.03 4.95 31.48 37.75 52.59 31.62 54.83 13.41 7.56 5.86 17.55 11.82 18.36 16.49
Ce 58.62 31.07 32.96 5.89 62.82 1.07 1.84 15.83 9.44 51.66 56.20 285.44 71.79 112.75 19.00 13.06 9.64 36.02 23.87 31.29 26.46
Pr 7.05 3.54 3.58 0.52 6.60 0.13 0.21 1.58 0.97 5.66 8.24 10.61 9.72 16.55 2.40 1.41 1.08 4.38 2.40 3.32 2.95
Nd 29.25 14.25 13.13 2.44 21.55 1.21 1.48 5.04 3.26 19.94 30.50 36.95 47.06 66.89 9.18 6.13 4.43 18.03 8.39 12.14 10.78
Sm 6.27 2.62 2.24 0.29 3.64 0.11 0.15 0.86 0.56 3.31 5.55 6.65 9.63 14.69 1.59 1.08 0.73 3.57 1.64 2.14 1.70
Eu 1.38 0.51 0.36 0.05 0.65 0.02 0.03 0.19 0.09 0.57 1.26 1.70 2.35 3.70 0.35 0.23 0.07 0.84 0.35 0.39 0.33
Gd 6.72 2.38 1.88 0.23 3.14 0.07 0.20 0.58 0.46 2.81 4.56 4.60 6.69 11.76 1.35 1.01 0.56 2.91 1.61 2.55 1.36
Tb 1.10 0.41 0.32 0.04 0.59 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.08 0.52 0.65 0.64 0.86 1.81 0.19 0.16 0.11 0.43 0.34 0.51 0.32
Dy 6.85 2.74 2.23 0.30 4.08 0.20 0.42 0.60 0.44 3.87 3.75 3.87 4.42 10.71 1.22 1.20 0.80 2.73 2.53 3.59 2.37
Ho 1.41 0.56 0.49 0.05 0.92 0.03 0.10 0.13 0.09 0.85 0.69 0.70 0.70 1.97 0.22 0.25 0.16 0.52 0.61 0.76 0.54
Er 4.16 1.71 1.46 0.17 2.85 0.10 0.30 0.39 0.29 2.65 1.90 1.89 1.72 5.26 0.64 0.77 0.56 1.46 1.96 2.50 1.78
Tm 0.61 0.27 0.23 0.03 0.47 0.02 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.43 0.28 0.27 0.25 0.72 0.09 0.11 0.09 0.21 0.33 0.37 0.29
Yb 3.95 1.78 1.58 0.18 3.22 0.13 0.38 0.51 0.34 2.95 1.69 1.86 1.59 4.57 0.57 0.75 0.62 1.34 2.24 2.60 2.01
Lu 0.62 0.28 0.26 0.03 0.52 0.02 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.48 0.26 0.28 0.27 0.64 0.09 0.12 0.11 0.20 0.37 0.42 0.32
Eu / Eu* 0.65 0.63 0.53 0.63 0.59 0.61 0.55 0.80 0.55 0.57 0.76 0.94 0.90 0.86 0.73 0.66 0.35 0.80 0.65 0.51 0.66
Cr / Th 3.30 3.49 4.21 15.66 4.44 33.61 17.12 6.19 10.14 4.06 5.13 33.81 14.01 14.06 14.25 7.18 9.23 4.15 6.77 5.02 5.12
Th / U 3.40 3.36 4.02 2.67 3.67 1.41 1.29 3.14 0.78 4.02 3.38 3.39 3.55 1.70 2.52 2.87 2.60 4.97 3.29 3.23 3.33
Table 3
Mean concentrations and standard deviations (St. deviation) of major (wt.%) and trace elements (ppm) of Neogene Western Amazonian sediments; LOI: Lost Of Ignition; CIA: Chemical Index of Alteration (Nesbitt and Young, 1982); n = number of sample
analyzed
Basin SAFB
Formation Madre de Dios Fm (Madre de Dios foredeep) 1 Madre de Dios Fm (Beni forebulge–backbulge) 2 Iñapari Fm (muds) 3 Iñapari Fm (sands) 4
Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum Mean
wt.%
SiO2 60.36 60.85 60.61 0.35 2 48.57 76.68 62.68 12.58 5 63.56 72.95 68.26 6.64 2 63.17 91.92 84.26
TiO2 0.94 1.08 1.01 0.1 2 0.77 0.86 0.81 0.04 5 0.67 0.9 0.79 0.16 2 0.19 0.68 0.42
Al2O3 19.3 19.8 19.55 0.35 2 13.44 22.57 18.46 4.5 5 11.63 20.38 16.01 6.19 2 3.77 10.05 5.74
Fe2O3 6.46 7.45 6.96 0.7 2 1.01 7.58 3.87 2.42 5 3.96 4.62 4.29 0.47 2 0.38 26.06 5.79
MnO 0.06 0.06 0.06 0 2 0 0.05 0.02 0.02 5 0 0.03 0.02 0.02 2 0 0.46 0.05
MgO 1.13 1.25 1.19 0.08 2 0.48 1.79 0.94 0.53 5 0.58 0.75 0.67 0.12 2 0 0 0
CaO 0 0.35 0.18 0.25 2 0 0.39 0.15 0.17 5 0 0.35 0.18 0.25 2 0 0 0

Na2O 0.63 0.75 0.69 0.08 2 0.18 0.52 0.28 0.14 5 0.25 0.29 0.27 0.03 2 0 0 0
K2O 3.03 3.17 3.1 0.1 2 2.09 4.22 2.99 0.96 5 2.11 3.62 2.87 1.07 2 0 1.34 0.68
P2O5 0.11 0.17 0.14 0.04 2 0.09 0.23 0.12 0.06 5 0.12 0.15 0.14 0.02 2 0 0.62 0.14
LOI 6.22 6.54 6.38 0.23 2 4.22 21.95 9.49 7.34 5 6.07 6.34 6.21 0.19 2 1.4 5.14 2.67
Total 99.83 99.88 99.85 0.04 2 99.59 99.88 99.8 0.12 5 99.5 99.83 99.66 0.23 2 99.05 100.5 99.75
CIA 78 81 79.5 2.1 2 80 87 82.2 2.8 5 78 82 80 2.8 2 82 100 88.1
ppm
Rb 167 208 185 18 5 121 206 158 43 5 106 170 138 45 2 3 66 35
Cs 9.7 19.1 13.7 3.5 5 8 17.3 12.5 4.3 5 7.3 14.4 10.9 5 2 1 4.7 2.3
Ba 732.24 825.49 773.82 42.34 5 419.29 630.66 513.06 102.58 5 419.08 564.12 491.6 102.56 2 15.2 261.17 152.15
Sr 99 166 127 25 5 68 140 99 31 5 82 91 86 6 2 11 45 29
Th 12.8 17 14.9 1.8 5 14 20.2 16.4 3.1 5 12.8 17.3 15.1 3.2 2 4.4 11.1 7.1
U 2.51 4.6 3.32 0.78 5 3.22 4.01 3.6 0.31 5 3.16 3.61 3.39 0.32 2 1.14 4.95 2.44
Y 40 52 45 5 5 30 38 35 3 5 31 45 38 10 2 11 33 20
Zr 186 262 220 30 5 140 463 251 141 5 216 270 243 38 2 77 781 329
Nb 25.7 30.4 28.1 2.1 5 17 19.4 17.5 1 5 14.3 20.5 17.4 4.3 2 4.1 13.5 8.3
Hf 5.1 6.9 6 0.7 5 4.1 12.5 7 3.6 5 6.3 8 7.2 1.2 2 2 17.6 8.2
Cr 100 108 104 4 5 64 111 84 20 5 50 90 70 28 2 22 42 30
Co 19.5 31.4 24.6 5.1 5 10.6 63.8 31 20.4 5 13.5 19.3 16.4 4.1 2 1.3 12.7 6
V 148 171 160 10 5 84 149 121 32 5 72 130 101 41 2 28 76 40
La 47.23 60.24 52.43 5.04 5 43.08 58.8 50.98 7.38 5 35.93 56.28 46.11 14.39 2 11.67 40.58 25.73
Ce 92.44 119.3 103.36 10.22 5 84.12 115.59 101.33 14.82 5 74.55 111.28 92.91 25.97 2 20.58 79.12 50.89
Pr 10.75 13.75 12.01 1.16 5 9.89 13.49 11.97 1.69 5 8.79 13.95 11.37 3.65 2 2.42 9.76 6.04
Nd 41.56 53.27 46.34 4.56 5 36.9 50.78 45.62 6.64 5 34.48 54.48 44.48 14.14 2 9.58 37.72 23.57
Sm 7.91 10.24 8.91 0.89 5 6.73 9.7 8.54 1.26 5 6.83 10.59 8.71 2.66 2 1.91 7.09 4.44
Eu 1.65 2.08 1.88 0.19 5 1.21 1.87 1.61 0.29 5 1.33 2.01 1.67 0.48 2 0.3 1.42 0.83
Gd 6.63 13.32 8.73 2.68 5 5.31 7.99 6.86 1.03 5 5.97 8.85 7.41 2.04 2 2.33 6.4 3.66
Tb 1.1 1.4 1.25 0.14 5 0.9 1.19 1.07 0.12 5 0.96 1.38 1.17 0.3 2 0.37 0.97 0.57
Dy 6.61 8.53 7.55 0.74 5 5.84 7.05 6.54 0.61 5 6.22 8.35 7.29 1.51 2 2.29 6.19 3.66
Ho 1.33 1.75 1.5 0.16 5 1.17 1.44 1.31 0.12 5 1.24 1.67 1.46 0.3 2 0.42 1.25 0.74
Er 3.79 4.98 4.3 0.45 5 3.3 4.19 3.74 0.35 5 3.56 4.79 4.18 0.87 2 1.2 3.58 2.19
Tm 0.54 0.7 0.6 0.06 5 0.49 0.6 0.55 0.05 5 0.52 0.68 0.6 0.11 2 0.19 0.51 0.33
Yb 3.48 4.65 3.98 0.47 5 3.18 4 3.51 0.34 5 3.35 4.14 3.75 0.56 2 1.23 3.47 2.15
Lu 0.53 0.71 0.6 0.07 5 0.48 0.6 0.53 0.05 5 0.52 0.63 0.58 0.08 2 0.16 0.55 0.33
Eu / Eu* 0.6 0.7 0.66 0.04 5 0.59 0.68 0.64 0.04 5 0.63 0.64 0.64 0 2 0.44 0.91 0.63
Cr / Th 6 8 7 1 5 5 6 5 1 5 4 5 5 1 2 3 7 5
Th / U 3.7 5.6 4.6 0.7 5 4 5.3 4.5 0.5 5 4.1 4.8 4.4 0.5 2 0.9 4.8 3.3
43
44
Table 3 (continued)
Basin SAFB NAFB
Formation Iñapari Fm (sands) 4 Curaray Fm 5 Ipururo Fm (muds) 6 Ipururo Fm (sands) 7 Pebas Fm (Iquitos forebulge; muds) 8
St. deviation n Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum
wt.%
SiO2 8.04 10 55.11 67.36 62.85 6.73 3 25.91 61.67 48.5 16.99 4 55.88 87.63 68.91 12.84 5 49.76 82.75
TiO2 0.17 10 0.67 0.99 0.85 0.16 3 0.25 0.62 0.48 0.16 4 0.23 0.39 0.31 0.07 5 0.69 1.08
Al2O3 2.12 10 14.85 22.4 18.45 3.79 3 6.28 18.74 12.91 5.34 4 3.27 13.95 9.68 5.04 5 10.03 21.18
Fe2O3 7.61 10 2.92 5.76 4.67 1.53 3 1.4 4.55 3.32 1.43 4 0.76 2.92 2.07 0.85 5 0.62 9.09
MnO 0.15 10 0 0.04 0.01 0.02 3 0 0.08 0.05 0.03 4 0 0.08 0.03 0.03 5 0 0.34
MgO 0 10 0.43 0.95 0.77 0.29 3 1.35 3.2 2.17 0.87 4 0 2.76 0.89 1.2 5 0 1.99
CaO 0 10 0 0.52 0.34 0.3 3 0.89 32.03 12.25 13.67 4 0.36 17.64 6.19 7.05 5 0 4.24
Na2O 0 10 0 1.09 0.65 0.57 3 0 2.02 1 0.84 4 0.46 2.36 1.59 0.94 5 0 0.44

