Secularism

UNIT 28 STATE AND GLOBALISATION

Structure
28.0 Objectives
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Globalisation and its Context
28.3 Dimensions of Globalisation
28.3.1 Economic Globalisation
28.3.2 Political Globalisation
28.3.3 Globalisation and Culture
28.4 Nation-State and Sovereignty
28.4.1 Definition and Meaning of the State
28.4.2 Sovereignty
28.4.3 Sovereignty under Threat
28.5 Globalisation, State and the MNCs
28.6 Globalisation, State and Regionalism
28.7 Globalisation and its Dualism
28.7.1 Division of the World into Two Camps
28.8 An Appraisal
28.9 Let Us Sum Up
28.10 Some Useful References
28.11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

28.0 OBJECTIVES

This unit examines the state-globalisation interface. After going through this unit, you
should be able to:
• Define and explain the meaning of globalisation;
• Discuss the various dimensions of globalisation;
• Define the state and discuss the threats to its sovereignty in the wake of
globalisation;
• Discuss the role of multinational corporations in the context of globalisation; and
• Comment on the future of the state consequent to globalisation.

28.1 INTRODUCTION

In the context of globalisation, the modern state is undergoing a tremendous

transformation. Many forces unleashed by the global processes have affected the
state as the centre of popular imagination. The nation-state has come to redefine its
relationship with its people at different levels. Though the sovereignty of state still
remains important, it is severely constricted by fragmentation at the local level and
integration at the global level.

The transformation of the nation-state in different regions of the world assumes

different forms depending upon the specificity of regional formations. This lesson
explains the multiple meanings of globalisation and its implications for the nation-state
in the first part. Later, it brings out different dimensions of the transformation of the
nation-state.
5
Contemporary Issues
28.2 GLOBALISATION AND ITS CONTEXT

For our clarity, similar sounding terms like globalisation and globalism must be classified.
The term globalisation refers to a process, where as globalism is a term which refers
to a set of ideas, values, practices which seek to uphold the goals of what has been
taking shape in the name of globalisation today. In a nutshell, globalism means an
ideology or a framework of justification for globalisation.

It is also important to dispel some of the misperceptions of globalisation of the present

day. In some quarters, globalisation is understood in a generic sense that globalisation
has been in existence as an idea and a practice since the time immemorial. This
understanding lacks a proper historical sense, as it does not recognise the specificity
of globalisation in the present context. Globalisation emerges out of a complex
historical process engendered by the logic of capitalist expansion. It seeks to thrive
on a specific kind of political and cultural environment at the global level. It has
brought about profound changes at levels ranging from global, national, and regional
to local. It has changed the world radically during a decade or two.

In its economic form globalisation stands for an integrated international market with
national economies being opened up. It implies homogenisation of values and cultures
at the cultural level. And it subscribes to a global political order seeking to marginalise
or cut short the sovereign power of the nation-state in the political sense of the term.
Paradoxically, globalisation also celebrates diversity and fragmentation at the local
level. Universal at the global and fragmentation at the local as a characteristic feature
makes globalisation as homogenous as contradictory.

There are two apparently contradictory trends that can be discerned in the present
globalising world. First, states seem to be giving up sovereignty in their rush to sign
regional trading and political agreements. Second, groups are agitating for greater
sovereignty within existing states, intent on some measure of independence. Is the
world becoming more integrated or is it becoming more fragmented? Are we becoming
more international or more local? The answer, in all cases, is manifestly yes. The
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the single European market and
the newly emerging multilateral agency, the World Trade Organisation (WTO) are all
steps towards greater integration. The international economy’s move towards globalism
is inexorable. Consumerist capitalism needs ever-expanding markets and ever more
efficient ways of producing and distributing goods and services. Transnational
companies are becoming increasingly adept at finding ways of circumventing national
borders in their search for cheap labour, and efficient sourcing of raw and processed
materials.

Similarly, ethnic, caste, class, gender, tribals and ecological groups in South Asia or
in other regions of the world have been struggling for greater autonomy within the
existing states. The local assertions have truly become a global phenomenon. Culturally,
the idea of national identity for individuals or groups is fast eroding in favour of
fortification of ethnic, regional, caste and religious identities.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) What do you understand by globalisation?
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

6 ......................................................................................................................
 ...................................................................................................................... Secularism

......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

28.3 DIMENSIONS OF GLOBALISATION

28.3.1 Economic Globalisation

What does globalisation mean today? In the current context, economically speaking,
it means the homogenisation of prices, products, wages, rates of interest and profits
to become the same all over. Under the pretext of free markets, transparency and
flexibility, the so-called ‘electronic herd’ moves vast amounts of capital in and out of
countries to the political and economic advantage of the western countries wishing
to attract foreign capital and gain the benefit of today’s and tomorrow’s technology.

28.3.2 Political Globalisation

In political terms, globalisation means reordering of the nation-states in a manner that
adheres to global integration. The sovereignty of nation-states is expected to be
subsequent to that of the global order. A global state order is supposed to be the
desired goal. Marginalisation of the nation-state is the biggest challenge in the
process of globalisation of the world.

The globalisation of the world is upheld in a complex system of laws and regulations.
The regulatory regimes of the IMF, the World Bank and the other international
finance institutions (IFIs), the GATT and the WTO are fast emerging as a new world
government for enforcing uniform policies, obligations, and conditionalities around the
world. These institutions are critical in perfecting this system, which the individual
nation-states are to abide by. Another important political dimension of the process is
that national governments are being constantly pressed to alter their own laws so as
to make them more compatible with the emerging system of global governance. The
objections of the weak nation-states to the regulatory regimes of institutions such as
the IMF, the World Bank or the WTO, seldom matter.

28.3.3 Globalisation and Culture

Another major area in understanding the process of globalisation is culture. Globalisation,
in its fundamental sense, also means universalisation of values. Universalisation of
values must be understood at variance with universal values. Universalisation of
values presupposes that there is a certain kind of global order towards which all the
values, practices and traditions of varied nations, regions and localities must be
moulded. Globalisation seeks to build upon absolute homogenisation of values and
cultures. Cultural globalisation constantly seeks to integrate local and national cultures
with global culture mainly dominated by the West. When we look at cultural globalisation
in connection with economic globalisation, it becomes clear that the expansion of the
capitalist market hinges on the integration of local markets facilitated by the global
transformation of local cultures.

Anthony Giddens, a renowned sociologist observes that the organisational clusters in

terms of world capitalism, industrialisation and modern nation-states universalise global
networks and also produce time-space distanciation, that makes the local-global
interface a complex problem. “Globalisation can, then, be defined as intensification of
world wide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local
happenings are shaped by events, many miles away and vice-versa”. 7
Contemporary Issues Globalisation, as a cultural expression, refers to compression of the world and the
intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole. The rise of information age
must be seen as concomitant to the culturalisation process across the globe. All the
dimensions of globalisation are aptly characterized – “material exchanges localise;
political exchanges internationalise and symbolic exchanges globalise”.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Write a short note on either economic or political globalisation.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

2) Examine the globalisation-culture interface.

......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

28.4 NATION-STATE AND SOVEREIGNTY

It is important to understand the basis of political empowerment of the nation-state

in the modern age, and to reflect on its relatively brief history. The nation-state is
described as citizens and government which operate within geographically distinct
borders. To warrant the hyphen, the nation-state requires a self-conscious belief on
the part of its citizens that the collective has a power greater than the mere agglomeration
of a given country’s population. The nation-state represents the citizen, gives him a
sense of belonging to a coherent whole. It requires the marriage of civil administration
and self-conscious patriotism. The nation-state embodies the hopes and aspirations of
its citizens, who owe it allegiance.
8
28.4.1 Definition and Meaning of the State Secularism

There is a great deal of agreement amongst social scientists as to how the state
should be defined. A composite definition would include three elements. First, the
state is a set of institutions; these are manned by the state’s own personnel. The
state’s most important institution is that of the means of violence and coercion.
Second, these institutions are at the centre of a geographically- bounded territory,
usually referred to as a society; crucially, the state looks inwards to its national
society and outwards to larger societies in which it must make its way; its behaviour
in one area can often only be explained by its activities in the other. Third, the state
monopolises rule making within its territory; what we call as sovereignty. This tends
towards the creation of a common political culture shared by all citizens.