K2O 0.34 10 0.7 1.83 1.28 0.57 3 1.76 4.5 2.82 1.31 4 0.41 3.42 2.1 1.27 5 0.47 2.52
P2O5 0.18 10 0.08 0.14 0.12 0.03 3 0.13 0.4 0.25 0.12 4 0.04 0.3 0.16 0.1 5 0.04 0.25
LOI 1.08 10 9.3 11.63 10.19 1.26 3 5.65 29.45 16.16 10.02 4 2.08 13.95 7.84 5.79 5 4.53 14.98
Total 0.35 10 99.9 100.34 100.17 0.24 3 99.82 100.11 99.9 0.14 4 99.69 99.87 99.78 0.09 5 99.68 100.4
CIA 5.0 10 79 95 85.3 8.5 3 65 76 69.8 4.9 4 54 61 57.8 2.8 5 78 95
ppm
Rb 16 10 40 81 60 20 3 62 281 154 103 4 14 172 84 61 5 25 152
Cs 1 10 3.1 6.6 4.3 2 3 5.7 20.5 12.3 7.4 4 0.9 9.5 3.9 3.5 5 2.8 12.1
Ba 65.07 10 232.95 866.42 524.88 319.64 3 134.41 469.84 275.93 149.32 4 101.03 707.53 444.74 226.2 5 124.19 458.31
Sr 10 10 51 255 159 102 3 106 303 195 81 4 43 475 196 166 5 36 185
Th 2.1 10 6.8 16 10.7 4.7 3 5.1 17.5 11.3 5.1 4 2.7 10.6 7.5 3.3 5 9.4 22.7
U 1.14 10 2.02 5.2 3.55 1.59 3 3.38 10.51 7.22 3.1 4 1.74 3.58 2.59 0.74 5 2.81 14.84
Y 8 10 25 37 31 6 3 16 25 21 4 4 10 19 15 4 5 21 60
Zr 220 10 182 302 222 69 3 60 316 149 116 4 128 234 162 42 5 146 657
Nb 3.5 10 7.8 16.3 12.1 4.3 3 5 11.6 9 2.8 4 4.3 8.1 5.9 1.6 5 11.7 21.9
Hf 5.3 10 5 8.4 6.2 2 3 1.7 8.4 4.4 3 4 3.3 6.3 4.5 1.1 5 4.2 14.7
Cr 6 10 71 196 121 66 3 41 62 50 10 4 18 27 20 4 5 43 87
Co 4.2 10 7.9 17.7 13.8 5.2 3 5.4 20.9 11.8 6.7 4 3.6 6.4 4.7 1.2 5 3.4 24.3
V 15 10 156 181 166 13 3 66 189 115 53 4 32 63 43 13 5 70 192
La 8.95 10 26.14 70.32 47.33 22.14 3 17.18 41.14 29.61 9.82 4 12.73 29.13 22.37 6.45 5 19.5 69.29
Ce 18.65 10 52.02 125.63 94.52 38.1 3 26.16 85.66 58.67 25.19 4 24.2 55.45 42.12 11.83 5 31.41 149.76
Pr 2.29 10 6.62 15.12 11.49 4.38 3 3.5 10.21 7.09 2.81 4 2.95 6.54 5.1 1.35 5 3.35 18.96
Nd 8.77 10 34.28 57.82 48.15 12.32 3 14.37 39.48 27.7 10.46 4 12.22 24.29 19.97 4.68 5 12.33 77.35
Sm 1.66 10 5.54 10.88 8.93 2.95 3 2.73 8.11 5.54 2.26 4 2.32 4.39 3.64 0.84 5 2.14 16.15
Eu 0.31 10 1.65 2.65 2.28 0.55 3 0.58 1.35 1.02 0.32 4 0.56 0.89 0.77 0.13 5 0.41 3.5
Gd 1.34 10 4.65 8.59 7.27 2.27 3 2.47 5.86 4.27 1.39 4 2.01 3.41 2.82 0.63 5 2.14 13.79
Tb 0.2 10 0.72 1.29 1.1 0.33 3 0.38 0.8 0.62 0.18 4 0.31 0.53 0.43 0.1 5 0.46 2.11
Dy 1.28 10 4.75 7.82 6.67 1.67 3 2.55 4.52 3.69 0.97 4 1.76 3.28 2.66 0.69 5 3.58 12.4
Ho 0.29 10 0.97 1.42 1.26 0.25 3 0.53 0.95 0.73 0.19 4 0.34 0.68 0.53 0.14 5 0.81 2.39
Er 0.89 10 2.74 3.81 3.45 0.61 3 1.61 2.83 2.08 0.57 4 0.97 2.07 1.53 0.43 5 2.41 6.63
Tm 0.13 10 0.39 0.54 0.49 0.08 3 0.23 0.44 0.31 0.1 4 0.13 0.32 0.22 0.07 5 0.38 0.94
Yb 0.92 10 2.55 3.52 3.16 0.53 3 1.51 2.91 1.97 0.66 4 0.91 2.13 1.47 0.44 5 2.6 5.88
Lu 0.15 10 0.38 0.5 0.46 0.07 3 0.23 0.45 0.3 0.1 4 0.14 0.33 0.23 0.07 5 0.4 0.87
Eu / Eu* 0.13 10 0.82 0.99 0.88 0.1 3 0.6 0.69 0.65 0.04 4 0.64 0.84 0.75 0.07 5 0.53 0.72
Cr / Th 1 10 4 21 13 8 3 2 12 6 4 4 2 7 3 2 5 3 7
Th / U 1.1 10 2.7 3.4 3.1 0.3 3 0.8 3.1 1.7 1 4 1.3 4.2 2.9 1.1 5 1.3 5.4
Table 3 (continued)
Basin NAFB
Formation Pebas Fm (Iquitos forebulge; muds) 8 Pebas Fm (Iquitos forebulge; sands) 9 Pebas Fm (Pevas backbulge) 10 Nauta 1 Mb (muds) 11
Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation
wt.%
SiO2 63.43 9.17 15 56.2 94.62 72.02 16.19 4 51.84 75.08 61.66 8.43 8 59.62 76.86 65.25 7.86
TiO2 0.81 0.1 15 0.25 1.22 0.72 0.4 4 0.57 0.85 0.69 0.08 8 0.7 1.02 0.85 0.15
Al2O3 16.68 3.18 15 3.01 15.46 11.54 5.79 4 10.51 21.53 13.89 3.89 8 11.02 22.67 18.42 5.22
Fe2O3 4.53 2.17 15 0.21 6.68 3.81 2.67 4 2.87 5.89 4.33 0.94 8 3.62 5.12 4.62 0.68
MnO 0.03 0.09 15 0 0.2 0.05 0.1 4 0 0.17 0.06 0.05 8 0 0.4 0.1 0.2
MgO 1.09 0.57 15 0 1.49 0.84 0.73 4 0.49 2.09 1.36 0.5 8 0.26 0.92 0.55 0.27
CaO 1.05 1.49 15 0 3.92 1.16 1.85 4 0.59 12.9 4.36 4.27 8 0 0 0 0
Na2O 0.14 0.17 15 0 0.67 0.3 0.3 4 0.3 1.06 0.69 0.29 8 0 0.18 0.05 0.09