28.4.2 Sovereignty
The state’s exclusive claim to make laws/rule-making power is often referred to as
sovereignty. The concept of sovereignty has been a key idea in the evolution of the
modern world and the all powerful nation-state. Initially, it was purely the state’s
authority to exercise legal violence in order to maintain order. But gradually, the
sovereign nation-states assumed more legitimate claims over the exclusive authority
within its territorial boundaries by adding concepts like social justice. Thus, citizens
have developed expectations from their nation-states’ ability to resolve their problems.
Objectivity in the exercise of authority lends legitimacy to the acts of the nation-state.
The state is autonomous and sovereign, and carries a universal image in a given
national society.

28.4.3 Sovereignty Under Threat

However, the nation-state enters into a crisis in the late twentieth century with the
advent of globalisation as the nation-state’s ability to act independently has been
strained by the external forces at the global level and internal forces at the local level.
It questioned the very validity of the meta-narratives of their existence like the nation-
state. Nation-states are betwixed by the forces of global integration and local
fragmentation.

The most important structuring of relationship in peoples’ lives has been their relationship
with the nation-state. The nation, the people who have hitherto had a privileged link
to the state, has this no longer, because states are neither able to negotiate with global
forces on their own, nor capable of forging a sense of unity among their citizens who
choose to live through exclusive identities. The third world countries feel this more
intensely, because the (dis) ability of the state on both the fronts is more prominent.
Citizens are seeking new forms of organisation, which involve asserting their identities
in different ways. The effects are manifold. Local communities, seeking a greater
share of resources, will sometimes see that their interests lie in underpinning nation-
states, at other times in subverting them. International organisations will seek greater
legitimacy, and one way is to be sure that the sponsoring countries have legitimacy
of their own.

The recent phenomenon of world summits has been a case in point to explain how
the local communities are seeking to become trans-border entities. The Vienna Summit
of Human Rights Groups, the Beijing Summit of Women Groups, the Rio Summit of
Ecological Groups, Durban Summit against Racism or the World Social Forum (WSF)
are all mobilising local communities across nations on the lines of ethnic, caste,
gender, ecological issues. They raise questions of social justice beyond the preview
of nation-states and connect them with global processes. For instance, the track
record of human rights within a country should be good enough to deserve a loan,
aid or grant from any global lending agency or donor agency, as human rights records
9
Contemporary Issues figure as a crucial issue in international lending transactions. This explains how the
nation-state is coming under pressure from both the domestic and the global forces.

Check Your Progress 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Define the state in your own words.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

2) Discuss the threats to state sovereignty in the wake of globalisation.

......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

28.5 GLOBALISATION, STATE AND THE MNCS

The global integration is most visible in the spheres of production, finance and commerce.
Multi-National Corporations (MNCs), operating beyond national boundaries, increasingly
influence global economy. Unlike the factory-centered production of Fordism which
was harboured on protectionist policies of nation states, the present global financial
operations, what are characterised as ‘post-fordism’, are controlled by the MNCs.
With the breakdown of the earlier international system and the subsequent global
acceptance of neo-liberal thinking based on deregulation, privatization, and liberalisation,
there has been a virtual proliferation of MNCs in the last three decades.

Globalisation of contemporary vintage is most visible and pronounced in the media

and on the economic front. A significant and growing segment of an increasing
number of national economies is getting integrated into the global market. Financial
markets and capital flows are able to soar above international boundaries and bypass
sovereign state controls at will. International trade accounts for 20 percent of the
global output and is estimated to be worth $5 trillions per annum. Cross border
transactions, FDIs and MNCs are growing in importance in determining the economic
destiny of nations and are for the most part, not amenable to state control.

The top five hundred international companies are responsible for a huge and increasing
share of global production. The sectoral distribution of the top 500 corporations in the
10
year 2000 reveals an interesting trend. The maximum number of corporations (56) Secularism
belong to the banking and financial sectors. This clearly shows the growing clout of
international banks and financial institutions as well as the phenomenal rise of finance
capital in recent years. The rationale of the MNCs entering the finance sector is
obvious, as quick profits could be reaped from speculative investments in global
financial markets rather than making long-term investments in the economy. In terms
of the number of MNCs, petroleum refining, automobiles, telecommunications, food
and drug stores, and electronic industries follow banks.