K2O 1.75 0.62 15 1.07 2.29 1.61 0.61 4 1.63 2.71 2.12 0.36 8 0.64 2 1.55 0.62
P2O5 0.14 0.06 15 0 0.42 0.17 0.18 4 0.11 0.21 0.18 0.03 8 0.09 0.17 0.12 0.04
LOI 10.29 2.88 15 0.86 11.89 7.59 4.78 4 6.04 15.69 10.62 3.16 8 4.71 10.77 8.47 2.68
Total 99.94 0.26 15 99.07 100.32 99.82 0.53 4 99.83 100.25 99.94 0.18 8 99.77 100.43 99.98 0.31
CIA 87.3 5.2 15 72 89 79.5 7.3 4 68 84 74.5 6.4 8 89 94 91.3 2.2
ppm
Rb 96 29 15 33 106 76 35 4 69 148 97 27 8 27 108 79 36
Cs 8.3 2.6 15 0.9 8.3 5.4 3.3 4 3.6 11.5 7.1 2.8 8 1.7 11 7.4 4
Ba 295.54 99.34 15 231.08 423.2 326.98 104.6 4 321.82 428.67 382.01 48.82 8 152.81 400.49 282 110.85
Sr 105 42 15 26 229 110 89 4 111 490 196 122 8 23 80 59 25
Th 14.2 3.2 15 4.1 17.7 11.5 5.7 4 9.3 16.8 11.3 2.4 8 9.1 18.5 14.1 3.9
U 4.27 3 15 1.46 4.95 3.44 1.58 4 2.43 4.11 3.02 0.54 8 2.77 4.56 3.78 0.83
Y 36 13 15 13 49 27 16 4 24 32 28 2 8 14 76 43 26
Zr 271 130 15 207 360 279 65 4 151 387 257 94 8 238 419 304 80
Nb 16.3 2.6 15 5.1 22.5 13.5 7.1 4 11.2 16.4 13.4 1.8 8 8.8 20.2 15.4 4.8
Hf 7.3 2.8 15 5.8 8 7.1 1 4 4.4 11.4 7.1 2.5 8 6.7 10.6 8.4 1.7
Cr 62 13 15 15 64 46 22 4 36 169 68 43 8 27 84 63 27
Co 12.8 5.7 15 2.5 28.7 20.4 12.3 4 9.3 15.1 11.6 2.1 8 3 11.1 6.5 3.8
V 124 30 15 16 140 97 56 4 72 163 99 32 8 96 175 133 38
La 43.76 13.19 15 11.85 56.47 32.23 18.57 4 27.49 46.96 33.25 6.43 8 24.08 84.84 54.9 25.77
Ce 85.09 29.79 15 22.63 117.23 64.19 39.64 4 53.19 92.08 67.13 12.3 8 64.45 149.59 103.03 36.24
Pr 10.19 3.83 15 2.55 13.39 7.42 4.54 4 6.61 11.2 8.16 1.47 8 6.22 20.67 13.86 6.51
Nd 39.35 15.8 15 10.08 52.38 28.65 17.96 4 25.42 42.33 31.52 5.48 8 23.83 81.01 55.03 26.12
Sm 7.49 3.4 15 1.84 10.1 5.42 3.53 4 4.89 8.21 6.18 1.02 8 3.95 15.19 10.4 5.2
Eu 1.51 0.77 15 0.37 2.13 1.13 0.76 4 1.05 1.66 1.3 0.23 8 0.67 3.74 2.21 1.3
Gd 6.44 3.02 15 1.63 9.12 4.73 3.23 4 4.27 6.41 5.29 0.69 8 2.67 15.32 8.74 5.2
Tb 1.01 0.44 15 0.28 1.44 0.75 0.5 4 0.68 0.99 0.83 0.1 8 0.38 2.32 1.29 0.8
Dy 6.37 2.47 15 2.08 8.98 4.86 2.98 4 4.45 5.96 5.18 0.5 8 2.56 14.03 7.93 4.71
Ho 1.31 0.47 15 0.45 1.79 1.01 0.57 4 0.94 1.19 1.06 0.08 8 0.55 2.84 1.62 0.94
Er 3.82 1.25 15 1.41 5.2 2.99 1.61 4 2.68 3.36 3.05 0.25 8 1.71 7.81 4.63 2.51
Tm 0.57 0.16 15 0.25 0.73 0.45 0.21 4 0.41 0.5 0.46 0.03 8 0.27 1.12 0.68 0.35
Yb 3.67 0.95 15 1.71 4.75 2.95 1.29 4 2.7 3.37 2.95 0.22 8 1.94 6.75 4.34 1.99
Lu 0.56 0.14 15 0.27 0.71 0.45 0.19 4 0.41 0.52 0.45 0.04 8 0.32 1.04 0.67 0.3
Eu / Eu* 0.65 0.05 15 0.66 0.72 0.68 0.03 4 0.64 0.78 0.69 0.04 8 0.63 0.75 0.69 0.05
Cr / Th 4 1 15 4 5 4 1 4 4 18 6 5 8 3 6 4 1
Th / U 3.8 1 15 2.7 4 3.3 0.7 4 2.8 4.3 3.7 0.5 8 3.3 4.3 3.7 0.5
45
46
Table 3 (continued)
Basin NAFB
Formation Nauta 1 Mb (muds) 11 Nauta 1 Mb (sands) 12 Nauta 2 Mb (muds) 13 Nauta 2 Mb (sands) 14 White Sand Fm (muds) 15
n Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum
wt.%
SiO2 4 67.43 79.63 74.01 3.56 8 63.99 81.34 74.17 6.85 6 62.09 85.98 78.69 8.75 7 69.22
TiO2 4 0.48 0.9 0.7 0.13 8 0.63 1.09 0.84 0.16 6 0.35 1.4 0.69 0.36 7 0.98
Al2O3 4 11.77 18.91 14.19 2.42 8 11.13 19.73 15.02 3.52 6 6.85 24.53 12.72 6.51 7 19.33
Fe2O3 4 2.29 6.28 4.25 1.36 8 0.89 6.77 2.43 2.25 6 0.31 3.51 1.89 1.22 7 1
MnO 4 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 6 0 0.04 0.01 0.02 7 0
MgO 4 0 0.11 0.01 0.04 8 0 0.34 0.15 0.17 6 0 0 0 0 7 0.22
CaO 4 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 7 0
Na2O 4 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 7 0.18