The increasing economic domination by the MNCs has established corporate rule on a
global scale. Though the MNCs may not totally erode the sovereignty of nation-states
as is thought in some quarters, it is certainly shaping the policy options before these
states, particularly in the developing and the underdeveloped countries. The MNCs still
require the state to make decisions for their entry into these nations. The state has to
provide facilities and ensure political, social and economic stability for smooth transactions
of these MNCs in these nations. On their own, they neither have the power nor the
competence to mould the global economy in their favour. Rather, the MNCs seek the
support of nation-states and international governmental organisations to shape the
contemporary global economy.

28.6 GLOBALISATION, STATE AND REGIONALISM

The political corollary of this apparent shift towards economic liberalism is proving
far more complicated. If the hallmark of the late 1980s was the turn to the market,
in politics it was the revival of nationalist tensions on a grand scale and the weakness
of institutions charged with handling the world economy. Some efforts have been
made to create new political structures that transcend national borders. The European
Union (EU) instituted a single market within its twelve member countries at the end
of 1992. In addition, it is struggling to create a political and monetary union with the
underpinning of economic cooperation. Far Eastern governments are discussing plans
that would increase political cooperation within the region, in line with growing economic
ties. The US, its Free Trade Agreement with Canada and Mexico already in place,
is now ready to extend the FTA concept to South America as well.

Nearer home, as we know from the experience of the SAARC countries in recent
times, South Asia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) has been a compelling exercise
on the part of these countries, inspite of differences between them and more
particularly, the animosity between Pakistan and India. SAFTA is a step towards a
monetory union of South Asia. The fact that the possibility of a monetary union of
the countries has been considered seriously in the SAARC summit of January, 2004
at Islamabad, indicates what direction SAARC seeks to move.

Such trading links will be followed by attempts to fashion a political element. Efforts
to introduce such liberal tenets throughout much of the developed and the developing
world have made it easier for regional economic bodies to emerge elsewhere. These
regional bodies can be seen as the embryo of a multinational political correlative to
the increasingly global economy.

Check Your Progress 4

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Examine the role of MNCs in the context of globalisation.
......................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................... 11
Contemporary Issues ......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

28.7 GLOBALISATION AND ITS DUALISM

Why is globalisation encountering so much resistance from various interest groups?

Foremost among them are the environmentalists, labour leaders, cultural traditionalists,
religious leaders of different persuasions, and non-governmental organisations. In spite
of this growing resistance, under the leadership of the West and its economic power,
globalisation is proceeding at a relentless pace.

Globalisation involves the most fundamental centralised restructuring of socio-economic

and political relations since the industrial revolution. Yet the profound implications of
these changes have rarely been exposed to serious public scrutiny or debate. Despite
the large scale global reordering of the world, neither the world leaders, nor the
educational institutions, nor the mass media have made any credible effort to describe
what is being formulated, or even to explore the multidimensionality of its effects,
particularly on the developing countries.

Over the last decade, we have witnessed a series of unforeseen events: end of the
Cold War; ambitious market reforms in what were formerly planned economies; and
acceleration of the process of economic integration in Western Europe, North America
and East Asia and the increased use of protectionist measures by most major traders
(particularly by advanced post-industrial countries against the developing countries).

Its basic principle revolves around the absolute primacy of exponential economic
growth and an unregulated free market, with the need for free trade to stimulate
growth. Free trade breaks down the barriers to import substitution that tend to
promote economic self-sufficiency. It favours export-import-oriented economies with
their accelerated privatisation of public enterprises, and an aggressive promotion of
consumerism, which when combined with global development, correctly reflects a
Western vision. Furthermore, this guiding principle of the new international economic
structure also assumes that all countries – even those whose cultures are as diverse
as Egypt, India, China, Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, Sweden and Brazil to name a few,
must now row their rising boats in unison. The net result of this process is the
unleashing of powerful forces that foster the growth of a Western cultural uniformity
in products and services. Economic globalisation will place continuous pressure on
developing nations to abandon local traditions and dismantle programmes geared to
developing more self-sufficient economies.

A good example of this kind of pressure from the West has been happening in
Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, banking has been privatised and the country is now
permitting direct foreign investment in the insurance sector. Banks which were earlier
nationalised for the explicit purpose of helping the needy and the rural sector, have
been on the wane.

It has become perilous for developing countries to uncritically embrace globalisation.

Its negative consequences are seldom mentioned. Instead, lack of economic
development is typically blamed on bad government, corruption and cronyism. A blind
acceptance of the ideology of globalisation is unacceptable, naïve and downright
dangerous from the point of view of the developing countries.
12
28.7.1 Division of the World into Two Camps Secularism

The process of globalisation tends to divide the world into two camps. The West
argues that the benefits of globalisation are inclusive and benefit both the developed
and the underdeveloped nations. The developing countries tend to view globalisation
with much more skepticism, if not with abject cynicism. Let us take a look at their
respective positions on globalisation.

The Western claims for the benefits of globalisation are that it: (1) Provides considerable
capital investment for both institutional and individual development. (2) Provides
increased employment opportunities to citizens of developing countries. (3) Increases
the possibilities of improving the well-being of the masses through education. (4)
Stimulates infrastructure development, such as roads, power plants and modern
electronic communications and (5) Involves technology sharing by advanced nations
to developing ones at no cost to the developing countries. This process will eventually
lead to equalising working conditions, standards, attitudes and values globally.

In contrast, developing nations argue that globalisation is delivering considerably less

than has been promised. According to them:

(1) Globalisation has decapitalised the developing countries by taking out more money
in profits than what has been invested in these countries; (2) Rather than bringing in
more investment capital, many MNCs resort to borrowing from local creditors, thus
depleting scarce capital resources that might have been used by indigenous business;
(3) The promise of benefits from new technologies is more likely to disappoint in the
long run because the dependence it creates stifles innovation in the developing countries;
(4) With globalisation and multinational corporations comes a slick, polished brand of
advertising, that encourages consumerism, and the importation of luxury goods. Success
in marketing the products and services of MNCs tends to reduce domestic investments
that are vital to domestic economic growth. (5) Under globalisation, MNCs can
counter mercantilist restrictions on trade by establishing subsidiaries abroad. In effect,
it allows them to bypass trade barriers, and continue production and collecting profits
at the expense of the developing countries.

As of now, there appears to be little scope for any radical alternatives to the emerging
world capitalism. With the emergence of multilateral institutions like the World Trade
Organisation, every country has virtually been dragged into the world economy and
is gradually opening its economy. Countries such as Mexico, which a decade ago
relied on state control and ownership, are privatising heavily; Thailand is balancing its
budget; Peru is lowering tariffs. So also the countries in the South Asia region, which
though started off a little late in the early nineties, have been increasingly going the
liberalisation way and opening up their economies. Twentieth-century economic
liberalism champions private ownership, a reduced role for the state in business,
fewer trade barriers, lower taxes, and a general reliance on the market as the most
efficient distributor of resources in a given economy.

The problem in understanding globalisation lies in its dualism that governs the present
world order. If globalisation refers to a unified world, it is also equally true that the world
is increasingly divided into two unequal parts- the rich and the poor nations, in which the
more advanced western nations are taking advantage of the so called free trade and the
openness advocated by the new global order. The porous ness of national boundaries is
working in favour of the advanced nations. This iniquitous world order has different
implications for different nations. Several serious studies point that the issues of inequality
and justice are going to be the most important concerns of the emerging global order.

As it was discussed above, globalisation affects nation-states adversely, particularly, in

the third world, in economic, political and cultural terms. Dominated by the West, the
international market gives little scope to the southern countries (synonymous with poor 13
Contemporary Issues countries) to negotiate with the terms of trade. Though MNCs have transborder operations,
their interests are still tied up with their parent countries, often the advanced western
countries. The MNCs are not so multinational in their interests.

With the coming of the information age, the world has further shrunk into what Marshall
McLuhan calls the Global Village, where national boundaries become more porous in
political and cultural terms. Thus, it brings more anxieties and concrete worries about
political and cultural onslaughts by the West on the more vulnerable third world nations.
The global economic order combined with the New Information Order is likely to
strengthen the nation-state in advanced countries and weaken the state in the third
world. This dualism and contradiction are going to characterise the nation-state in the
emerging global order.