K2O 4 0.19 1.44 0.69 0.37 8 0.17 1.47 0.87 0.48 6 0.34 0.71 0.52 0.12 7 0.91
P2O5 4 0.04 0.14 0.08 0.03 8 0.04 0.1 0.08 0.03 6 0.05 0.1 0.06 0.02 7 0.12
LOI 4 4.69 7.43 5.84 0.84 8 4.86 8.25 6.3 1.35 6 3.12 10.24 5.23 2.54 7 8.23
Total 4 98.76 100.25 99.77 0.47 8 99.73 100.15 99.84 0.16 6 99.54 100.12 99.81 0.17 7 100.19
CIA 4 92 98 94.6 1.8 8 90 98 93.8 2.9 6 93 96 94.6 1.4 7
ppm
Rb 4 11 62 31 15 8 9 64 42 22 6 16 34 24 6 7 44 46
Cs 4 0.9 6.2 2.5 1.6 8 1.1 5.9 4.1 2.1 6 1.1 1.9 1.5 0.3 7 5.5 5.8
Ba 4 68.84 289.05 145.8 66.74 8 54.99 248.2 142.78 78.19 6 82.31 193.95 136.18 38.38 7 194.01 206.8
Sr 4 15 52 25 12 8 29 51 40 9 6 12 34 22 7 7 47 50
Th 4 6.2 14 9.1 2.5 8 10 16.3 12.7 2.4 6 5.3 12.6 8 2.4 7 12.4 12.5
U 4 1.85 3.94 2.6 0.79 8 2.63 4.49 3.28 0.68 6 1.4 3.13 2.29 0.64 7 3.1 3.41
Y 4 6 61 22 18 8 20 81 35 23 6 7 15 12 3 7 23 25
Zr 4 118 369 256 87 8 364 554 457 69 6 90 317 217 91 7 429 437
Nb 4 5.9 14.9 9.5 3 8 12.1 19.8 15.3 2.7 6 4.9 15.1 8.2 3.4 7 17.6 18
Hf 4 3.4 10.3 6.9 2.4 8 9.5 15.2 12.3 2 6 2.2 8.4 5.5 2.4 7 11.7 11.9
Cr 4 23 82 59 22 8 37 66 46 11 6 23 167 60 54 7 50 55
Co 4 1.8 8.9 3.8 2.5 8 1.6 4.7 2.8 1.2 6 1.7 8.2 3.5 2.2 7 2.7 3.8
V 4 82 153 115 22 8 74 155 100 33 6 51 261 112 78 7 111 123
La 4 11.95 66.99 24.98 18.07 8 17.49 74.22 32.85 21.25 6 9.59 43.06 22.54 13.74 7 31.48 37.53
Ce 4 17.97 99.94 46.23 25.94 8 30.46 161.49 69.23 49.86 6 17.31 81.41 43.33 22.79 7 51.66 62.82
Pr 4 1.92 18.25 5.86 5.4 8 3.34 20.24 7.68 6.43 6 2.07 9.92 4.49 2.83 7 5.66 6.6
Nd 4 7.02 73.59 22.99 22.16 8 11.4 82.41 30.95 26.26 6 8.74 35.84 15.96 9.73 7 19.94 21.55
Sm 4 1.18 14.71 4.37 4.57 8 2.03 17.76 5.99 6.02 6 1.47 5.76 2.66 1.5 7 3.31 3.64
Eu 4 0.24 3.4 0.93 1.07 8 0.34 3.97 1.27 1.38 6 0.22 1.07 0.49 0.31 7 0.57 0.65
Gd 4 0.93 13.28 3.87 4.24 8 2.03 17.6 5.91 5.98 6 1.04 3.15 1.95 0.73 7 2.81 3.14
Tb 4 0.16 1.91 0.62 0.59 8 0.43 2.64 0.96 0.86 6 0.17 0.47 0.32 0.1 7 0.52 0.59
Dy 4 1.1 11.14 3.9 3.35 8 3.11 15.37 6.22 4.67 6 1.15 2.82 2.13 0.63 7 3.87 4.08
Ho 4 0.22 2.25 0.8 0.67 8 0.71 3.01 1.3 0.87 6 0.25 0.56 0.44 0.12 7 0.85 0.92
Er 4 0.65 6.27 2.34 1.81 8 2.28 8.49 3.91 2.33 6 0.81 1.71 1.33 0.32 7 2.65 2.85
Tm 4 0.1 0.9 0.35 0.25 8 0.39 1.18 0.59 0.3 6 0.12 0.27 0.21 0.06 7 0.43 0.47
Yb 4 0.72 5.65 2.3 1.55 8 2.69 7.38 3.88 1.77 6 0.86 1.78 1.41 0.34 7 2.95 3.22
Lu 4 0.12 0.84 0.36 0.22 8 0.46 1.1 0.61 0.25 6 0.13 0.28 0.22 0.06 7 0.48 0.52
Eu / Eu* 4 0.6 0.74 0.67 0.05 8 0.51 0.69 0.61 0.07 6 0.53 0.78 0.63 0.11 7 0.57 0.59
Cr / Th 4 3 13 7 3 8 3 4 4 0 6 3 13 7 4 7 4 4
Th / U 4 2 4.8 3.6 0.8 8 3.4 4.4 3.9 0.4 6 1.9 4.7 3.6 0.9 7 3.7 4
Table 3 (continued)
Basin NAFB
Formation White Sand Fm (muds) 15 White Sand Fm (sands) 16 Amazon Fm 17 Quaternary floodplain deposits 18
Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation n Minimum Maximum Mean St. deviation n
wt.%
SiO2 1 99.72 1 70.94 98.62 85.6 10.91 7 72.67 84.44 79.54 6.13 3
TiO2 1 0 1 0.1 0.71 0.33 0.2 7 0.63 0.8 0.71 0.09 3
Al2O3 1 0 1 0.56 11.63 6.31 4.73 7 8.72 14.6 11.22 3.04 3
Fe2O3 1 0 1 0 13.17 3.06 4.65 7 1.64 3.81 2.47 1.17 3
MnO 1 0 1 0 0.36 0.05 0.14 7 0 0 0 0 3
MgO 1 0 1 0 0.71 0.16 0.26 7 0 0.16 0.05 0.09 3
CaO 1 0 1 0 0.85 0.12 0.32 7 0 0 0 0 3

Na2O 1 0.11 1 0 0.84 0.12 0.32 7 0 0 0 0 3
K2O 1 0 1 0 1.36 0.32 0.47 7 0 0.74 0.29 0.4 3
P2O5 1 0.15 1 0 0.53 0.11 0.19 7 0 0.09 0.05 0.05 3
LOI 1 99.98 1 0.41 6.04 3.46 2.5 7 4.31 6.94 5.46 1.35 3
Total 1 0 4 1 1 5 98.61 99.86 99.63 0.45 7 99.74 99.82 99.79 0.04 3
CIA 93.8 68 100 92 10.9 7 94 100 97.3 3.1 3
ppm
Rb 45 2 2 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.1 5 2 48 14 14 8 6 33 16 15 3
Cs 5.6 0.2 2 3.85 30.5 11.47 11.28 5 0.4 2.5 1.1 0.7 8 1.3 2.3 1.9 0.5 3
Ba 200.41 9.04 2 2 9 4 3 5 16.56 842.26 268.83 306.51 8 46.61 136.62 79.86 49.4 3
Sr 48 2 2 0.3 1.7 0.8 0.6 5 6 75 26 23 8 23 33 28 5 3
Th 12.5 0 2 0.19 1.56 0.58 0.57 5 1.6 8.1 4.4 2.4 8 7.3 10.6 8.6 1.7 3
U 3.26 0.22 2 1 3 2 1 5 0.61 2.73 1.46 0.82 8 2.2 3.21 2.61 0.53 3
Y 24 1 2 35 263 118 94 5 5 47 16 13 8 14 21 17 4 3
Zr 433 6 2 0.6 2.1 1.4 0.7 5 85 405 169 112 8 317 461 402 75 3
Nb 17.8 0.3 2 1 6.8 3.1 2.4 5 1.9 11.9 5.3 3.1 8 10.4 11.8 11.1 0.7 3
Hf 11.8 0.2 2 8 12 10 2 5 2.2 9.4 4.3 2.6 8 7.5 12.7 10.3 2.6 3
Cr 53 4 2 0.6 1.1 0.8 0.2 5 15 274 67 89 8 38 71 49 19 3
Co 3.2 0.8 2 2 21 9 9 5 1.4 456.6 78.4 160.9 8 2.3 2.7 2.4 0.2 3
V 117 8 2 1.77 8.03 4.03 2.58 5 12 245 68 76 8 66 115 86 26 3
La 34.51 4.28 2 1.07 15.83 6.81 6.06 5 5.86 54.83 27.65 19.5 8 11.82 18.36 15.56 3.37 3
Ce 57.24 7.89 2 0.13 1.58 0.68 0.6 5 9.64 285.44 75.49 91.68 8 23.87 31.29 27.21 3.77 3
Pr 6.13 0.66 2 1.21 5.04 2.69 1.55 5 1.08 16.55 6.8 5.44 8 2.4 3.32 2.89 0.46 3
Nd 20.75 1.14 2 0.11 0.86 0.39 0.31 5 4.43 66.89 27.4 22.19 8 8.39 12.14 10.44 1.9 3
Sm 3.48 0.23 2 0.02 0.19 0.08 0.07 5 0.73 14.69 5.44 4.84 8 1.64 2.14 1.83 0.27 3
Eu 0.61 0.06 2 0.07 0.58 0.31 0.21 5 0.07 3.7 1.31 1.24 8 0.33 0.39 0.36 0.03 3
Gd 2.98 0.23 2 0.02 0.1 0.06 0.03 5 0.56 11.76 4.18 3.72 8 1.36 2.55 1.84 0.63 3
Tb 0.55 0.05 2 0.2 0.6 0.39 0.15 5 0.11 1.81 0.61 0.56 8 0.32 0.51 0.39 0.1 3
Dy 3.98 0.15 2 0.03 0.13 0.08 0.04 5 0.8 10.71 3.59 3.19 8 2.37 3.59 2.83 0.66 3
Ho 0.89 0.05 2 0.1 0.39 0.25 0.11 5 0.16 1.97 0.65 0.58 8 0.54 0.76 0.64 0.11 3
Er 2.75 0.14 2 0.02 0.07 0.05 0.02 5 0.56 5.26 1.78 1.51 8 1.78 2.5 2.08 0.37 3
Tm 0.45 0.03 2 0.13 0.51 0.31 0.15 5 0.09 0.72 0.25 0.21 8 0.29 0.37 0.33 0.04 3
Yb 3.09 0.19 2 0.02 0.09 0.05 0.03 5 0.57 4.57 1.62 1.29 8 2.01 2.6 2.28 0.3 3
Lu 0.5 0.03 2 0.09 0.64 0.25 0.18 8 0.32 0.42 0.37 0.05 3
Eu / Eu* 0.58 0.01 2 0.55 0.8 0.63 0.1 5 0.35 0.94 0.75 0.18 8 0.51 0.66 0.61 0.08 3
Cr / Th 4 0 2 6 34 17 10 5 4 34 13 9 8 5 7 6 1 3
Th / U 3.8 0.2 2 0.8 3.1 1.9 1 5 1.7 5 3.1 1 8 3.2 3.3 3.3 0.1 3
47
5.1. Major elements (SiO2, Al2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO, riched in U, and depleted in Th relative to PAAS
Na2O, K2O, TiO2, P2O5), LILE (Rb, Ba, Cs, Sr, Th, U), (Figs. 4, 5b and 6).
HFSE (Y, Zr, Hf, Nb), and TTE (Cr, Co, V) There are also some differences between muds from
the different depozones. Compared with PAAS, muds
5.1.1. South Amazonian foreland basin (SAFB) of the wedge-top depozone (Ipururo Fm) are slightly
In the Herron diagram (Fig. 3a), mud samples plot depleted in Y, Zr and Hf whereas other muds are
within or close to the Shale–Wacke field and sands are enriched in these elements (Figs. 4 and 5b). Muds of
classified as Litharenite, Sublitharenite, Arkose, Sub- the Ecuadorian foredeep depozone (Curaray Fm) have
arkose and Fe–Sand. similar Cr and V contents and higher Cr / Th ratios as
Compared with muds, sands are enriched in SiO2, Zr PAAS. Other muds have lower Cr / Th ratios and are
and Hf (Figs. 4 and 5a). Sands have also greater SiO2 / depleted in Cr and Th relative to PAAS. Muds of the
Al2O3 ratios, similar Cr / Th ratios and lower Th / U wedge-top (Ipururo Fm) and backbulge (Pebas Fm in
ratios (Fig. 6 and Table 3). Sands are depleted in the Pevas backbulge) depozones are enriched in CaO
other elements (Figs. 4 and 5a) and show variable and have higher LOI relative to PAAS, suggesting that
Fe2O3 contents (Fig. 4). they contain limestones.
Compared with PAAS, muds are enriched in Y, Zr
Nb, Hf (HFSE) and in Th and U and are depleted in 5.1.2.2. Late Miocene–Pliocene formations. Muds
MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O and Sr. plot mostly within the Shale, Fe–shale and Wacke fields
There are noticeable differences between muds of (Fig. 3c). However, some muds are classified as Fe–sand
the foredeep depozones (i.e. Madre de Dios Fm in the and Litharenite. Silts of the Quaternary floodplain depos-
Madre de Dios foredeep) and muds of the forebulge– its are considered as Fe–shale, Fe–sand and Arkose (Fig.
backbulge depozones (Madre de Dios Fm in the Beni 3c). With the exception of two samples that plot within
forebulge–backbulge depozones and Iñapari Fm). In the Shale field, sands are classified as Fe–sand, Litha-
general, muds from the foredeep are more enriched in renite, Arkose, Subarkose and Quartz–Arenite (Fig. 3c).
mobile elements than muds from the forebulge–back- Compared with their associated muds, sands are en-
bulge. More specifically, muds of the foredeep have riched in SiO2 and depleted in other elements (Figs. 4
similar contents in TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and TTE and and 5c). They have lower Th / U and higher Cr / Th ratios
Cr / Th ratios as PAAS and are enriched in Rb and Ba (Fig. 6). Sands of the Nauta 2 Mb are enriched in Cr
relative to PAAS whereas muds of the forebulge–back- and V relative to their associated muds (Figs. 4 and 5c).
bulge are depleted in these elements and ratios relative Overall, muds are enriched in SiO2, Zr and Hf and
to PAAS (Figs. 4, 5a and 6). are depleted in other elements relative to PAAS (Figs. 4
and 5c). They have also lower Cr / Th and Th / U ratios.
5.1.2. North Amazonian foreland basin (NAFB) Compared with PAAS, muds of the Nauta 2 Mb are
enriched in Y (Figs. 4 and 5c).
5.1.2.1. Miocene tidal formations. In the Herron di- Some samples of the Amazon Fm have Cr contents
agram (Fig. 3b), muds plot mostly within the Shale and Cr / Th ratios higher than those of PAAS (Figs. 4
and Wacke field. However, some muds are within the and 6). With the exception of the SiO2 content, sands of
Fe–Sand and the Litharenite fields. Also some sands the White Sand Fm are strongly depleted in analyzed
are within the Shale and Wacke fields but most of elements (Figs. 4 and 5c).
them are within the Fe–Sand field (Fig. 3b). Others
are classified as arkose, subarkose and sublitharenite 5.2. Rare earth elements (REE)
(Fig. 3b).
Compared with their associated muds (i.e. muds of 5.2.1. South Amazonian foreland basin (SAFB)
the same age), sands have greater SiO2 / Al2O3 ratios, Compared with their associated muds, sands have
SiO2 and MgO contents, similar Zr and Hf contents and lower REE contents but they have similar REE patterns
are depleted in other elements (Figs. 4, 5b and 6). and average Eu anomaly (Figs. 6 and 7a).
Overall, when compared with PAAS, muds have Compared with PAAS, muds are slightly enriched
higher SiO2 / Al2O3 and lower Th / U ratios, are en- whereas sands are depleted in REE (Fig. 7a). Overall,
Fig. 3. Classification of 95 analyzed Neogene western Amazonian sediments according to the Herron diagram (Herron, 1988) for a) South
Amazonian foreland basin (SAFB) sediments; b) North Amazonian foreland basin (NAFB) Miocene tidal sediments and c) NAFB Late Miocene–
Pliocene fluvial sediments. Note that muds and sands are represented by grey and black symbols respectively.
Fig. 4. Stratigraphic variations of major and trace elements for Neogene Amazonian muds (in grey) and sands (in black). The bar length represents
the standard 50% (1r) of the data; the white lines inside the bar mark the mean value. Mean values for each group are also given. The vertical line,
where presents, indicates the PAAS value for the considered element.
Fig. 4 (continued)
both muds and sands have similar patterns as PAAS Fm in the Madre de Dios foredeep) to muds and
(Fig. 7a). sands of the forebulge depozones (Madre de Dios Fm
Average Eu anomaly slightly decreases from in the Beni forebulge–backbulge and Iñapari Fm)
muds of the foredeep depozone (Madre de Dios (Figs. 6 and 7a).
Fig. 5. Spiderplots for major and trace elements normalized against PAAS (Taylor and McLennan, 1985) for average values of Amazonian Neogene
formations. SAFB: South Amazonian foreland basin; NAFB: North Amazonian foreland basin.
Fig. 6. Stratigraphic variations of the CIA (Chemical Index of Alteration, see text for explanations), the Cr / Th and the Th / U ratios and of the Eu
anomaly (Eu / Eu*). Average values for each group are given and bar length represents the standard deviation. The white lines inside the bar mark
the mean value. The vertical line indicates the PAAS value.
5.2.2. North Amazonian foreland basin (NAFB) variations in Eu anomalies with respect to their associ-
ated muds. Compared with PAAS, sands are depleted in
5.2.2.1. Miocene tidal formations. Compared with REE (Fig. 7b).
their associated muds, sands are depleted in REE but Compared with PAAS, muds have similar or lower
have similar REE patterns (Fig. 7b). Some sands of the Eu anomalies (Figs. 6 and 7b). Muds of the wedge-top
wedge-top depozone (i.e. Ipururo Fm) have low Eu depozone (Ipururo Fm) and muds of the backbulge
anomalies (Fig. 6 and Table 2) that could reflect pla- depozone (Pebas Fm in the Pevas backbulge) are de-
gioclase accumulation. Other sands do not show such pleted in REE relative to PAAS whereas other muds are
Fig. 7. Spiderplots for the rare earth elements (REE) normalized against PAAS (Taylor and McLennan, 1985).
enriched (Fig. 7b). This could be due to high carbonate Muds from the Ecuadorian foredeep depozone (Curaray
contents. Fm) have the lowest Eu anomalies (Figs. 6 and 7b;
Muds from the wedge-top depozone (Ipururo Fm) Tables 2 and 3).
and muds from the Ecuadorian foredeep depozone
(Curaray Fm) show depletion in Heavy REE (HREE) 5.2.2.2. Late Miocene–Pliocene formations. Sands of
with respect to Light REE (LREE) whereas other muds the White Sand Fm are strongly depleted in REE (Fig.
show enrichment in HREE relative to LREE (Fig. 7b). 7c), probably due to their high quartz content (Tables 2
Fig. 8. Ternary A–CN–K diagrams (Nesbitt and Young, 1984, 1989) for Neogene Amazonian sediments. Pl: Plagioclase; Ks: K-feldspar; Gd:
Granodiorite (from Fedo et al., 1995); the arrow indicates the expected weathered trend for the Brazilian cratonic granite (BEN95A).
and 3). Despite having quite similar Eu anomalies (Fig. relative to larger cations such as K, Cs, Rb and Ba are
6 and Tables 2 and 3), sands and muds of the Nauta 2 immobilized preferentially by exchange and adsorption
Mb do not have similar REE patterns (Fig. 7c): sands processes on to clays mineral surface (Nesbitt et al.,
are depleted in HREE with respect to LREE whereas 1980; Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1990; Bauluz et al.,
sands are enriched (Fig. 7c). 2000).
Compared with PAAS, muds have higher Eu anoma- With the exception of some muds that have high
lies (Figs. 6 and 7c). There is also a decrease in REE CaO, MgO and Sr contents related to the occurrence of
content from the oldest unit (Nauta 2 Mb) to the carbonate minerals, Miocene muds of the NAFB are
youngest one (Quaternary floodplain deposits). depleted in mobile major elements. Trace elements such
Some samples of the Amazon Fm have peculiar REE as Rb, Cs, Ba, Sr, Th, Nb, Cr, and V are also signifi-
patterns with low Eu anomalies and depletions of cantly depleted relative to PAAS (Figs. 4 and 5b), with
HREE over LREE (Figs. 6 and 7c). the exception of the muds of the Ecuadorian foredeep
depozone (Curaray Fm) that have similar contents in Cr
6. Discussion and V as PAAS. Muds of the youngest NAFB Miocene
unit are the most depleted. With the exception of SiO2,
The chemical composition of clastic sediments is the Zr and Hf, NAFB Late Miocene–Pliocene units are
net result of a number of geological factors. These strongly depleted in other elements relative to PAAS
include, among others, source rock composition and (Figs. 4 and 5c).
the intensity of weathering (both physical and chemi- The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA index) is
cal), the rate of sediment supply, and sorting (both widely used to quantify the degree of source area
textural and mineralogical) during transportation and weathering and to constrain the paleoweathering con-
deposition, and finally post-depositional weathering ditions of ancient shales (Nesbitt and Young, 1982;
(Piper, 1974; McLennan, 1989; Cox et al., 1995). Fedo et al., 1995, 1996; Hassan et al., 1999; Bauluz
Each of these factors must be evaluated before drawing et al., 2000; Lee, 2002; Hofmann et al., 2003). This
conclusions on the nature of source rocks (provenance index measures the degree of weathering of feldspars
of sediments) and tectonics of the region as inferred relative to unaltered protoliths and is defined as:
from the chemistry of clastic sediments. In this discus-
sion, we first evaluate the compositional features that CIA ¼ ½Al2 O3 = ðAl2 O3 þ CaO4 þ Na2 O þ K2 OÞ