Check Your Progress 5

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Examine globalisation from the perspective of the developing and the developed
nations.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

28.8 AN APPRAISAL

The relative decline of the nation-state’s sovereignty in the sphere of global economy
is creating a democratic deficit, mainly in the third world countries where the
expectations of the state are very high and the state capacities are low. The citizens
continue to hold their national governments accountable on issues over which the
states have no autonomous control. The strong sense of allegiance to the nation-state
borne by its citizens, and developed through the anti-colonial struggles, has not yet
weakened in line with the decline of the autonomy of national governments. Despite
the advent of the ‘global village’, individuals so far feel little allegiance to emerging
supranational bodies such as the European Union. It is all the more far fetching to
expect the belongingness of the citizens in the South to such supranational bodies.
Similarly, it is difficult to imagine the emerging identities within a nation to command
the citizen’s loyalty as wholesomely as the state. Yet one can see that the democratic
deficit in the third world is going to create tensions on a much higher scale. Globalisation
puts more severe strains on the third world state on economic, political and cultural
fronts than the West, given its iniquitous order.

Neither the nation nor the state is about to disappear as a result of global processes.
For a start, there are no substitute structures that can perform all the functions
traditionally associated with the nation-state. At the same time, people are not prepared
to give up a state-centred nationalism altogether, because nationalism is historically
embedded and culturally experienced. Even if they are prepared to give up, it is only
to divide their loyalties increasingly on the lines of multiple identities. Yet, it can not
14
be understood as the disintegration of the state for identities can not be a substitute Secularism
for the nation-state. Patterns of allegiance are shifting, and multiple loyalties will be
the inevitable result. Certainly, though the nation-state does not disappear, it may not
remain the way it has been. The forms and modes of the citizens’ allegiance to it
change.

Check Your Progress 6

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Comment on the present and future tendencies of globalisation.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

28.9 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have read about the state in the context of globalisation. The
definition/meaning of both the terms have been explained. Various dimensions of
globalisation,-economic, political and cultural-have been touched upon. The unit
elaborates at length on the threats to state sovereignty in the wake of globalisation.
The role of multinationals has also been discussed. The unit also discusses the
implications of the world being split into two camps consequent to globalisation.

It is hoped that now you are better placed to comprehend the term globalisation in
its various nuances, especially its interface with the modern state.

28.10 SOME USEFUL REFERENCES

Appadorai, Arjun, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalisation,

Minneapolis, Minnesotta,1996.
Giddens, Anthony, Consequences of Modernity, Cambridge, Polity, 1990.
Hirst, P. and G. Thompson, Globalisation in Question, Cambridge, Polity,1996.
Kennedy Paul, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military
Conflict from 1500 to 2000, New York, 1987.
Newell Peter, Global Challenges to the Future State, Seminar, July, 2003, No.503.
Petras, James and H. Veltmeyer, Globalisation Unmasked: Imperialism in the 21st
Century, Madhyam Books, Noida, 2001.
Sassen , Saskia, Globalisatoin and its Discontents: Essays on the New Mobility
of People and Money. New York, The New Press, 1998.
Singh, Kawaljit, Global Corporate Power: Emerging Trends and Issues, Public
Research Centre, New Delhi,2001. 15
Contemporary Issues Sengupta, Chandan, ‘Conceptualising Globalisation: Issues and Implications’, Economic
and Political Weekly, 18 August,2001, pp.3137-3143.

Thompson, G, ‘Introduction: Situating Globalisation’, International Social Science

Journal, June, No.160, Blackwell, UNESCO.

Vishvanathan Shiv, ‘The Problem’, , Seminar, July, 2003, No.503

28.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) See Section 28.2

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) See sub-sections 28.3.1 and 28.3.2

2) See sub-section 28.3.3

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) See sub-section 28.4.1

2) See sub-sections 28.4.2 and 28.4.3

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1) See Section 28.5

Check Your Progress Exercise 5

1) See Section 28.7 and sub-section 28.7.1

Check Your Progress Exercise 6

1) See Section 28.8

16