may have resulted from chemical weathering and pro- 100 ðmolar proportionsÞ
cesses of sorting. Then, we discuss the provenance of
Neogene western Amazonian sediments and their pos- where CaO* represents the CaO content in the silicate
sible sources. fraction. We do not have CO2 data for our analyses and
thus we cannot correct for Ca in carbonates to obtain
6.1. Source area weathering CaO*. To calculate CaO*, we have accepted the value
of CaO if CaO V Na2O; for CaO N Na2O, we assumed
The SAFB muds of the foredeep depozone (Madre that the concentration of CaO = Na2O (Bock et al.,
de Dios Fm in the Madre de Dios foredeep) are 1998).
enriched in mobile elements and depleted in SiO2, Zr CIA values for unaltered plagioclase and K-feld-
and Hf with respect to the SAFB muds of the fore- spars are approximately equal to 50 as are those of
bulge–backbulge depozones (Madre de Dios Fm in the unaltered upper crustal rocks. Higher CIA values
Beni forebulge–backbulge and Iñapari Fm). This is represent higher degrees of weathering. CIA values
probably due to quartz dilution by loss of unstable are plotted as a function of the studied formations in
phases and relative concentrations of zircon. These Fig. 6.
processes are also responsible for enrichments in SAFB muds have CIA values lower than the sands
SiO2, Zr and Hf and depletion in other elements relative of the Late Miocene–Pliocene Iñapari Fm (Fig. 6). Both
to PAAS. In addition, Na2O, CaO and Sr are more for muds and sands, the Late Miocene–Pliocene units
depleted relative to PAAS than K2O, Rb and Ba. Two have higher CIA values than the Miocene units (Fig. 6).
processes could explain this difference. Firstly, Na, Ca Among the Miocene units, the youngest one (i.e. Nauta
and Sr are generally mainly contained in minerals 1 Mb) has the highest CIA values for both muds and
which weather rapidly, specifically plagioclase than sands. Overall, weathering increases through time with
those that contain Rb, Ba and K (White and Brandley, CIA values becoming close to 100 in the more recent
1995). Secondly, smaller cations such as Na, Ca and Sr units (97 for Quaternary floodplain deposits).
The weathering trend can be illustrated on a weathering is less intense and steady-state conditions
Al2O3 (CaO* + Na2O) K2O triangular plot (Nesbitt were already achieved during the Miocene.
and Young, 1984, 1989).
The Miocene samples of the NAFB plot mostly 6.2. Sedimentary processes and sorting
parallel to the A–CN axis (Fig. 8) and define a weath-
ering trend departing from the primary composition of Hydrological/sedimentary processes such as sorting
granodiorite (Fedo et al., 1995). The degree of weath- may be of particular importance in modifying the min-
ering is quite variable within the individual suites pro- eral abundances and consequently the concentrations of
ducing scatter along the trend. This pattern is typical of specific elements. With the exception of the sediments
non-steady-state weathering conditions where active collected within the wedge-top and foredeep depo-
tectonism and uplift permit erosion of all soil horizons zones, most of the analyzed Neogene sediments were
and rock surfaces (Nesbitt et al., 1997). Additional collected far from potential sources so that sedimentary
information can be gained from the samples of the processes should have affected them to a similar extent.
Pebas formation (Iquitos forebulge, Fig. 8). Some sam- The NAFB Late Miocene–Pliocene sediments are
ples plot on the AK axis with CIA values greater than depleted in REE, LILE, TTE compared to the NAFB
90 indicating extreme weathering under tropical condi- Miocene sediments. Except for the Amazon Fm, the
tions (Nesbitt et al., 1997). This extreme weathering is Late Miocene–Pliocene sediments are enriched in Zr
further confirmed by samples from the Nauta 1 Mb and and Hf and HREE suggesting that the amount of zircons
from the Late Miocene–Pliocene formations that plot increased during the Pliocene. Increase in weathering
on the AK join with CIA values greater than 90 (Fig. 8). intensity or in situ tropical weathering could account for
Compared with NAFB Miocene muds, the mud the differences in trace element contents between the
samples of the SAFB plot in a tight group near the Miocene and Late Miocene–Pliocene sediments. Both
AK axis (Fig. 8). This suggests that these muds have the NAFB and Late Miocene–Pliocene sediments are
undergone steady-state weathering conditions (Nesbitt more exposed to in situ tropical weathering than Mio-
et al., 1997). Neogene sediments of the SAFB were cene sediments because of their upper position in strati-
found to be mainly derived from Subandean Zone/ graphic sections. In addition, it appears from field
Oriental Cordillera sediments and result from a mixing evidence that some clay horizons in the Pebas Fm and
of Andean magmatic arc detritus with Brazilian craton- in the Madre de Dios Fm regulate the water table so that
ic-derived sediments (DeCelles and Hertel, 1989; Basu fluid/meteoritic circulation may be favored above these
et al., 1990; Pinto, 2003). This trend is confirmed in horizons. In situ tropical weathering processes within a
Fig. 8 where Miocene muds plot along a line following lateritic cover may induce large fractionation and redis-
the weathering trend of granodioritic crust. Alternative- tribution of REE within the soil profile (Banfield and
ly, these muds could be derived from a more mafic Eggleton, 1989; Braun et al., 1998). In the SAFB,
source, which was subsequently decreased in Al2O3 by overall REE patterns are well homogenized and no
K-metasomatism. This latter hypothesis is, however, difference is found in the shape of the REE pattern
precluded by the overall low K2O content of the between Miocene tidal sediments and Late Miocene–
Madre de Dios formation (Beni basin) and by the Pliocene sediments. In addition, REE patterns are sim-
PAAS-like composition of the SAFB muds. ilar in the Miocene and Late Miocene–Pliocene forma-
NAFB and SAFB Late Miocene–Pliocene sands tions. These suggest that tropical in situ weathering has
plot along the A–K join (Fig. 8) suggesting extreme minor effects on the fractionation of the REE (Fig. 7a).
weathering. Hence, HREE enrichment with respect to LREE in the
To conclude, Miocene muds of the NAFB have NAFB muds more probably reflects increasing sedi-
experienced non-steady-state weathering conditions as ment recycling or source changes.
indicated by a weathering trend parallel to the A–CN Some authors (Cullers et al., 1987, 1988; Cullers,
axis and scatter along this primary weathering trend. 1988, 1994a,b) have shown that fine-grained sediments
This trend suggests that these sediments originate from (siltstones to sandstones) are more likely to have min-
a granodioritic crust. Steady-state weathering condi- eralogy and chemical composition similar to their
tions were achieved during the Late Miocene as source than do coarser sand fractions. Grain size of
shown by the deposits of the Nauta 1 Mb. Extreme our collected sediments ranges from mud to fine sand.
weathering subsequently prevailed, and increased In the following, we evaluate sorting effects by com-
through the Pliocene with the highest CIA values for paring chemical differences between associated muds
the Quaternary floodplain deposits. In the SAFB, and sands.
Fig. 9. Concentrations of La and Th in Neogene Amazonian sediments. The bold line delimits the field of Post-Archean Australian Shales (PAAS)
and the dotted line the field of Archean sediments. Modified from McLennan et al. (1980).
Textural maturity of sandstones can be evaluated by sizes such as floodplain deposits would be more repre-
examining the SiO2 / Al2O3 ratios (McLennan et al., sentative of the source composition than specific size
1993). SiO2 / Al2O3 ratios for muds of western Amazo- fractions. Our sediments, exhibiting grain sizes from
nia vary from 3.1 to 7.5 and are generally higher than in muds to fine sands, and their bulk chemistry can be
PAAS (3.3). Sands have higher SiO2 / Al2O3 ratios considered to be representative of the characteristics of
(5.4–44.4) indicating high textural maturity. Sands are their sources.
depleted in trace elements relative to the associated The Cr / Th ratio, which is of particular importance in
muds (Figs. 4 and 5). Despite differing REE contents, provenance studies (McLennan et al., 1993; Cullers,
most of the sands and muds have similar REE patterns 1994a,b), shows little variations between associated
(Fig. 7). This result is in agreement with the study of muds and sands (Fig. 6) with the exception of sands
floodplain deposits of southern India by Singh and and muds of the White Sand Fm. This exception is
Rajamani (2001). These authors showed that REE as probably due to an overall elemental concentration of
well as Fe, Mg, Mn, Ni and Cr tend to be more sands below the detection limit. Also, there is no cor-
concentrated in finer than in coarser particles. They relation between grain size and Cr / Th ratios since the
proposed that these enrichments were the results of formations with the highest Cr / Th values are composed
physical fluvial sorting leading to chemical differentia- either of muds (the Curaray Fm) or of sands (the
tion. In this case, sediments with a large range of grain Amazon Fm).
Fig. 10. Plot of Eu / Eu* versus GdN / YbN for Neogene Amazonian sediments. As noted by McLennan et al. (1993), Archean turbidites tend to have
Eu anomaly higher than 0.85 and GdN / YbN higher than 2.0 and are therefore not represented by Neogene Amazonian sediments.
Sorting may also play a significant role in favoring higher average Eu anomaly (0.75) than their associated
plagioclase accumulation in sands, which results in a muds (0.65). In this case, physical sorting may be the
decrease of the Eu anomaly (McLennan et al., 1993). cause of this slight difference. NAFB Late Miocene–
This is specifically true for sands derived from active Pliocene sediments of the Nauta 2 Mb have sands with
tectonic settings where the Eu anomaly (Eu / Eu*) in Eu anomalies higher (average ~0.61) than in the asso-
sands differ by as much as 0.1 from that in coexisting ciated muds (average ~0.63). The White Sand Fm has
muds (McLennan et al., 1990). As noted by McLennan sands with slightly lower average Eu anomaly (0.63)
et al. (1993), in the absence of abundant plagioclase, than their associated muds (0.58). However, this low
there is no systematic Eu enrichment in sands over Eu anomaly results from the small negative anomaly
associated muds (Nathan, 1976; Bhatia, 1985). In the (0.80) of one sample (POM 37). In the SAFB, sands
NAFB, Eu anomalies in Miocene muds of the fore- and muds (Iñapari Fm) have similar average Eu anoma-
bulge depozone are similar as in the associated sands, lies (Figs. 6 and 7).
which confirm the absence of plagioclase concentration
due to sand sorting. For instance, the muds of the Pebas 6.3. Provenance
formation and of the Nauta 1 Mb have similar Eu
anomalies (0.65, and 0.69 respectively) as their associ- As shown above, weathering and physical sorting
ated sands (0.68, and 0.67 respectively). In contrast, can only be responsible for minor local variations in
sands of the wedge-top depozone (Ipururo Fm) have major and trace element contents and rather the chem-
ical characteristics reflect the composition of the and are depleted in TTE and LILE (Figs. 4–7). The
sources. The western Amazonian sediments are well sediments of the forebulge–backbulge depozones are
homogenized (Fig. 7). We attribute the homogenization geographically closer to the Brazilian craton than the
to an efficient mixing of source lithologies during the sediments of the foredeep depozone. Similar CIA
sedimentary process (McLennan, 1989; Vital and Stat- values and Th / U ratios do not support an increase in
tegger, 2000). The REE, Th and HFSE have proven to weathering intensity toward the Brazilian craton. Rath-
be useful tools for determining the composition of the er, larger Eu anomalies, lower Cr / Th and increase in Zr
source area of sediments (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; and Hf contents suggest increase in recycling and a
McLennan and Taylor, 1991). Concentrations of La and greater contribution of the Brazilian granitic rock to-
Th of Neogene western Amazonian sediments are ward the distal parts of the SAFB system.
reported in a La versus Th diagram (Fig. 9) (McLennan
et al., 1980). Neogene Amazonian sediments overlap 6.3.2. Provenance of the NAFB sediments
the field of Archean and Post-Archean sediments, sug- NAFB sediments are characterized by lower Th / U
gesting that they are derived from a mixture of Post- ratios than SAFB sediments (Fig. 6). This could either
Archean and Archean sources. The Eu systematic is a reflect a more primitive source for these sediments (e.g.
good way to discriminate Archean and Post-Archean a source with a lower Th / U ratios; McLennan et al.,
sediments (McLennan et al., 1979, 1980; Taylor and 1993) or change in redox conditions (greater concen-
McLennan, 1985). The Eu anomaly is generally tration of U during redox conditions; Bauluz et al.,
regarded as inherited from the sediment sources (see 2000). NAFB sediments are enriched in U relative to
McLennan et al. (1993) and references therein). Small PAAS (Figs. 4 and 5) and no correlation is found
Eu anomalies are usually ascribed to input of basic between Th / U and Eu / Eu* (r = 0.04) and between
detritus whereas large anomalies are related to felsic Th / U and Cr / Th (r = 0.29) excluding thus a low
source (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Cullers et al., Th / U ratio of the source. Additionally, enrichment in
1987; Hassan et al., 1999; Cullers, 2000). McLennan U is not due to increasing weathering intensity since
et al. (1993) show that Archean sediments tend to have there is no correlation between Th / U and CIA
Eu anomalies higher than 0.85 and GdN / YbN higher (r = 0.19). Hence, it is likely that the low Th / U ratios
than 2.0. In the Eu / Eu* versus GdN / YbN diagram (Fig. of NAFB sediments are the results of changes in redox
10), most of the Neogene sediments of western Ama- conditions. This ratio should not be used as a proxy for
zonia have GdN / YbN lower than 2.0 and Eu anomaly establishing the provenance of NAFB sediments.
lower than 0.85 characteristic of PAAS-like sediments.
Therefore, a strictly Archean source for these sediments 6.3.2.1. Miocene tidal sediments. The muds of the
is unlikely. In the following sections, the main geo- wedge-top depozone (Ipururo Fm) are characterized
chemical characteristics of source provenance for each by low CIA values and depletions in HFSE and REE
formation will be discussed. relative to PAAS. They have also similar Eu / Eu* and
Cr / Th ratios as PAAS (Figs. 4–7). All these chemical
6.3.1. Provenance of the SAFB sediments characteristics suggest that these muds are first cycle
The sediments of the SAFB foredeep depozone sediments derived from unweathered PAAS-like
(Madre de Dios formation in the Madre de Dios fore- source. This existence of an unweathered source is
deep) have REE patterns, LILE and TTE concentrations also supported by a high CaO content and a probable
and Cr / Th ratios similar to PAAS and thus are typical enrichment in plagioclase of the associated sands.
of continentally derived sediments. In addition, they are The muds of the Ecuadorian foredeep (Curaray Fm)
enriched in HFSE and have higher Th / U ratios (Figs. have the least pronounced Eu anomalies associated
4–6). Consequently, it is likely that analyzed samples with high Cr / Th ratio. In addition, these muds show
are derived from upper granitic continental crust with enrichment in HREE with respect to LREE. These
minor recycling (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Hassan characteristics suggest an input of basic volcanic detri-
et al., 1999; Bauluz et al., 2000). tus in these sediments (Cullers and Graf, 1983; Cullers
Compared with the sediments of the foredeep depo- et al., 1987, 1988; McLennan et al., 1993; Cullers,
zone, the sediments of the forebulge–backbulge depo- 1988, 1994a,b).
zones (Madre de Dios formation in the Beni forebulge– The muds of the forebulge depozone (Pebas Fm in
backbulge and Iñapari Fm) are slightly enriched in Zr the Iquitos forebulge) have similar Eu anomalies and
and Hf. These sediments have larger Eu anomalies, REE patterns as PAAS. In addition, enrichments in
similar REE patterns and Th / U ratios, Cr / Th ratios REE contents and in Zr, Hf and Y, lower Cr / Th ratios
Fig. 11. Neogene geodynamic evolution of the NAFB and SAFB. Arrows indicate the main direction of the drainage network. The vectors
perpendicular to the cross section indicate drainage network parallel to the thrust front and the forebulge. Note the differences in drainage direction
between NAFB and SAFB.
as well as depletion in mobile elements relative to enriched in Zr and Hf. They have differing REE pat-
PAAS indicate recycling of PAAS-like source. The terns with enrichment in HREE with respect to LREE.
youngest muds of the forebulge depozone (i.e. the These muds are interpreted to be derived from highly
muds of the Nauta 1 Mb) have similar Eu anomalies weathered sedimentary rocks.
and Cr / Th ratios, are enriched in REE, Y, Zr and Hf, The muds of the Quaternary floodplain deposits,
and are depleted in mobile elements (LILE, TTE and which represent the modern Amazon floodplain sedi-
major mobile elements). These characteristics suggest ments, have the greatest enrichment in Zr and Hf and
recycling of weathered PAAS-like sediments. the highest CIA values. This would suggest that recy-
The muds of the backbulge depozone (i.e. the Pebas cling and weathering continuously increased through
Fm in the Pevas backbulge) have similar REE patterns the Pliocene and the Quaternary.
as those of the forebulge but have lower Eu anomalies Sands of the White Sand Fm are almost exclusively
and REE contents, and higher Cr / Th ratios and CaO composed of quartz and are the most depleted in trace
contents. This would suggest similar PAAS-like source elements indicating a highly recycled nature and/or
as the muds of the forebulge but less recycling. extreme chemical weathering. Field evidence (mapping
and sedimentological relationships) show that the
6.3.2.2. Late Miocene–Pliocene fluvial sediments. White sand Fm was deposited in the eastern (cratonic)
Compare with the Miocene NAFB muds and PAAS, part of the forebulge approximately at the same time as
the late Miocene–Pliocene NAFB muds are depleted in the Nauta 2 formation in the western part (Roddaz et
LILE, TTE, major mobile elements and REE. They al., 2005). No such depletion in trace elements can
have larger Eu anomalies, higher Cr / Th ratios and are however be observed in the Nauta 2 formation suggest-
ing that the compositions of the White Sand sediments In the NAFB, the Miocene sediments indicate two
are the results of change in provenance and/or increase different provenances: a PAAS-like provenance for the
in sediment recycling. Changes in weathering condi- Peruvian part of the system and a more basic/andesitic
tions due to the passage of one climatic zone to another provenance for the Ecuadorian part. The Late Miocene–
are unlikely since the Nauta 2 Mb and the White Sand Pliocene forebulge sediments display a distinct cratonic
Fm are geographically close to one another. Both for- provenance (White Sand Fm). The Nauta 2 Mb and the
mations are situated above the Pebas and Nauta 1 Mb White Sand Fm are time equivalent (Roddaz et al.,
formations (Roddaz et al., 2005) so that major changes 2005). This strongly suggests that the Iquitos forebulge
in the ground water table can also be ruled out. Rather, acted as a topographic barrier dividing an Andean
a more weathered/felsic source can explain the geo- drainage network from a cratonic drainage network
chemical characteristics of the White Sand formation. (Fig. 11). In contrast, the Amazon Fm displays evi-
In addition, pure quartz sands have already been de- dence of basic detritus inputs similar to those of the
scribed in Amazonia and are transported and deposited Miocene sediments of the Curaray Fm. It is therefore
by present-day cratonic rivers (Franzinelli and Potter, likely that the basic detritus of the Amazon Fm comes
1983; Johnsson et al., 1988; Potter, 1994). Hence, it is from Ecuador (Fig. 11).
likely that the sediments of the White Sand Fm are The increase in weathering intensity and recycling
cratonic in origin. from Miocene tidal deposits to Late Miocene–Pliocene
The sediments of the Amazon Fm have peculiar fluvial deposits are thus ascribed to changes in foreland
chemical characteristics. They have variable Eu anoma- basin dynamics and subsequent changes in depositional
lies and Cr / Th ratios and are depleted in Zr and Hf setting. The emersion of the NAFB system favoured
relative to PAAS. Their REE patterns are similar to recycling and cannibalism of Miocene sediments. It is
those of the muds of the Ecuadorian foredeep depozone likely that increased silicate weathering related to this
(Curaray Fm). In addition, the highest Cr / Th ratios evolution has had an impact on the global carbon cycle
correspond to the lowest Eu anomalies. This indicates and in fine on climate.
a more basic source for at least five samples. Other
samples are more felsic in provenance and hence could 7. Conclusions
not have been deposited by the same fluvial drainage.
Based on an extensive sampling of Neogene western
6.3.3. Foreland basin dynamics and chemical charac- Amazonian sediments, this study shows that:
teristics of Neogene Amazonian sediments
Mio–Pliocene changes in foreland basin dynamics 1) Neogene sediments are derived from a granodioritic
are illustrated in Fig. 11. During the Miocene, tidal crust as indicated in the A–CN–K diagram (Fig. 8);
sedimentation was the rule both in the NAFB (Gingras 2) Miocene sediments of the NAFB have experienced
et al., 2002a,b; Hermoza et al., 2005; Roddaz et al., non-steady-state weathering conditions as indicated
2005) and in the SAFB (Räsänen et al., 1995; Gingras by a weathering trend parallel to the A–CN axis
et al., 2002a,b; Roddaz et al., 2004; Hovikoski et al., and by scattering along this primary weathering
2005). In the Late Miocene–Pliocene times, the sedi- trend;
mentation became continental due to increasing short- 3) Weathering increased to reach steady-state condi-
ening in the NAFB and SAFB wedge-top depozones tions during the Late Miocene–Pliocene in the
and elevation of the NAFB and SAFB depozones NAFB as shown by higher CIA values (close to
(Fig. 11). 100), concentration of samples on the A–K edge
No great differences are found in provenance and (Fig. 8), and depletion in LILEs, TTEs, REEs rela-
weathering between Miocene SAFB tidal deposits and tive to PAAS;
Late Miocene–Pliocene SAFB fluvial deposits. Rather, 4) In the SAFB, weathering was less pronounced, and
we note a slight increase in Zr and Hf and decrease in no noticeable increase in weathering in the Late
mobile elements toward the distal part of the SAFB Miocene–Pliocene times was observed;
system probably due to sedimentary transport and in- 5) Sedimentary sorting seems to have played a minor
creasing recycling. Although the forebulge has probably role in the chemical differentiation of the western
controlled base-level variations during the Neogene, the Amazonian sediments;
similarity in provenance of the deposits shows that no 6) Neogene sediments in the SAFB basin have PAAS-
drainage divide existed there at this time in the SAFB like chemical characteristics and are therefore de-
(Fig. 11). rived from a differentiated upper continental crust.
Weathering and recycling increased toward the distal Banfield, J.F., Eggleton, R.A., 1989. Apatite replacement and rare
part of the foreland basin system; earth mobilization, fractionation, and fixation during weathering.
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provenances. Basic/andesitic sediments were sup- provenance and trace element geochemistry of Amazonian
plied by the Ecuadorian Andes. In the Miocene, foreland basin fluvial sands, Bolivia and Peru: implications
these sediments (Curaray Fm) were trapped in the for ensialic Andean orogeny. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 100,
1 – 17.
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that they are derived from a recycled and differen- area weathering, sorting, provenance, and tectonic setting. Chem.
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Braun, J.-J., Viers, J., Dupré, B., Polvé, M., Ndam, J., Muller, J.-P.,
PAAS with depletion in trace elements and enrich- 1998. Solid/liquid REE fractionation in the lateritic system of
ment in Zr and Hf indicating that they are derived Goyoum, East Cameroon: the implication for the present dynam-
from a recycled differentiated upper continental ics of the soil covers of the humid tropical regions. Geochim.
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quences on global carbon cycle and Neogene climate Christophoul, F., Baby, P., Davila, C., 2002. Stratigraphic responses to
evolution. a major tectonic event in a foreland basin: the Ecuadorian Oriente
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Michel Valladon, Sébastien Gardoll, Frédéric Candau-
327 – 343.
dap and Rémi Freydier for help in trace element mea- Cullers, R.L., 1994b. The controls on the major and trace element
surements. Jeron Sonke provided helpful suggestions variation of shales, siltstones, and sandstones of Pennsylvanian–
on an earlier draft of the manuscript. This work benefit- Permian age from uplifted continental blocks in Colorado to
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Hugo Perfettini. The editor and two anonymous
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Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31 – 65

Controls on weathering and provenance in the Amazonian

1. Introduction of global mass transfer, the Amazon River ranks num-

Miocene tidal formations

Madre de Dios formation–Beni–Mamore basin

Late Miocene–Pliocene formation

North Amazonian foreland basin

Ipururo formation–Huallaga basin

Pebas formation–Iquitos forebulge

Pebas formation–Pevas backbulge

Nauta 1 Mb–Iquitos forebulge

White Sand formation–Iquitos forebulge

Amazon formation–Iquitos forebulge

Quaternary floodplain deposits–Iquitos forebulge

2. Geological setting sands and muds–silts was made by visual inspection at

M. Roddaz et al. / Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31–65

Formation Iñapari Fm Curaray Fm Ipururo Fm Pebas Fm (Iquitos forebulge)

M. Roddaz et al. / Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31–65

Formation Pebas Fm (Iquitos forebulge) Pebas Fm (Pevas backbulge) Nauta1 Mb

M. Roddaz et al. / Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31–65

Formation Nauta1 Mb Nauta2 Mb

M. Roddaz et al. / Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31–65

Formation Nauta2 Mb White Sand Fm Amazon Fm Quaternary Floodplain deposits

M. Roddaz et al. / Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31–65

M. Roddaz et al. / Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31–65

M. Roddaz et al. / Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31–65

M. Roddaz et al. / Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31–65

M. Roddaz et al. / Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31–65

M. Roddaz et al. / Chemical Geology 226 (2006) 31–65

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